Download Lecture 2 Social construction and Social PolicyFeb2017a

Youth as a social construction and what is
social policy
SOCIOL231 LECTURE 2
Critical Concepts One
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Due 07.00am Monday 27th March
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6 marks
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Write a 350 word review (excluding bibliography).
Options
Welfare Regimes
Youth Policy
‘Third way’ politics
The Investment State
Neoliberal ideology
Social Democratic ideology
Conservative ideology
Kaupapa Māori
Feminist ideology
Referencing for this assignment; Direct and indirect
Journal Article
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Chibber, P. K. & Majumdar, S. K. (1999) Foreign ownership and profitability: Property rights, control, and the performance of
firms in Indian industry. Journal of Law & Economics, 42 (1), 209-238.
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Simons, N. E., Menzies, B. & Matthews, M. (2001) A Short Course in Soil and Rock Slope Engineering. London, Thomas
Telford Publishing.
Book
Book Chapter
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Partridge, H. & Hallam, G. (2007) Evidence-based practice and information literacy. In: Lipu, S., Williamson, K. & Lloyd, A.
(eds.) Exploring methods in information literacy research. Wagga Wagga, Australia, Centre for Information Studies
Online
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Simons, N. E., Menzies, B. & Matthews, M. (2001) A Short Course in Soil and Rock Slope Engineering. [Online] London,
Thomas Telford Publishing. Available from: http://www.myilibrary.com?ID=93941 [Accessed 18th June 2008].
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New Zealand Statistics (2016) Labour Market Statistics – June2016 http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/income-andwork/employment_and_unemployment/LabourMarketStatistics_HOTPJun16qtr.aspx
Youth as a social construct
‘The dimensions of historical time and place must be considered in order to understand the
restructuring of the youth phase. The coordinates of this period of life vary according to the economy
and the educational and social policy of the state...Modern societies differ in their institutional
arrangements concerning life transitions: education and training provisions, labour market
regulations, exclusion mechanisms, social assistance rules, and to the extent to which there is an
explicit youth policy’ (Heinz, 2009, in Furlong, A. (2009) Handbook of Youth Studies p6)
Youth as a period of transition to adulthood, has meaning only in relation to the specific
circumstances of social, political and economic conditions. Once this is understood, it is possible to
bring social conditions to the foreground and examine the significant differences between groups of
young people as they engage with the processes which will take them closer to adulthood. For the
concept of youth to have meaning its end point – adulthood – also has to have a clear meaning
(Wyn and White, 1997, Rethinking Youth, Sage p15)
‘The constructions of ‘youth’ during the modern age say as much about the builders as about their
subjects, and the way that the concept of youth has been used clearly relates very closely to
historical conditions and the social concerns of the times’ Jones, 2010 Youth p4
What are the processes that contribute to
the social construction of youth?
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Institutional – legal and administrative
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Policy – the reconfiguration of rights and responsibilities
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Capital and Global forces – the role of markets, production and consumption –
marketing agencies
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Localism – culture, lifestyle, history – and the ecological context of what it means
to be young in particular contexts
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The symbolic - media and representations of youth
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Academic disciplines – the construction the ‘youth problem’
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The question of agency – and young people’s contribution?
Modern – mid 18th to mid-19th
Century
Pre-Modern late 17th early 18th
Century
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Working on the land/ farming and
family employment
Master and servant employment
leaving home early
Gendered and class education
structured – poor get little
schooling
Youth as a short period (12 – 14)
Early marriage for girls – later for
boys
Formation of guilds and youth
groups with structures of
regulation and control
Strict control by magistrates and
masters in local areas regulating
behaviour
Youth as producers (not
consumers)
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The creation of the social division
of labour
Emergence of industrial capitalism
Girls transitions to marriage and
gendered work
The embedding of class divisions
The growth of welfare and social
rights – creation of youth labour
Right to vote for 21s
Education for all – schooling until
13 (15 then 16)
Creation of school to work
transitions
Separation of justice system –
creation of juvenile justice – age
of responsibility
Implementation of reform and
social improvement movement –
Social workers and child
protection law
The emergence of youth as
consumers
Late Modern mid-19th – present
day
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Economic restructuring of youth
labour market
The emergence of the training
state – post schooling
Fragmented and diverse
transitions into adulthood
Fragmentation of family life/
structures – changing family form
Growth of neoliberalism – ideas of
‘choice’ and private responsibility
Growth of human capital and
massification of education
Removal of social rights in
housing, unemployment benefit
Paying for education
Increased monitoring of the young
Increased criminal laws i.e. antisocial behaviour/ curfews
Youth as consumers
How is youth theorised in sociology?
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Long illustrious history – back beyond the Chicago School
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Strong relationship to mainstream sociology and its history
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Historical Influence of Marxism (Birmingham Cultural Centre),
Functionalism (Parsons), Feminist theory (McRobbie) – cultural studies
(Bennett) and media studies (Cohen) and a strong relationship with
criminology
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More recently social geographers, urban planners, political scientists
have had major contributions to our understanding of youth
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Studied separate to Childhood studies – and tends to focus on those
young people aged 13 +
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Critical engagement with ‘youth as a problem’ agenda – wanting to
highlight the creative and innovative features of being young
Transitional studies
What are the main transitions that young people go
through and when is a young person an adult?
Transitions Studies
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Historically youth has been theorised as a state of transition being a
movement from childhood to youth
Transition studies have been a major feature of youth studies – transition
from school to work and then transition into adulthood
Dominated analysis – looking at ‘opportunity structures’ and blockages to
transition
More radical models showing the restructuring of pathways emerged and
one’s that argue for a more dynamic reading of transitions – in that they
are either extended, fragmented or broken
The idea of youth as a stage of ‘becoming’
Criticisms of transition studies
[the transitions approach is] a limited research paradigm focused on ‘transitions’ as a rite of
passage between developmental stages of psychology maturity and immaturity,
complemented by a sociological transition narrowly restricted to (vocational) maturity and
(nuclear) family formation (Cohen and Ainley, 2000 p80)
‘The impact of these assumptions on our understanding of young people is far reaching. For
example, the assumption of normative processes of transition has produced a near consensus
among youth researchers that young people’s transitions are faulty…These characterisations
all rest on the assumptions that (a) there exists a normative transitional process, from which
young people deviate; (b) youth is a linear process or position on a life-course; and (c) culture,
economy and politics simply add ‘flavour’ or context to the development process,’ (Wyn and
Woodman, 2006 p498)
Generation Theory
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German sociologist Karl Mannheim
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The importance of historical circumstances and generational connections
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Youth as a formative period of life – making ‘fresh’ contacts with the world
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The young are either seen as innovators - the drivers of social change
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The moulding power of new situations and circumstances
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An objective category of social analysis
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The work of Wyn and Woodman (to follow)
GENERATION THEORY
Generational Studies and the new adulthood:
Johanna Wyn and Dan Woodman
The concept of a new adulthood assumes a generational framework. It signals the emergence of
significant new priorities and subjectivities that are anchored in the political and material conditions
of young people's lives. It is suggested that these subjectivities are not simply ‘transitional’ (or ‘age
effects’), and implies that a generational shift had occurred. Changes in labour markets, in the
relationship between education and employment and in workplace relations, and in the actions of the
state, have altered the significance of the traditional ‘markers’ of adult status in industrialised
countries. These changes have had effects across the generations, but with specific effects for the
post-1970 generation because of their particular positioning in the network of social relations and
because they have known no other world (Wyn and Woodman, 2006 p500)
Generations discussion in NZ
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http://www.stuff.co.nz/business/money/69276333/millennials-and-theirmoney
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http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11813545
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http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/politics/90189060/baby-boomers-vmillennials--what-we-know-about-the-generation-gap
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http://theconversation.com/millennials-in-the-workplace-not-as-differentas-you-think-74107
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http://theconversation.com/the-smashed-avo-debate-misses-inequalitywithin-generations-70475
Seminar Question (1)
Are the baby boomers taking away the future of
the Millennials?
What is Social Policy?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ccff_50dFP4
Cheyne, O’Brien and Belgrave – Social
Policy in Aotearoa New Zealand (2005)
The study of social policy is concerned with the ways in which
the distribution of opportunities and resources available in
society influence well-being. Study of social policy is not just a
detached academic pursuit, but carries with it a normative
component incorporating different theoretical traditions about
what constitutes well-being and how the institutions of society
should be used to promote it (p1)
Duncan (2007) Society and Politics: New
Zealand Social Policy
But policy is inherently political: that is, it’s a result of the
competition between diverse interest groups who use society’s
power structures to gain or maintain control over society’s
resources for the pursuit of goals that they value or desire’ (P5)
‘…political ideologies are to be seen as broad ‘families’ of
philosophical ideas and ethical values about the nature, and the
remedies for, social and economic problems’ (p7)
McClelland and Smyth – Social Policy in
Australia 2013 (third edition)
Some pivotal ideas (or concepts) in social policy
include need, desert, rights social justice and
efficiency. But the interpretation of these ideas, and
the value placed on them, depends on broader
frameworks and ideologies about what works (that is,
theories about how humans and societies behave and
develop) and what ought to be (key values) p19
McClelland and Smyth – Social Policy in
Australia (2013) Third Edition
‘Social polices can vary in detail and formality. They
can be formal statements with substantial detail about
purpose and proposed action, a set of related formal
statements, statements of general intention or
purpose, and statements where values are articulated
or informal agreements of intent that are not
necessarily made explicit (p7)’
Summery
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Distribution of opportunities and resources in a given society – although how this
happens is decided through competition of ideas – social policy is intrinsically
political
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Aims to promote well being of a societies members
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Is concerned with the role and actions of the state and other institutions
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Implies some kind of action or at the very least an intention to act.. although not
always explicit
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Embedded with values, beliefs (‘theories’) of how humans and societies behave and
develop – usually around concepts such as ‘needs’ ‘wants’ ’desires’ and ‘justice’which have significant contribution to how policies are constructed and enacted
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Is ideologically driven…..and is embedded with issues of power
Different ideologies that can (and do)
operate to structure social Policy
Different ideologies that have driven government social policy:
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The Liberal (and Classical liberalism) ideology
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The conservative ideology
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The social democratic ideology
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Feminist
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Anti Racist and Māori approaches
Contemporary developments
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Neoliberalism
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The ‘third way’ and the social development model
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The investment state’
The liberal (including Classical liberalism)
ideology
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Individuals as free, rational and moral beings worthy of equal respect
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The centralising of liberty as a universal value applicable to all human
beings
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Belief in the free market and private property and limited state
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State should not interfere with individuals liberty and rights other than
to protect others from harm and safeguard freedom
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Variations within – ‘classical liberalism’, ‘social liberalism’ and more
recently neo-liberalism’
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Major influence in setting up approaches to welfare in 19th century UK
and other parts of the empire - since 1980s Thatcherism, Reagonism
and Rodgernomics
The Conservative Ideology
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Sees human nature as inherently imperfect and need for state involvement
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Less focus on individual freedom and more on authority, status and social
cohesion – as regulator
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Still sees state playing less of a role especially in welfare provision
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Strong focus on tradition and status quo
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Belief in the role of the family as core especially in acting as a moral compass
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Also sees private property as a right and approves of hierarchy and inequality
– believing in natural selection and that people are born / or are naturally
unequal
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Shaped ‘one nation’ conservativism in the UK and welfare states in Germany
and France after the war
The Social Democratic Ideology
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Strong influence from Marxism
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Views human nature as optimistic view of human nature as cooperative and
creative
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Strong belief in the value and principle of social equality and social justice and
community
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Sees capitalism as fundamentally ‘bad’ in it creates inequality, exploitation, social
divisions (class) and competitive individualism towards materialism
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Sees state ownership of means of production and distribution – which aims to
liberate/ free individuals.
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Opposed to private provision and sees a core role of state in providing welfare
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Scandinavian countries are seen as strongly influenced by this approach although
the Soviet bloc countries and other ‘communist’ countries such as Cuba which are
seen as good historical examples.
Feminist ideology
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Society is inherently built upon sexual and gender discrimination – where men are
prioritised over women
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This approach argues for providing a gendered analysis of society uncovering the
differences and inequalities between the genders
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Critical of other approaches for failure to include such an analysis
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Need to recognise that a separation between ‘public’ and ‘private’ spheres exists
in mainstream approaches to understanding society
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These inequalities are perpetuated by a welfare state that fails to recognise the
caring roles women undertake in the family or the low pay they receive as corer
workers in the welfare state
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Number of different approaches within – liberal feminist/ radical feminist and
socialist feminist – but all agree that the system is unfair to women and needs to
be changed
Anti-racist and Māori approaches to Social
Policy
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Anti racist theory argues that that racism is embedded and inherent in every structure and instruction in society
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The state is seen to perpetuating racial stereo types and is unwilling to tackle racial inequality
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Holds a strong position that ‘tinkering with the state’ will do little to change things – need to develop own structures
and institutions
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In New Zealand - Kaupapa Māori theory – a conceptualisation of Māori Knowledge as a way of informing research
and practice – central feature is tino rangatiratanga – or Māori rights to self determination and autonomy and the
use of the Treaty of Waitangi framework
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Mana wāhine theory – affirms Māori women within Māori society - dedicated to the affirmation of Māori women
within Māori society, within whānau, hapū and iwi. It is a theoretical framework that, like Kaupapa Māori theory, is
based within mātauranga Māori and is committed to the articulation of Māori women's ways of knowing the world
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For example Whānau Ora policy – multi disciplinary/ agency approach to providing wrap around services by and
for Māori – aims to empower whānau in meeting the needs of Māori
http://www.waipareira.com/strategic
Neo liberalism
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Reaction against conservativism and the social democratic influence in post
war era
Emerged in the 1980s – had major influence on New Zealand – and is having
a major influence throughout the crisis and the great recession – shaping
what we mean by austerity
Strong emphasis on free markets, deregulation of labour , removal of welfare
state – emphasis is on freeing individual to express their needs and desires
in the market place
It is both an economic philosophy and moral – having a ‘social wing’ – that
sees a role for government in installing and normalising the belief in
individualism and self reliance - and tackling the ‘dependency’ and reliance of
individuals on welfare and the state.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O1YiOj7-TDo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KW5FRuMkQ6g
The ‘third way’ and social development
model
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Pragmatic approach – aims at bridging the gap between left and right and create a more socially responsible way to
running the country
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Birth in UK (although some Australians argue its roots in the Australian politics of the 1990s)
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Influential in a wide range of countries (UK,US, Australia, Canada and New Zealand)
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Attempts to reconcile the liberty and freedom of the market with equality and community
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Opposed to top down view of Social democratic and inequality and ‘unfettered capitalism’ – tackle these by focusing on
– civic responsibility (and corporate), earned rights, fairness and individual autonomy – not opposed to state intervention
BUT individuals have to earn the rights and benefits
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Therefore argues for ‘no rights without responsibility’ model of welfare – for example paid work and education as core
responsibilities of individual
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The importance of community – communitarianism
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Family as main provider of welfare but recognises the importance of state welfare as a ‘safety net’
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Belief in a market organised society – not opposed to markets having a central role in distribution of societies goods and
resources or of private sector
https://youtu.be/c61pmOxRlTs
The ‘enabling’ state’ and the ‘investment’
state
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At heart of third way approach is the shift in how the state should operate
– from protection to the investment or enabling state
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Provides a ‘trampoline’ rather than a safety net – and is a place to help
people to help themselves and to exercise responsibility
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It aims to be ‘active’ encouraging independence (not dependence)
enterprise and initiative
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It sees the state investing in human capital and the prioritising of education
and training over social security
The Investment State
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An ‘investment approach’ to the provision of social services is sometimes described as
‘spending now to reduce future costs’
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It is what is called an ‘actuarial approach’ – that calculate a measure of future fiscal
liability which is then used for evaluation of ‘success’ and for policy purposes
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Uses 2 decades of social security records and various modelling techniques to project
the cost of each beneficiary’s future use of benefits and then allocate spending
accordingly (cost benefit analysis)to certain groups
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It is claimed that getting people into work (and stay) will have a lower future welfare
cost and better social outcomes
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Issues: solely a fiscal model of liability/ only looks at costs to government/depends on
administrative data and does not recognise the more dynamic nature of people’s
trajectories/ danger of stigmatizing/ better outcomes if in employment?
Seminar Question (2)
How do different perspectives understand the role of social
policy?
How might we understand and analysis social policy?
Key Question
What have been the main ideological influences
in the development of Social Policy in New
Zealand?
New Zealand and Social Policy
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The Early beginnings
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The Creation of the Welfare State 1938
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Post War and the interventionist state
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The arrival of Neoliberalism 1984
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Neoliberalism 1990s – 2008
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National government – 2008 until present day
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Social Policy and Maori
THANK YOU