Download Identification of grass

Grasses
Most of the fodder plants belong
to the families of grasses and
legumes.
In the natural flora of Bhutan
many grass species
can be
found.. species like Argopyron,
Agrostis, Eragrostis, Bromus,
Poa,etc. However, only few are
considered good for fodder plant.
Other grasses are grown for their
grains, such as paddy, wheat,
barley and maize.
The general structure of grass(
after R.J Moilroy ’76)
The stem of the grass, bearing
the leaves and flower head, is
termed as culm. It is cylindrical
and often hollow except at the
nodes or joints which are of solid
tissue.
The
hollow
portion
between the node are internodes.
In few grasses the basal inter
node may be swollen or bulbous.
The nodes form the part of
attachment of the leaves, which
are arranged in to two rows
alternating on opposite sides of
the stem.
The upper expanded part is the
leaf or the lamina and the basal
part which embrace the stem is
the sheath. The leaf blade often
widens at the base into a ledge
like process or may form earlike
projections on either sides. The
later are termed auricles. At the
point where the blade forms the
sheath there is usually a
membranous out growth called
ligule .
The production of new stem or
shoots within the axils of older
leaves is the normal method of
branching in grasses and is
called tillering. If the stem grow
up within the leaf sheath of the
older leaves, dense tuft of foliage
are produced( intra-vaginal mode
of growth). If the new shoot
pierce the sheath near to their
point of origin and grow out
horizontally or obliquely( extravaginal mode of growth) loose or
open tufts result.
Roots arise adventiously from the
lowest node or nodes of the stem
and are this and fibrous. In the
case of certain perennial grasses
(chloris gayana), the roots are
produced at every node of a
surface creeping stem or stolon.
In certain grasses roots arise fro
the nodes of under ground
creeping
stem
or
rhizomes
(pennisetum perpureum).
The
flower
head
or
the
inflorescence, which is terminal
on the stem is frequently a
panicle consisting of cluster of
spreading branches terminated
by
long
structure
called
spikelets. These are composed of
one or more flowers with
enveloping scales that conceal
the flowers from view except at
flowering stage. Alternatively the
spikelets may be stalked directly
on the main axis, when the
flower head is a raceme or borne
on the main axis itself, when the
flower head is known as spike.
The small flower when bisexual
consists of one carpel and three
or more stamens. The later have
long, slender filaments bearing
long anthers. The ovary which be
glabrous or hairy bears two
divergent feathery stigmas. The
flowers of annual grass are
generally self sterile and cross
pollinated by agency of wind.
The naked fruit or grain is called
caryopsis. It is one seeded with
the pericarp fused into testa(seed
coat) and consist of the embryo
together with its store of
endosperm for nurishment of the
developing seeding. The embryo
consists of
primary shoot
(plumule) and primary root
(radicle) and often not applied
not only the naked fruit but also
to the entire spikelet or even to a
group of united spikelets.
Grasses are suitable as herbage
plants for grazing by livestock or
for mowing for the following
reasons.




Reproduction
of
fresh
shoots by tillers provide a
means of recovery from
cutting or grazing.
New
tissues
produced
during
growth
arises
chiefly at the base of the
leaves where it is least
likely to be damaged by
cutting or grazing.
Many grasses maintain
continuous
growth
interrupted only by periods
of drought or cold.
Many grasses spread by
rhizomes or stolon which
readily forms adventitious

roots
and
give
rapid
ground coverage.
The root system binds the
soil
particles
together
forming a sod and brings
to
the
surface layers
nutrients that have been
leached into the subsoil by
heavy rainfall.
Legumes
In all fodder development works,
legumes plays the major role as
they enrich the soil with nitrogen
and produce highly digestible
and protein rich fodder.
The family of legume is one of the
biggest in the plant kingdom.
Almost all plants are used as
fodder belongs to the sub- family
papilionoidese. Many species can
be found in the natural flora of
Bhutan. Such species belong to
the
genus
Astragalus,
desmodium, lespedeza, vicia etc.
Other legume are grown as
pulses or vegetables. Most of the
legumes produce nodules on
their roots in which bacteria
colonies live in symbiosis with
the host plant.
The structure of leguminous
plant.( after Bogdan ’77)
The papilionoideae sub-family
includes trees, shrubs, woody
laines and herbs. Herbaceous
legumes can be erect, sub-erect
or creeping and also climbing by
means of twinning stems often
supported by means of tendrils
developed instead of terminal
leaflets. Such as species of vicia
or lathyrus, are relatively rare in
the tropica. Some species vary in
habit and they can be bushy,
prostrate or climbing cultivars of
the same species. In some
species leaves can be simple but
they are usually compound and a
large
number
of
species,
including most of the cultivated
legumes, have trifoliolate leaves.
In a number of other species, the
leaves
are
paripinnate
(terminating in a pair of leaflet) or
imparpinnate ( terminating in a
single leaflet). There is often a
pair of stipules at the base of the
petiolules which in some species
are fused with the low portion of
petiole. Leaflet can be sessile or
have petiolues which can have
stepels, usually small and very
narrow at it base. Young seedling
have two cotyledons, the first
true leaf to appear is usually
simple with one leaflet, but
further leaves are trifoliolate or
pinnate. The plant usually have a
well
developed
tap
root
penetrating deep into soil and in
some species side roots can be
thickened and serve as strong
organs. In prostrate forms the
creeping stem can root at the
nodes but those roots are
relatively shallow.
Rhizobium Bacteria
The rhizobium bacteria living on
the roots of the legumes can fix
the atmospheric nitrogen and
make it available to the plants.
So, legumes are permanent
nitrogen factories. The quantities
of nitrogen fixed in a legume field
can go up to 200 kg N ( equal to
260 kg urea) per acre in a year.
Grasses grown with legume can
benefit highly from this nitrogen.
In crop rotation, first crop after
legume can still get good quantity
of nitrogen which is left in the
soil.
If a legume is newly introduced
in an area the seed have to be
inoculated with bacteria, as
legume
will
show
good
performance only in presence of
bacteria. Different group of
legume have different strains of
bacteria. Only the right strain
used will be successful.
The experience so far indicates
that:
 Inoculation of lucerene,
clover, lotus major and
crown vetch is an absolute
must. Any attempt to
introduce any of these
species will fail without
inoculation .
 Inoculation of desmodium,
glycine, stylo helps to
hasten their development
and should when ever
possible be done.
If inoculation is successful
nodules should be found on
young plants 2-4 weeks after
germination.
Reddish,
pink
coloration of cross section of
nodules is considered as a proof
of effective nodulation.
Temperate Grass species
Perennial
perenne)
rye
grass
(Lolium
Perennial ryegrass (English)
Description
Perennial plant, robust, medium
size, hairless, cespitous. Stems
erect, 10 - 60 (- 90) cm high.
Blade folded when young, narrow
(2 - 6 mm), rather long (3 - 20
cm), dark green, shiny on the
lower side, veines well marked on
the upper side. Ligule short,
greenish to transparent. Auricles
narrow. Sheaths of the inferior
leaves red to purple red. Spikelike
inflorescence.
Spikelets
applied on the axis by one of
their sides. One glume per
spikelet except on the top
spikelet where there are 2.
Glume shorter than the spikelet.
Spikelets 6 10 (- 14) - flowered.
Glume(s) exceed(s) usually the
inferior lemma. Lemma without
awn (not aristate) (see Lolium
multiflorum). The weight of 1000
seeds is: diploids: 1.3 to 2.7 g
(average seeds), tetraploids: 2.0
to 4.0 g (average to big seeds).
Chromosome number: 2n = 14
(diploid), 2n = 28 (tetraploid).
Physiological peculiarities:
The plant tillers freely. The tiller
density is very high in grazing
(20,000 to 50,000 tillers/m² and
even up to 70,000 talles/m² in
case of sheep grazing) and lower
in a cutting regime (6,000 to
15,000 tillers/m²). The maximum
number of leaves per tiller
reaches
3.
Almost
100
day.degrees are required to
produce a new leaf. Each leaf has
a lifetime of 300 day.degrees. The
leaf turn-over is thus very fast.
This is a competitive advantage
in frequently defoliated covers. In
spring, the first leaves that
appear are relatively small. The
next leaves increase in size until
the maximum size is reached. In
autumn, the opposite evolution is
observed. The size of new leaves
decreases with time.
The roots are densely fasciculate.
They can reach 1 - 1.5 m deep
though the great majority of roots
can be found in the first 15
centimeters of the soil. Root
growth starts early in spring,
almost 1 to 2 months before the
leaves grow. It slows down in
summer and restarts in autumn.
It is thus parallel to the aerial
part growth but it is earlier in
spring. The roots have a lifetime
of 2 to 3 months during the
growing season.
Perennial
ryegrass
is
not
alternative. It does not head the
year of sowing. During the next
years, there is always a certain
percentage of new shoots after
the first cut. The interval
between the heading date of the
earliest and the latest varieties is
very important in this species. It
can reach 1.5 month at low
altitude in oceanic climate.
Hybridizes
with
Festuca
pratensis: x Festulolium loliaceum
(Huds.) P. Fourn. and more
rarely with Festuca arundinacea:
x Festulolium holmberii (Dbrfi.) P.
Fourn. Hybridizes with Lolium
multiflorum: Lolium x hybridum
Hausskn. These opportunities of
hybridization
are
used
in
artificial breeding to get hybrids
more resistant to drought (x
Festulolium), more persistant (x
Festulolium holmberii) or more
productive (Lolium x hybridum).
Temperature
Typical of oceanic and mild
climates. Sensitive to intense
frostand to high temperatures.
However less cold sensitive than
Italian
ryegrass
but
more
sensitive to strong heat. Quite
sensitive to shade.
Water
Often found in rainy climates
and sensitive to drought but also
very sensitive to winter flooding.
Soil
Optimum on normally drained to
cool soils. Dry or wet soils are not
suitable. Optimum on nutrientrich or very rich soils and slightly
acid to neutral. Quite indifferent
to soil texture. Loams and clays
are nevertheless more suitable.
Sands can be suitable if the
water supply (irrigation or water
table close to the surface) and
the nutrient availability are
sufficient. Rarer on peat soils.
Distribution
Native to Europe, temperate Asia
and North Africa. Has become
subcosmopolitan in temperate
regions: introduced in North and
South America, in Australia and
in New Zealand. From the
lowlands to almost 1200 m in the
Alps.
Tall
Fescue
arundinacea)
(Festuca
Water
Tall fescue (English)
Very
resistant
drought.
Description
Soil
Perennial plant, very robust,
hairless
(except
auricles),
cespitous
to
a
rather
rhizomatous. Stems erect, 50 110 (- 150) cm high. Blade rolled
when young, large (3 - 10 mm),
flat, strongly veined, coarse,
rough on the upper side, shiny
below, dark green. Sheaths of the
inferior leaves purple-red. Ligule
short, greenish. Auricles strong,
ciliate. Panicle-like inflorescence,
spreading even after flowering,
oblong, loose. Spikelets 4 - 7 flowered, briefly aristate, 10 - 15
mm long. Variable species. The
weight of 1000 seeds is 1.8 to 2.5
g (average seeds). Chromosome
number: 2n = 42 (hexaploid).
Physiological
peculiarities:
Hybridizes with Lolium perenne:
x Festulolium holmbergii and
with
Festuca
pratensis:
x
Festolium braunii. Often invaded
by endophytes Acremonium type.
Large range of soil humidity.
Tolerates remarkably well a
sodden soil in winter. Optimum
on cool soils, normally drained to
dry. Very well adapted to
alternations of the water supply
regime. Able to absorb water far
beneath the surface by a strong
root system. Large range for
nutrient availability but excluded
from very poor soils (mesotrophic
to eutrophic species). Widely
encountered on slightly acid to
alcaline soils. Often on heavy
clay soils or on deep loam but
quite indifferent to the soil
texture.
Temperature
Very good resistance to climate
extremes (heat and cold). The tall
fescues
native
to
the
Mediterranean
bassin
are
however
sensitive
to
low
temperatures.
to
summer
Distribution
Native to Europe. Has become
subcosmopolitan in temperate
regions. In the lowlands, only
below 300 m in the United
Kingdom.
Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata)
Soil
Cocksfoot (English)
Optimum on normally drained to
dry soils. Can grow on slopes, on
shallow, very dry soils. Dislikes
excessive humidity. Wide range
for nutrient availability. Can
grow on rather poor soils but
much more productive on rich
soil. Its strong root system can
develop over a big volume of soil
and thus absorb more nutrients
than the other species of the
same community. Quite large
range for pH. Thrives on slightly
acid to alcaline soils. Quite
indifferent to soil texture. Very
rare or absent from peat soils.
Description
Perennial plant, robust, hairless,
cespitous. Stems erect, 20 - 120
cm high, compressed at the base.
Blade folded when young, large
(4 - 12 mm), quite stiff, long, with
no visible nerve, hulled at the
top. Ligule very big, irregular,
torn,
white.
No
auricles.
Inflorescence in stiff panicle,
spreading or dense, erect, with
basal branches without spikelets
over a long area. Spikelets 3 - 6
flowered, 5 - 6 mm long, in
compact clusters. The weight of
1000 seeds is 0.8 to 1.4 g
(average seeds). Chromosome
number: 2n = 28 (tetraploid).
Some mediterranean cocksfoot
are diploid: 2n = 14.
Temperature
Large climate range. Frost and
heat
resistant.
Markedly
thermophilous: appreciates well
oriented slopes (warm microclimates).
However,
tolerates
shade very well, for instance in
old orchards.
Water
Drought resistant.
Distribution
Native to Europe, West Asia and
North
Africa.
Has
become
subcosmopolitan in temperate
regions. From the lowlands to
alpine levels in mountain areas.
Italian
Rye
Multiflorum)
Grass
(Lolium
Italian ryegrass (English), Raygrass
Description
There are 2 types of Italian
ryegrass: the westerwoldicum
type, the Westerwold ryegrass
that is annual. The plants die
after seed formation. And the
multiflorum or italicum type, the
typical Italian ryegrass that is a
short living perennial. It persists
usually 2 to 3 years.
Annual or perennial plant, very
robust, rather big, hairless,
cespitous. Stems erect, 20 - 100
cm high. Blade rolled when
young, large (up to 10 mm), long
(6 - 25 cm), flexible, pale green,
shiny on the lower side, less than
16 well marked veins on the
upper side (more than 16 veins
in Festuca pratensis). Sheaths of
the lower leaves purple-red.
Ligule quite short, membranous.
Auricles long, well developped.
Spike-like
inflorescence.
Spikelets 10 - 14 flowered (up to
20 - 25) applied on the axis by
one of their sides. One glume per
spikelet except on the top
spikelet where there are 2.
Glume shorter than the spikelet.
Lemma exceeds the glume and is
usually aristate (see L perenne).
The weight of 1000 seeds is
Multiflorum diploid varieties: 2.0
to
2.5
g
(average
seeds),
tetraploid varieties: 3.0 to 4.6 g
(average
to
big
seeds),
Westerwold diploid varieties: 2.5
to
3.0
g
(average
seeds),
tetraploid varieties: 3.7 to 5.1 g
(big
seeds).
Chromosome
number: 2n = 14 (diploid), 2n =
28
(tetraploid).
Physiological
peculiarities: Hybridizes with
Lolium perenne: L. x hybridum
Hausskn. Hybridizes very rarely
with Festuca pratensis and F.
arundinacea: x Festulolium. This
opportunity of hybridization is
used in artificial breeding to get
hybrids
more
resistant
to
drought and more persistant.
Temperature
Requires mild or warm climates.
Very sensitive to winter cold.
Tolerates heat providing that the
water supply is sufficient. Can be
cultivated in rather cold climates
but its persistance is then
reduced.
Water
Sensitive to summer drought.
Soil
Optimum on normally drained
soils. Dry or very wet soils are
not suitable. Very sensitive to
winter flooding. Needs nutrient
rich soils, slightly acid to
alkaline. Small requirements for
soil texture.
Distribution
Native to Central and Southern
Europe, to North Africa and to
SW Asia. Introduced in most
temperate regions. From the
lowlands to about 800 m in the
Alps.
Tropical Grass species
Ruzi (Brachiaria ruzizensis)
It requires a soil of high fertility,
such
as
latosols
carrying
mesophyll rain forest. It will
tolerate acid soils. It needs good
drainage.
Kennedy ruzi grass (Australia),
Congo signal grass (Africa),
prostrate signal grass (Kenya).
Ability to spread naturally
Description
Land
preparation
establishment
A spreading perennial with short
rhizomes, similar in habit to Para
grass. The inflorescence consists
of dense and spikelike racemes.
The spikelets are all sessile and
close together, the rachis of the
racemes winged, broad and over
3 mm wide. The spikelets are
hairy and the lower glume under
half the length of the spikelet
(Harker & Napper, 1960). It has
softer leaves than B. brizantha.
Distribution
Lake Edward and Lake Kivu
districts, Rwanda, Burundi, and
the Ruzizi plains in Zaire, now
widely distributed in the tropics.
Rainfall requirements
It requires a reasonably high
rainfall, but can endure hot dry
spells. A rainfall of 1 000 mm or
more is best.
Drought tolerance
It spreads well from rhizomes.
for
A well-prepared seed-bed is
recommended, but light discharrowing gives good results.
Sowing methods
Drill the seed into a wellprepared seed-bed. In Zaire it
has been sown in rows 60 cm
apart, or broadcast over the land
after scarification of the soil with
a disc harrow or brushcutter,
without burning the native
pastures, and grazed as soon as
it is ready (Risopoulos, 1966).
Sowing depth and cover
Surface sow in moist soil, and
sow no deeper than 2 cm in dry
soil (Bogdan, 1964). In Zaire it is
recommended to sow at a depth
of 1-2 cm. Under humid
conditions
seeds
lose
their
vitality
after
one
year
(Risopoulos, 1966).
It has good drought tolerance.
Soil requirements
Vigour of growth
growth rhythm
and
It gives good early wet season
growth for eight weeks after the
opening rains (Falvey, 1976) and
it seeds heavily in April at South
Johnstone, north Queensland
(lat. 17°36'S).
Response to defoliation
It forms a dense mat under
grazing which withstands grazing
well (Davidson, 1966). The yields
of dry matter did not vary very
significantly in Sri Lanka with
monthly cutting at 2.5 cm or 7.6
cm but bimonthly cuts yielded a
little
higher
(Appadurai
&
Goonawardene, 1973).
Grazing management
In combination with Stylosanthes
humilis in northern Australia it
must be grazed heavily to
maintain this legume in the
sward (Falvey, 1976).
Suitability
silage
for
hay
and
It made very good silage with
Stylosanthes guianensis in Zaire
with 1 percent molasses and
without additive (Risopoulos,
1966) and made good hay in
Zambia (van Rensburg, 1969).
Cultivars
'Kennedy', described above, is the
only present cultivar. Selection
6019 has been tested at CIAT,
Colombia.
Main attributes
Its fast growth early in the wet
season, its compatibility with
Stylosanthes humilis and S.
hamata, its good seed production
and ease of establishment.
Main deficiencies
Its winter growth is slow. It needs
well-drained fertile soils.
Frost tolerance
It is killed by heavy frosts, and
spring regrowth is very slow after
light frosts.
Ability
weeds
to
compete
with
It successfully suppresses weeds.
Palatability
It is very palatable. At the
Cerrado Centre, Brazil, it was
preferentially grazed ahead of
Stylosanthes guianensis during
the rainy season.
Fertilizer requirements
It needs high phosphorus in the
early growth on a wide range of
soils. It responds well to
nitrogen, either inorganic or from
legumes,
but
its
nitrogen
requirement exceeds that of
Guinea grass, which makes the
latter more attractive (Mellor,
Hibberd
&
Grof,
1973b).
Risopoulos (1966) recorded an
increased yield of 10 739 kg/ha
from nitrogen application in
Zaire.
Compatibility with other
grasses and legumes
Ruzi grass combines well with
legumes such as Centrosema
pubescens
or
Pueraria
phaseoloides if the mixture is
leniently grazed. In Zaire it has
combined well with Setaria
sphacelata
and
Stylosanthes
guianensis. In northern Australia
Stylosanthes humilis and S.
hamata can be introduced by
cultivating
the
grass
and
oversowing the legumes (Falvey,
1979).
Green-matter
matter yields
and
dry-
In Tanzania, ruzi grass yielded
21 159 kg DM/ ha (Naveh &
Anderson, 1967). At South
Johnstone, north Queensland it
yielded 19 500 kg DM/ha under
a six-week cutting interval and
an input of 220 kg N/ha/year
(Grof & Harding, 1970). In Sri
Lanka yields of 16 807, 22 031
and 25 585 kg DM/ha per year
with nitrogen applications of 112,
224
and
366
kg
N/ha
(Appadurai, 1975). In French
Guyana the yield was 20 574 kg
DM/ha and 1 180 kg/ha crude
protein (Borget, 1966) and in
Zaire yields of 31 352 kg and 21
468 kg green matter per hectare
per year were obtained in
successive years, 1958-59, with
100 kg nitrogen and 100 kg
superphosphate per hectare per
year (Risopoulos, 1966). At
Gualaca, Panama, it produced 11
000 kg DM/ha without fertilizer
and 27 000 kg DM/ha when
fertilized with 600 kg N/ha per
year in a rainfall area of 3 997
mm per year.
Napier
Grass
purpureum)
(Pennisetum
Drought tolerance
Elephant grass.
It survives drought quite well
when established because of its
deep root system.
Description
Soil requirements
A robust perennial with a
vigorous root system, sometimes
stoloniferous with a creeping
rhizome. Culms usually 180-360
cm high, branched upwards.
Leaf-sheaths glabrous or with
tubercle-based hairs; leaf-blades
20-40
mm
wide,
margins
thickened
and
shiny.
Inflorescence a bristly false spike
up to 30 cm long, dense, usually
yellow-brown in colour, more
rarely purplish (Chippendall,
1955).
It grows best in deep, fertile soils
through which its roots can
forage. Deep, friable loams are
preferable.
Distribution
Native to subtropical Africa
(Zimbabwe) and now introduced
into
most
tropical
and
subtropical countries.
Altitude range
Sea-level to 2 000 m.
Rainfall requirements
Elephant grass grows best in
high-rainfall areas (in excess of 1
500 mm per year), but its deep
root system allows it to survive in
dry times. Mean, 1 483 mm +
620 (Russell & Webb, 1976).
Land
preparation
establishment
for
Full
land
preparation
with
ploughing and subsequent discharrowing and drilling will repay
the cost of establishment of this
perennial grass.
Sowing methods
Either root cuttings or stem
pieces with at least three nodes
are planted in the drills. When
planting stem pieces, two nodes
should be covered with soil, the
third being exposed. One hectare
of grass will provide propagating
material for 15-25 hectares.
Planting rooted elephant grass
pieces directly into an Imperata
sward during the rainy season in
the Philippines has had some
success (Farinas, 1970).
Sowing time and rate
At the beginning of the wet
season, at about 2 000 kg/ha of
stem material.
Grazing management
Elephant grass is commonly used
in a cut-and-carry system,
feeding it in stalls, or it is made
into silage. For grazing, it should
be heavily stocked to maintain it
in a lush vegetative form. The
mature leaves are razor sharp
and sometimes provide a problem
for grazing cattle. The coarse
stems produce new shoots and
leaves; the grass is best grazed
when the new growth consists of
five new leaves and associated
stem growth. A stem plus leaf
takes a year to grow (Younge &
Ripperton,
1960).
Odhiambo
(1974) showed no drop in
nutritive value. Grazing at six- to
nine-week intervals at a height of
about
90
cm
gives
good
utilization. Nitrogen can be
applied after each grazing or
cutting in high-rainfall areas.
Any coarse, leafless stems should
be mowed.
Value as a standover or
deferred feed
If the grass is allowed to reach
maturity before the last wetseason cut, it gives better dryseason use. On the Atherton
Tableland, Queensland, it is used
for dry-season feed by rolling at
the end of winter, as it can make
some winter growth during this
period (Quinlan & Edgley, 1975).
Toxicity
García-Rivera and Morris (1955)
recorded 2.48 percent of oxalates
in the dry matter of elephant
grass and 2.5 percent in the
Merker variety but no toxicity
was
experienced.
Ndyanabo
(1974) recorded 3.1 percent total
oxalates but again no toxicity.
Main attributes
Its
high
dry-matter
yield,
especially with frequent cutting
under fertilization and irrigation.
Its suitability for silage and its
deep and extensive root system
which enables it to forage widely
for moisture and nitrogen.
Main deficiencies
Its high fibre content at maturity,
poor
seed
production,
and
susceptibility to frosts.
Minimum temperature for
growth
About 15°C. Mean minimum
temperature of the coldest month
11.5° + 5.4°C (Russell & Webb,
1976). ye
Frost tolerance
It is susceptible to frosts.
Response to light
It will grow in partial shade as a
cut-and-carry fodder in tropical
gardens, but produces better in
full sunlight.
Ability
weeds
to
compete
with
When established, elephant grass
will suppress weeds.
Palatability
It is highly palatable in the leafy
stage.
Fertilizer requirements
A complete fertilizer mixture may
be needed for establishment
according to soil fertility. In
Tobago, West Indies, a crop of
elephant grass removed 463 kg
nitrogen, 96 kg phosphorus and
594 kg potassium per hectare per
year. The optimum phosphorus
content of the dry matter for
growth was determined as 0.248
percent for the purple type and
0.215 percent for the green
variety (Falade, 1975). High rates
of nitrogen generally give good
responses (Walmsley, Sargeant &
Dookeran, 1978) especially in the
third and subsequent years when
the native soil nitrogen has been
exhausted (Vicente-Chandler et
al., 1953). The latter authors
suggested that the highest yields
could be expected from cutting at
12-week intervals and applying
nitrogen after every cut.
Compatibility with other
grasses and legumes
It is generally grown as a pure
pasture. However, it has been
sown in alternate rows with such
legumes
as
Pueraria
phaseoloides in Puerto Rico,
Centrosema
pubescens
(Venezuela)
and
Neonotonia
wightii in Uganda. Cutting or
grazing management will have to
be adjusted to favour the legume
to maintain a satisfactory mixed
sward.
Seed
production
harvesting
and
Elephant grass does not produce
much seed, and so is propagated
vegetatively.
Economics
It is one of the most valuable
forage, soilage and silage crops in
the wet tropics.
Value for erosion control
Elephant grass will give very
effective control of erosion in its
own ecological niche.
Kikuyu
grass
clandestinum).
(Pennisetum
Description
Tufted perennial up to 150 cm
high, often sticky, with a
characteristic odour of molasses
or cumin. Pubescent leaf-blades.
Panicle 10-30 cm long with small
glabrous spikelets 1.5 to nearly
2.5 mm long, awn 6-16 mm
(Napper, 1965).
It is usually established on burnt
country to give a quick cover to
suppress
weeds.
A
rough
cultivation will usually suffice if a
burn is not obtainable.
Sowing methods
It is usually sown by seed,
broadcast on a clean seed-bed
and mixed with sawdust or rice
hulls for even distribution. It can
be undersown with cereal crops.
Distribution
Sowing time
Tropical and southern Africa and
Brazil, introduced to many
tropical countries as a fodder
grass and now naturalized.
It is best to sow just before the
expected normal rainy season.
Altitude range
It should be well established
before grazing and then grazed
sparingly. Heavy stocking thins it
out.
800-2 000 m.
Drought tolerance
Relatively drought-hardy over a
dry season of four to five months.
Soil requirements
It is tolerant to soils of fairly low
fertility, high aluminium (Spain
& Andrew, 1977) and light
texture but will respond to more
fertile soils. It does well in ashes
left from a scrub burn, and on
steep hillsides and road cuttings.
It needs good drainage.
Land
preparation
establishment
for
Grazing management
Dry-matter
and
matter yields
green-
In Colombia, dry-matter yields
reach
6000-8 000 kg/ha per
year. This yield is doubled with
150 kg N/ha (Crowder, Chaverra
& Lotero, 1970). In Fiji an
average yield of 4 814 kg/ha of
dry matter with a crude protein
content of 6.8 percent was
obtained over a three-year period
(Roberts, 1970a, b). In Nigeria,
annual dry-matter yield at Agege
was 6 500 kg/ha (Adegbola,
1964).
Main attributes
Its quick establishment and
ground cover which suppresses
weeds, and, when used as a
pioneer plant, its inflammability
at maturity, paving a way for
establishment of more productive
pastures.
Compatibility with other
grasses and legumes
It is sensitive to frost, and
repeated heavy frost will kill it.
Molasses
grass
usually
dominates other grasses initially
but it combines well with
legumes,
for
example
Centrosema pubescens in Brazil,
Neonotonia
wightii
(glycine),
Macroptilium
atropurpureum,
Desmodium
spp.,
etc.
An
aqueous mixture of molasses
grass, siratro seed and fertilizer
is sprayed on newly established
highway edges in Queensland,
Australia,
to
effect
quick
stabilization. It is a transient
grass and should not be the only
species sown.
Ability
weeds
Economics
Main deficiencies
Its susceptibility to fire. It should
not be sown as the sole grass
species in an area, as it is
transient.
Frost tolerance
to
compete
with
It is very palatable to stock.
It is an important pioneer grazing
species to give cover on newly
cleared land. In Zaire the
indigenous people claim it has
insect-repellent properties and
use it as bedding for sitting fowls
and bitches about to give birth.
In Manipur, India, it is believed
mosquitoes avoid it, possibly
both the odour and viscid hairs
being repellent (Bor, 1960).
Fertilizer requirements
Animal production
As a pioneer species sown on the
ashes of scrub burns, initial
fertility may be high enough for
establishment. The critical value
of phosphorus as a percentage of
the dry matter at the immediate
pre-flowering stage is 0.18.
Using upgraded San Martinero
cattle, daily gains of 0.48 percent
per head were obtained in
Colombia with a stocking rate of
one animal per hectare (Crowder,
Chaverra & Lotero, 1970).
Outstanding on newly burnt land
in Laos (Thomas & Humphreys,
1970), and on roadsides in areas
difficult to cultivate. In the Andes
it is grown up to 2 000 m to
suppress
weed
growth
(Roseveare, 1948).
Palatability
Value for erosion control
Excellent in high-rainfall areas
and as a temporary cover in
subtropical
areas
of
lower
rainfall.
four subsessile spikelets which
are partly enclosed within the
uppermost
leaf-sheath.
The
spikelets
are
bisexual,
or
functionally
unisexual.
The
florets are protogynous and the
stamens are rapidly exserted on
long filaments, usually in the
early morning. The stigma is
branched and feathery. The large
seed (2 mm long) is dark brown,
flat
or
ellipsoidal
with
a
prominent style (Mears, 1970).
Distribution
Kikuyu
grass
clandestinum)
(Pennisetum
Description
A prostrate perennial which may
form a loose sward up to 46 cm
high when ungrazed, but under
grazing or mowing assumes a
dense turf. The grass spreads
vigorously from rhizomes and
stolons which roots readily at the
nodes
and
are
profusely
branched. Short, leafy branches
are produced from stolons, with
leaf- blades strongly folded in the
bud,
later
expanding
to
44.5114.3 mm long and 6 mm
wide, tapering to sub-obtuse tips;
leaf surface is sparsely and softly
hairy.
The
ligule
can
be
recognized by a ring of hairs, and
the collar by its prominent pale
yellow colour. The flower is small,
consisting of a spike of two to
From Zaire and Kenya the grass
has been introduced widely in
tropical areas, especially Costa
Rica, Colombia, Hawaii, Australia
and southern Africa.
Altitude range
Sea-level to 3 500 m.
Drought tolerance
Reasonably good because of its
deep root system. It extends to
5.5 m, but only sparsely below
60 cm, with 90 percent of the
total root weight found in the 060 cm layer. Added nitrogen
improves the efficiency of water
use.
Soil requirements
Its natural occurrence is mainly
on deep latosolic soils of good
fertility, and it has quickly
adapted
to
similar
soils
elsewhere. It also thrives on
alluvial soils and on moist, sandy
soils where the fertility has been
raised by animal excrete or
mineral fertilizer. It is an
excellent colonizer and soil
stabilizer in small paddocks
around dairy bails, piggeries and
feed-lots, and where non-toxic
effluent is discharged from
factories. It does require soils
with good drainage.
Land
preparation
establishment
for
A properly prepared seed-bed is
necessary for good establishment
from seed. For stem and root
cuttings a rougher seed-bed may
suffice, as long as the vegetative
material is adequately planted.
Sowing methods. Hand planting
of vegetative stem and root
cuttings has been traditional.
Sprigs containing two or three
nodes, planted on a 1-m grid is a
usual
plant
spacing,
but
availability of sprigs and desired
rapidity of establishment will
decide procedure. For large
areas,
broadcasting
sprigs
(produced by putting plants
through a chaff cutter) and then
disc-harrowing them in will give
adequate
establishment
if
accompanied by a fertilizer
mixture
of
nitrogen
and
phosphorus (Mears, 1970). Now
that seed is available, well
prepared seed-beds are essential
as seed is costly. Pellet seed with
activated charcoal at 1.3 kg
a.c./ha and use atrazine at up to
4.5 a.c./ha. This reduces weed
competition,
especially
from
Eleusine
indica
and
gives
satisfactory stands (Cook &
O'Grady, 1978). A drill with
attached fluted furrow press
wheels gives excellent results
(Wilson, 1978).
Grazing management
Close grazing or cutting designed
to avoid the build-up of a dense
mat of stolons is necessary to
maintain temperate legumes with
Kikuyu. Renovation of worn-out
or
degenerate
pastures
by
mechanical ripping has no longterm effect unless accompanied
by fertilization with inorganic
nitrogen or the inclusion of a
legume.
Where
Neonotonia
wightii cv. Clarence was the
associated legume, grazing every
four weeks reduced the legume
percentage, compared with the
eighth- or 12-week grazing
interval. The sward should be
maintained with a dressing of at
least 150 kg N/ha applied in split
dressings in spring and autumn.
If weeds are troublesome the
pasture can be slashed. With a
Kikuyu/tropical legume mixture,
grazing to a height of 10-15 cm
should take place every six to
eight weeks. With strip grazing,
50 beasts per hectare per day
can be grazed on a grass/legume
mixture.
Dry-matter
and
matter yields
green-
In northern New South Wales, a
ceiling yield of 30 000 kg/ha of
dry matter was obtained by
applying 1 120 kg/ha of fertilizer
nitrogen.
On
the
Atherton
Tableland,
Queensland,
a
Kikuyu-dominant
pasture
produced 12 170 kg DM/ha per
year.
Suitability
silage
for
hay
and
Although Kikuyu grass silage is
palatable to dairy cattle, a
considerable loss of dry matter
occurs and digestibility of the
silage is about 19.5 units lower
than freshly-cut grass. Milling
and pelleting the leaf for sheep
resulted in a live-weight increase
three times that of sheep fed the
un-milled leaf
Main attributes
Kikuyu is a highly digestible,
high protein, low fibre, palatable
grass which responds readily to
nitrogen, stands heavy grazing,
holds soil against erosion and is
an excellent lawn grass.
Main deficiencies
It does not easily lend itself to
mixed grass/legume pastures,
and may become a weed of
cultivation.
Optimum temperature for
growth
16-21°C. It has a poor adaptation
to high temperatures. Mean 18.8°
+ 2.8° (Russell & Webb, 1976).
Frost tolerance
It tolerates an occasional frost
but not sustained frosting.
Response to light
Kikuyu does not grow well in
shade.
Ability
weeds
to
compete
with
With adequate moisture and
fertility, Kikuyu will suppress
weeds.
Palatability
Very high.
Fertilizer requirements
Beyond
basic
nutrient
requirements according to soil
fertility, Kikuyu responds readily
to nitrogen fertilizer which gives
it
a
competitive
advantage
against Axonopus spp. and
Paspalum dilatatum in Australia.
Colman (quoted by Mears, 1970)
in northern New South Wales
obtained an efficiency response
of 17-24 kg DM/ha/kg N applied.
Responses in Colombia were
recorded up to 150 kg N/ha. An
effective association with the
legume Trifolium repens (white
clover), where the clover provides
25-60 percent of the pasture,
reduced the need for nitrogen
(Mears, 1970). Kikuyu does not
give
a
good
response
to
phosphorus except on markedly
deficient
soils,
though
phosphorus application increases
the legume component. The
critical level for phosphorus as a
percentage of the dry matter at
the immediate pre- flowering
stage
is
0.22.
Potassium
response is not likely unless
intensive
removal
of
the
vegetative
growth
occurs.
Symptoms
of
potassium
deficiency appear as tip- burning
and senescence of the lower
leaves, and a reduced potassium
content of the herbage (0.64-1
percent). Sulphur may also
become deficient under heavy
grazing or cutting. It is usually
corrected
in
one
normal
superphosphate
application
(Mears, 1970).
Compatibility with other
grasses and legumes
Under suitable conditions of soil
and
moisture,
Kikuyu
will
dominate
a
pasture;
most
existing Kikuyu pastures are
monospecific. With renovation
and application of phosphoruscontaining fertilizers, it can be
combined with white and red
clovers
or
Desmodium
uncinatum and D. intortum, but
management
and
fertilizer
treatment must be good to
maintain the mixture. Trifolium
burchellianum
and
T.
semipilosum occur naturally with
Kikuyu on the East African
highlands, and some success has
been achieved with the latter on
the Atherton Tableland. Pure
Kikuyu pastures, top-dressed
with nitrogen, are usually more
productive than grass/legume
mixtures.
.
Setaria (Setaria sphacelata)
(Australia),
golden
timothy
(Zimbabwe), golden bristle grass
(southern Africa).
Description
Tufted perennial 45-180 cm high
with the lower culm nodes
compressed. Basal leaf-sheaths
often
nearly
flabellate
in
arrangement. False spike dense
with
orange
bristles
and
subacute spikelets, 2.5-3 mm
long (Napper, 1966).
Distribution
Naturally confined to the African
continent, now introduced into
several tropical countries.
Drought tolerance
Only fairly drought tolerant.
Cultivar Kazungula is the most
tolerant of dry conditions.
Soil requirements
'Kazungula' is the most tolerant
of poor sandy and stony soils.
'Nandi'
and
'Narok'
prefer
medium-textured, fertile soils. It
is not common on alkaline or
very acid soils, the majority of
collections being made from soils
in a pH range of 5.5-6.5.
Land
preparation
establishment
for
A well-prepared seed-bed is
preferred for establishment by
seed.
Sowing methods
In the Philippines, propagation of
new material by rooted cuttings
or divided root-stocks has been
successful, but drilling seed into
a well- prepared seed-bed is
better.
Grazing management
It should be lightly grazed until
established, then heavily grazed
to prevent it becoming stemmy.
Early grazing may cause plants
to be pulled up by the roots when
the soil is moist. Undergrazing
causes the plants to become
coarse and to shade companion
legumes, a real problem with cv.
Kazungula. Heavy grazing in
winter can clean up a pasture
ready for early spring growth.
Dry-matter
and
matter yields
green-
At Redland Bay, Queensland,
Riveros
and
Wilson
(1970)
recorded dry-matter yields from
23 500-28 200 kg/ha over a sixmonth growing season. The grass
was irrigated and supplied with
225 kg N/ha per year. The soil
was a basaltic red loam (latosol).
Value as a standover or
deferred feed
Setaria is usually too coarse to
be of much value as deferred
feed, but it has a place as lowquality
roughage,
as
a
supplement to urea-molasses
feeding. It is used for this
purpose in Kenya and Uganda,
but losses of crude protein and
dry matter may reach 33 percent.
Toxicity
The setarias contain oxalates
which can poison cattle. The
amount of oxalate varies with the
cultivar and stage of growth.
Young plants contain more than
older plants and strains highest
in nitrogen are also highest in
oxalate. Amounts of oxalates
ranging from 3.7 percent in cv.
Nandi to 7.8 percent in cv.
Kazungula have been reported.
Lactating cows and horses have
been affected. Affected cattle
have a staggering gait and
diarrhoea, and then collapse and
lie on their briskets. Rectal
temperatures vary from 37.7 to
38.5°C. The muzzles are dry and
rumination ceases. In eight days
there is extensive subcutaneous
oedema of the brisket and
dewlap, and the animals die
within three weeks of eating the
grass. Death results from a
build-up of calcium oxalate
crystals in the kidney, which
brings on acute hypocalcaemia.
Poisoning rarely happens, but
animals,
especially
lactating
cows, should not be placed on
young, luscious setaria pastures
after a period of starvation
(Everist, 1974). Horses, also,
should be kept away from setaria
pastures, as they can contract
big-head disease (Cook, 1978).
Feeding a calcium supplement,
such as ground limestone or
lucerne hay (containing calcium),
can help control the disease.
Main attributes
Setaria sphacelata var. sericea is
palatable, establishes easily from
seed, persists under grazing on a
wide range of soils, gives high
yields of digestible energy, has
some cold tolerance, gives early
spring growth, responds to
fertilizer and will cross-pollinate.
Main deficiencies
Heavy summer seeding of cv.
Nandi and cv. Kazungula is a
disadvantage (Quinlan & Edgley,
1975); susceptibility to frost in
low-lying areas, and its oxalate
content.
Frost tolerance
Compared with other summergrowing grasses it is fairly frost
tolerant. It will make some
growth in winter if frosts are not
too heavy. 'Nandi' is best adapted
to cold (Hacker & Jones, 1969).
Ability
weeds
to
compete
with
When established, it suppresses
most weeds. In the first season,
cv. Nandi is troubled by weed
competition but recovers well
after the first grazing or mowing.
Palatability
The various cultivars are very
palatable when young but less so
as they approach maturity.
Natural habitat
Grassland,
woodland
and
swampy places, usually on clay
soils.
Fertilizer requirements
A basal dressing of NPK is
usually required. The critical
level of phosphorus as a
percentage of the dry matter at
the
immediate
pre-flowering
stage is 0.21 (Andrew & Robins,
1971). The rate of potassium
uptake is very high and the
critical level for potassium in cv.
Nandi is about 1 percent of the
dry matter. Setaria responds
markedly to nitrogen and in
Queensland gave an average
response over a four-year period
of 30 kg dry matter and 3 kg
protein for every kilogram of
applied nitrogen (Hacker &
Jones, 1969).b
Compatibility with other
grasses and legumes
The
setarias
compete
successfully with Rhodes grass,
green panic, paspalum and blue
couch in coastal districts of
Queensland,
but
generally
should be the sole grass in
mixtures of grass and legumes.
This setaria combines well with
white clover, Neonotonia wightii,
Desmodium
intortum,
D.
uncinatum
and
siratro.
'Kazungula'
has
little
compatibility with legumes on
the
Atherton
Tableland,
Queensland (Quinlan & Edgley,
1975).
Economics
The setarias are important
pasture plants in Africa and have
been introduced to other tropical
areas. They do not contain
prussic acid and so can replace
Sorghum
spp.
They
are
nutritious and, though they
contain oxalate, they usually give
little trouble.
Animal production
In Kenya, live-weight gains from
three pasture species over a
three-year trial, without nitrogen
fertilizer and without a legume,
respectively, were 336 and 192
kg/ha from Nandi setaria, 369
and 220 kg/ha from Nzoia
Rhodes grass, and 369 and 131
kg/ha from molasses grass.
Hereford
steers
continuously
grazing
Nandi
setaria
and
Samford Rhodes grass, fertilized
with 330 kg N/ha each at
Samford,
Queensland,
and
stocked at 2.5 and 4 steers per
hectare, gained a mean of 575
and 522 kg/ha per year on Nandi
setaria and 535 kg/ha on the
Samford Rhodes grass. In the
first two years the animals on
Nandi setaria gained significantly
more weight at the higher
stocking rate than did those on
Rhodes grass (Hacker & Jones,
1969).
Dormancy
Fresh seed has a germination
inhibitor and should be stored
for two months (Hacker & Jones,
1969). Germinate at 25-35°C,
moistened with water. Exposure
to light increases germination.
Sugar
cane
officinarum
(Saccharum
Description
Cane to 5 m, leaves broad.
Panicle large, plumelike, tapering
from base to tip with silky
spikelets.
The
sets,
when
planted, sends out roots to
nourish the growing shoot from
the node and, beneath the
surface of the soil, the shoot
forms a succession of very short
joints; the buds of these
germinate in turn to give rise to
secondary shoots to form a
"stool" below ground. These
secondary shoots are fed by a
further series of roots to produce
a root mass, spreading to a depth
of 30 cm or more and laterally for
up to 1 m.
Land
preparation
establishment
for
As the crop may occupy the
ground for up to four years,
thorough land preparation is
required. Deep ploughing and
deep ripping should be carried
out and the final seed-bed
prepared by disc cultivators.
Sowing methods
Sugar cane is propagated by
burying whole stalks in furrows,
then chopping the stalks into at
least two-node lengths in the
furrow. It can also be planted
with a chopper-planter, cutting
the stalk into two-node lengths
as it is fed into a planting chute.
The setts are usually treated with
a fungicide as they are planted.
Distribution
Response to defoliation
First domesticated in India or
Southeast Asia, now cultivated
extensively
in
tropics
and
subtropics throughout the world.
It is not usually grazed, the
whole stalk being harvested at
maturity. It will then grow again
from the roots and produce a
succession of ratoon crops, the
number being dictated by the
economics of retaining the crop.
When the old "stool" is reduced
by subsoil ploughing, it will give
good regrowth after being shaved
to ground level and fertilized.
Drought tolerance
It is fairly drought resistant, but
production is low in drought
periods.
Soil requirements
It has a wide range of soil
tolerance,
but
drainage
is
essential. Heavy soils may be
"bedded" to lift the soil level, and
an
open
drainage
furrow
provided every five to ten rows.
Dry-matter
and
matter yields
green-
At Grafton, New South Wales, cv.
Pindar yielded 149 000 kg green
matter per hectare, and cv. 40
SN5819 produced 129 000 kg
green matter per hectare (Mead &
Norman, 1950). In Brazil, Zuniga,
Sykes
and
Gomide
(1967)
recorded 69 900 kg and 66 200
kg DM/ha with two cultivars.
Suitability
silage
for
hay
and
Silage has been made from
sugar-cane tops in Queensland
(Skerman,
1941),
Argentina
(Bragadin & Diaz, 1957), Puerto
Rico (Vicente-Chandler et al.,
1953) and Taiwan. The silage is
very low in crude protein (1.4
percent of the green matter) and
is
fed
to
cattle,
with
concentrates, as low- quality,
perennially-available roughage.
Value as a standover or
deferred feed
Sugar cane can stand in the field
for several years and can be used
in emergency as low-quality
roughage.
Cultivars
Numerous cultivars are bred for
sugar
production,
disease
resistance,
maturity,
varying
soils,
dry
conditions
and
flooding. They are available in
sugar- producing countries.
Frost tolerance
Sugar cane is susceptible to
frost, the growing shoot and top
"eyes" (buds) being the first to
die, but the buds from the lower
nodes may provide new growth,
according to frost severity.
Response to light
Sugar cane will grow in shade,
but sugar production is aimed at
the greatest use of incoming
radiation to promote maximum
photosynthesis.
Ability
weeds
to
compete
with
Sugar-cane land has to have
thorough
preplanting
preparation, inter-row tillage and
herbicide treatment to suppress
weeds until the cane is "out of
hand", when the dense shade
from the canopy will control
weeds.
Palatability
Sugar-cane stalks are quite
palatable because of the sugar
content, but the high fibre makes
chewing a slow process.
Seed
production
harvesting
and
Seed production is controlled by
ecological factors. "Arrowing"
(emergence
of
seed-heads)
usually reduces the sugar yield,
so the sugar cane is generally
harvested before this would
occur. Cane breeders encourage
it artificially for cross-breeding
purposes, and pollen can be deep
frozen for future use.
Economics
Sugar cane is one of the two
main world sources of sugar for
domestic and industrial use. Its
products, such as molasses and
sugar-cane tops, are available for
livestock feeding and industrial
use.
Molasses.
The nutritive value of sugar-cane
molasses based on all the sugar
mills in Queensland, Australia,
expressed as a percentage of the
dry matter, is shown in Table
15.62. Table 15.63 shows the
analyses in comparison with
maize grain. Molasses is low in
crude protein but supplies a lot of
energy. It is also low in fibre and
so has a laxative effect on cows if
fed in large amounts. Protein,
phosphorus, sodium and fibre
should be added to molasses
when
feeding.
Molasses will give on average 0.7
kg of milk per kg of grain fed, and
maize grain will give 1 kg. The
maximum intake of molasses per
cow should be 3.6 kg per day.
Milk production falls sharply
when more than 25 percent of the
dry- matter intake is molasses,
that is, more than 4 kg per day.
Molasses
may
be
used
successfully for survival feeding
of cattle when roughage supplies
are
limited.
It is advisable to add 30 g of urea
for each kilogram of molasses. As
a liquid, a suitable mixture is 80
percent molasses, 17 percent
water and 3 percent urea. The
urea can be dissolved first in the
water, which makes the molasses
easier to handle. Once the
molasses has been mixed in, care
must
be
taken
to
avoid
fermentation. Cattle should be
introduced slowly to this type of
mixture; 1-2 kg per head for the
first week, reaching full strength
by the third week. In 3.5 kg of the
mix are 130 g of urea, the
required daily amount.
Value for erosion control
Sugar cane can be used to hold
soil and act as a wind- break, but
retention of small areas for this
purpose would endanger diseasequarantine efforts. For erosion or
wind control, should be sown in
rows on the contour.
Oat (Avena sativa) naked &
stampede
countries are recorded by FAO as
harvesting oats (FAO, 2000).
Status
Description
A tall annual cereal, widely
grown as a fodder in temperate
and sub-tropical countries, also
does well in the high-altitude
tropics. Oats are only known as a
cultigen, of uncertain origin, but
were known to Lake Dwellers of
Europe. It is now cultivated
throughout the temperate zones
of the Old and New Worlds as a
summer crop and in the subtropics as a cool-season crop
(mainly as forage); they are also a
good forage in the high altitude
tropics. Oats are believed to be
derived chiefly from two species,
wild oat (A. fatua L.) and wild red
oat (A. sterilis L.).
Avena sativa L. An annual grass
to 1.5 meters high; culms tufted
or solitary, erect or bent at the
base, smooth. The leaves are
non-auriculate, green and the
sheaths rounded on the back;
ligules blunt, membranous. The
inflorescence is a diffuse panicle
with 2 – 3 florets, all bisexual or
the distal one or two may be
reduced and male or sterile;
glumes sub-equal 7 – 11 veined,
longer glume 17 – 30 mm;
lemmas 7 – 9 veined, either bifid
or with a bristle at their apex;
lowest lemma 12 – 25 mm. (2n =
42). The rachilla of the cultivated
oat does not disarticulate at
maturity (that of several weed
species do). Its lemmas are rarely
awned. The grain is tightly
enclosed by the hard lemma and
palea. Seed size varies with
cultivar, it is commonly about
30 000 seeds per kilogramme.
The green plant is a good forage
and makes good hay and silage.
The straw is a useful roughage.
The grain is an important
livestock feed and the unhulled,
crushed fruit is the usual form in
which it is fed to ruminants and
horses. Oat forage, hay, straw
and grain are renowned horse
fodder.
The area of oats harvested for
grain in 2000 was 14 416, 29
ha, 5 500 000 ha of which were
in the Russian federation: there
is, however, no information on
how much is grown for fodder
but it is an important forage.
Most oat grain is used for onfarm animal production in their
country of origin. Seventy two
Avena sativa subsp. byzantina
(C. Koch) C. Romero Zarco = A.
byzantina C. Koch., the Red or
Algerian Oat, differs from A.
sativa in that its rachilla
eventually breaks off just above
each floret and remains attached
to the next floret above. It is a
minor Mediterranean crop.
Seed rates and mixtures
Local practices vary widely and
rates as low as 60 to over 100
kg/ha are used. Oats are often
mixed
with
vetches,
and
sometimes peas, for hay or
silage, the cereal giving support
to the trailing legume; the oat
seed rate should be reduced by
about half; the growth cycles of
both varieties must synchronise.
Crop use and
management
grazing
Oats are usually mown but can
be grazed; controlled, rationed
grazing with electric fencing is
best for young crops; if lightly
grazed a second grazing will be
produced. The final grazing, of
course, should aim to remove the
whole crop. At high altitudes with
well-distributed rainfall, oats
provide many months of grazing
if carefully managed.
Mowing is easily mechanized and
the crop is also suitable for
harvesting by scythe or sickle.
Conservation
Oats are an excellent crop for
both hay and silage.
Haymaking
Single-cut types are mown after
flowering, multicuts should be
cut earlier to encourage further
growth. Mowing and handcutting are easy and the crop
gives few problems in the making
of hay. With a single cut crop it
should be mown once the grains
are formed; multi-cuts should be
mown just prior to flowering, the
ultimate cut should be when the
grain is well formed. Information
on
haymaking
techniques
suitable for smallholder, and on
conservation of straw, is given in
Suttie 2000.
Since the stems of oats are
relatively thick compared to
those of pasture grasses, the
crop is best suited to haymaking
in areas with assured dry, sunny
weather at haymaking time.
Silage
Oats are an excellent silage crop
in areas too cool for maize; they
may be grown pure or in mixture
with vetch (Vicia spp.)or peas
(Pisum sativum). Harvest should
be when the grain is fully formed.
Guatemala grass, zacate prodigio
(Latin America
Suriname, it
podzolic soils.
Botanical name:
Tripsacum Laxum /andersonii
Sowing methods
It has recently been suggested
that Tripsacum laxum should be
renamed Tripsacum andersonii
but as T. laxum is still common
then both names are used here
Description
Culms stout, up to 3 m tall and
2.5 cm thick at base. Leaf-blades
broad (to 9 cm wide), sheaths
glabrous.
Racemes
slender,
several in a terminal group; one
male spikelet of a pair sessile,
one pedicelled. It differs from T.
dactyloides in having a slender
inflorescence, and the male
spikelets are 4 mm long (Gilliland
et al., 1971).
Distribution
Mexico and South America; now
introduced to Sri Lanka and
some other tropical countries,
including Fiji.
Rainfall requirements
Humid areas with rich soils,
moist, but well drained.
Drought tolerance
It has poor tolerance to drought.
Soil requirements
It needs rich soil, but will tolerate
acidity
and
aluminium.
In
does
best
on
Established by planting stem
cuttings or rooted culms at the
beginning of the rainy season,
either in holes or in a plough
furrow 50-65 cm apart in 1 m
rows (about 10 000 per hectare;
Risopoulos, 1966).
Vigour of growth and growth
rhythm
Optimum production is reached
six months after planting the
cuttings, with four months
between harvests.
Main attributes
Its high yield and persistence
Main deficiencies
Its poor seed production.
Chemical
digestibility
analysis
and
This
coarse
tropical
grass
contains less than half as much
digestible crude protein, and
approximately three-quarters as
much starch equivalent, as the
fine grasses of the temperate
zone. Harrison (1942) showed
Guatemala grass cut at six weeks
to contain 20 percent dry matter,
1.3 percent digestible crude
protein and 7.9 percent starch
equivalent.
Tolerance to flooding
It does not tolerate flooding.
Fertilizer requirements
Tripsacum removes 400 kg
nitrogen, 80 kg phosphorus, 50
kg potassium, 50 kg calcium and
50 kg magnesium annually per
hectare of soil, and so must be
adequately fertilized (Risopoulos,
1966).
.
Economics
A good fodder plant, and much
used in Sri Lanka as a soil binder
and organic-matter builder in
upland tea estates (Bor, 1960;
Andrew, 1971). It is also used as
a fodder grass in Fiji, Suriname,
Malaysia
and
Puerto
Rico.
It is more persistent than
elephant
grass
(Pennisetum
purpureum) but less productive
and of lower nutritive value.
Animal production
It is used by dairy farmers in Fiji
as green chop-chop for zero
grazing (Roberts, 1970a, b). On
the podzolic soils of the Lelydrop
landscape in Suriname, planted
cuttings of T. laxum after three
years' grazing at intervals of two
months
gave
a
live-weight
increase of 300 kg/ha, with a
live-weight gain of 278 g per head
per day over ten months
(Appelman & Dirven, 1972).
In Brazil, a mixed silage of 50
percent Tripsacum laxum, 30
percent Lablab niger and 20
percent Saccharum officinarum
decreased milk yield by 10
percent, compared with maize
silage; a T. laxum and S.
officinarum silage reduced yield
by 19 percent (Assis et al., 1962).
.
Suitability for silage
Andrew (1971) states that it is
capable of very high production.
It makes useful silage (Boudet,
1975; Medling, 1972; Assis et al.,
1962). It lost 12 percent of its dry
matter during ensilage (Paterson,
1945).
Seed
production
harvesting
and
It does not flower readily, and
seed production is unusual
except in its native habitat.
White
clover
repens)
(
Trifolium
Origin:
First
cultivated
in
northern Europe. Ladino clover,
is a large form of white clover,
originated near Lodi in the Po
River Valley in northern Italy.
Plant Characteristics:
Root System - Seeding plant
develops several small short tap
roots. Additional short fine roots
arise at the nodes of trailing
stems which spread over the
ground. Because of the relatively
small shallow root system, white
clover, including Ladino, is very
sensitive to dry weather.
Stems - Main stems trail on the
ground
surface,
but
many
upright stems or petioles, some
bearing leaves and some seed
heads, arise at nodes. Stems
and
leaves
are
soft
and
succulent, making white clover
and Ladino the most palatable
and nutritious of the clovers.
Flower head - Flower heads and
flowers are white and smaller
than those of red clover.
Soil Adaptation: Adapted only to
soil with moderate to good
moisture relationships. Ladino
clover and New Zealand type
white clovers are among the most
productive,
palatable,
and
nutritious legumes available,
especially for pasture. The most
serious problem is animal bloat,
hence these clovers must be
grazed with caution. Ladino
clover is larger leafed and more
suited to hay situations when
combine with grass than Dutch
or common white clover.
Stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis)
Soil requirements
Common names
Does well on the coarser textured
soils, but not so well on heavy
clays. It grows on tropical
latosols, gleys, loams and sandy
podzolic soils. Does not do well
on fine-textured montmorillonitic
clays; prefers well-drained opentextured soils. Can tolerate
highly acid soils (Davies and
Hutton, 1970), and nodulates at
pH 4.0. It is not very tolerant of
salinity.
Common stylo, stylo (Australia,
Malaysia);
tropical
lucerne
(Malaysia).
Description
Erect
summer-growing
herbaceous
perennial
with
branching upright stems up to 1
m tall, which may become more
prostrate under grazing. Stems
hairy, becoming woody at the
base with age; leaves pinnately
trifoliate with elliptic leaflets 15
to 55 mm long and 7 to 13 mm
wide; sticky in some ecotypes;
petiole 6 to 15 mm long.
Inflorescence of several spikes of
a few flowers crowded into
terminal heads; spikes sessile in
unifoliate bracts and hairy; no
axis rudiment; flowers yellow;
pod hairy with one fertile joint
and a very small beak. Seeds
yellowish brown, averaging 1.75
mm long (Barnard, 1967), flat
sided, tightly enclosed in a brown
hull which can be removed by
light threshing. Main taproot
extends to 1 m. Runners root
downwards but are ineffective
(Gilchrist,
1967).
At
three
months, 83.7 percent of the roots
were in the top 20 cm of profile,
11 percent from 20 to 40 cm, 3.4
percent from 40 to 60 cm, 1.3
percent from 60 to 80 cm, and
0.4 percent had reached from 80
to
100
cm
(Blouard
and
Thuriaux, 1962).
Rhizobium relationships
Inoculates freely with native
rhizobia in the soil, although it
nodulates better in the second
year. On new land it is advisable
to inoculate the seed. At
Pitanguerias,
Brazil,
plants
inoculated with the Australian
strain of cowpea type, CB756,
grew better than those inoculated
with a local strain. Nodules are
abundant, of small to medium
size on the taproots and laterals,
30 per 5 cm on the taproot, and
15 per 5 cm on the laterals (van
Rensburg, 1967).
Land
preparation
establishment
for
For drill-sowing on a prepared
seed bed, the soil should be
ploughed in early spring and
worked down to a fine tilth with
disc harrows, finishing with a
peg-tooth harrow. Allow weeds to
germinate and then apply a
preplant 2,4-D amine spray at
0.55 kg. acid equivalent per
hectare (280 ml of 50 percent
2,4-D/ha) on old cultivation and
sow one week later with a
minimum of soil disturbance
(Gilchrist, 1967). For cheaper
introduction, it can be sown
without land preparation or with
only one cultivation.
Sowing methods
Where necessary (e.g. on erosion
terraces or ridges on slopes), it
can be planted by stem cuttings
(Schofield, 1941; Vivian, 1959;
Nwosu,
1960).
Vivian (1959) stated that stylo
cuttings can be established in
this grass by digging individual
holes 1 to 2 m apart, adding 50 g
rock phosphate per hole and
planting three to five stylo
cuttings per hole with at least
three nodes buried under the
damp soil.
Seed
treatment
planting
before
Mechanically
harvested
seed
does not require scarification to
break dormancy (Rijkebusch,
1967;
Gilchrist,
1967).
Otherwise: (a) soak for 25 min. in
water at 55°C (Risopoulos, 1966)
or 85°C for 2 min. (Gilchrist,
1967); (b) scarify mechanically
with scarifier or rice polisher
(Blouard and Thuriaux, 1962); or
(c)
treat
with
concentrated
sulphuric acid for 10 min.
(Gilchrist, 1967). Pelleting is not
necessary unless to protect
rhizobia, when it should be
pelleted with rock phosphate
(Norris, 1967). For insect and
disease
control,
dust
with
Fernasan D (Wendt et al., 1970).
Nutrient requirements
Stylo is efficient in extracting
phosphorus from the soil and is
often not fertilized, but it
responds to dressings of 125 to
250 kg./ha of superphosphate.
At high levels of P, stylo responds
to additions of copper (Grof,
1966), and heavy dressings of
muriate of potash can cause
chlorine toxicity. Horrell and
Newhouse (1966) at Serere,
Uganda, on a low fertility soil
improved
the
yield
of
a
stylo/Hyparrhenia pasture by
153 percent with added P, 197
percent with added S, and 243
percent with added P and S.
Risopoulos
(1966)
in
Zaire
established it with 200 kg./ha
dicalcic phosphate, 100 kg./ha
ammonium
nitrate
and
50
kg./ha potassium sulphate, with
good results for at least two
years.
Compatibility with grasses
and other legumes
Stylo combines well with colonial
guinea grass (P. maximum) in
north Queensland (Davies and
Hutton, 1970) and in Brazil;
molasses grass and Brachiaria
ruziziensis
in
Madagascar
(Granier,
1966)
and
Zaire
(Risopoulos,
1966);
and
Hyparrhenia rufa, Rhodes grass,
Panicum maximum and Setaria
at Serere, Uganda (Stobbs,
personal
communication).
It
grows with pangola grass in
Brazil and north Queensland.
Schofield (1945) found that stylo
was shaded out by Brachiaria
decumbens, B. brizantha, P.
maximum and P. coloratum,
lasted two years with Brachiaria
mutica
and
persisted
with
Kikuyu
(Pennisetum
clandestinum) and Paspalum
dilatatum. Ordinary guinea grass
(P. maximum) offers it intense
competition
in
summer
(Gilchrist, 1967). If the pasture is
short, it is compatible with
puero, centro and siratro.
Nitrogen-fixing ability
Unfertilized
stylo/Hyparrhenia
pastures at Serere, Uganda,
yielded equivalent to grass
receiving 165 kg. N/ha (Horrell
and Newhouse, 1966) . In north
Queensland, soil nitrogen under
a bare fallow was 34.4 ppm, and
in soil which had stylo ploughed
in after 18 months of growth the
nitrogen content was 54.5 ppm
(Schofield, 1945). Grass/legume
swards containing stylo and
centro fertilized with phosphorus
and sulphur gave liveweight
gains
equivalent
to
animal
production from grass swards
receiving 157 kg. N/ha/year
(Stobbs, 1969). In Nigeria, stylo
fixed 4.6 mg N/day, compared
with 14.5 mg for Cajanus cajan
and 10.3 mg for Centrosema
pubescens, and 98 percent of the
fixed N was transferred to the
plant (Oke, 1967a).
Response to defoliation
Heavy grazing is detrimental.
Grof and Harding (1968) found
that harvesting at 18-week
frequency caused the lower
stems and crown to become
woody, with an almost complete
loss of stand. There are very few
growing points on these plants as
they mature. Stylo persisted
under grazing at eight-week
intervals at Sigatoka, Fiji (Payne
et al., 1955). Root-stocks die if
cut after two years' ungrazed
growth, as the base of the plant
is very woody then (Risopoulos,
1966). Cutting lower than 20 cm
also affects it (Vivian, 1959).
Grazing sheep do less damage to
stylo as they tend to pluck the
leaves (Tuley, 1968).
Grazing management
Stylo should be lightly grazed in
the first year after six to eight
weeks, to promote tillering and
prevent it from becoming woody
(Risopoulos, 1966). Long grass
should
be
prevented
from
shading the stylo. Rotational
grazing, one week on and four to
eight weeks off, is best. Cattle
graze the leafy material first and
then move lower down with each
successive grazing until the
woody parts are consumed and
damage results.
Dry-matter
and
matter yields
green-
Otero (1952) recorded yields of
15 to 20 t/ha of green material,
in Brazil; Risopoulos (1966), 35
t/ha/year in Zaire; and Granier
(1966) 43 t/ha on high ground
and 70 t/ha after one year on low
ground
in
Madagascar.
At
Sigatoka, Fiji, Payne et al. (1955)
recorded 4 180 kg./ha/year of
dry matter averaged over three
years; and van Rensburg (1967)
reported 4 600 kg./ha/year in
Zambia. Gilchrist (1967) gives
yields of 11 000 kg. DM/ha in
north Queensland. Blouard and
Thuriaux (1962) recorded no
significant differences in yield
from four cutting regimes over 24
months in Zaire. The average
annual yield from four cuts over
24 months was: cut every three
months at 15 cm, 7 281
kg./ha/year; at 25 cm, 6 785 kg.
Cut every 41/2 months at 15 cm,
6 845 kg.; at 25 cm, 6 529 kg.
Suitability
silage
for
hay
and
Makes good hay, containing 14 to
16 percent crude protein. Only
one cut should be taken annually
in north Queensland, in late
summer to autumn at a height of
at least 20 cm. The stubble after
seed threshing has 5 percent
crude protein and can be
hammer-milled
for
roughage
feedingthe seed left in it is then
distributed by the livestock
(Gilchrist, 1967). Nwosu (1960)
cut it three times a year in
Nigeria, taking only the top 45
cm of crop (cut at 45-cm height),
dried it in the field for seven days
and
hammer-milled
it
into
feeding meal containing 17.17
percent crude proteinat a cost of
about 19.8 U.S. cents/kg. In
well-established
stands
in
Malaysia, cutting has little effect
for up to four years, but
thereafter yield declines and at
six years its economic production
is finished (Vivian, 1959). The
hay should be handled as little
as possible to preserve the more
nutritious
leafy
portion.
Risopoulos
(1966)
sowed
sorghum and stylo in alternate
rows 0.6 m apart and with this
mixture made excellent silage of
6 to 7 percent crude protein. The
first year the proportion of stylo
to sorghum is 1:3, the second
year the mixture is balanced and
from the third year there is a
pure stylo crop. Cattle ate stylo
silage whether ensiled with 1
percent salt, 1 percent molasses,
1.5 percent molasses, 2 percent
molasses or with no additive.
One percent molasses gave a
pleasant odour to the silage.
Value as a standover or
deferred feed
It is excellent as standover feed
as its palatability is high at this
stage. Sillar (1969b) showed that
cattle could be fattened during
the three normal dry months in
north Queensland on a pure diet
of standing stylo.
Main attributes
Where fertilizer costs are high it
offers
one
of
the
best
opportunities
to
raise
productivity of natural grassland
because of its low phosphorus
requirement. An adaptable nonclimbing legume, it grows in poor
soils, is easily established by
oversowing, continues to increase
in palatability and persists into
the dry season, when it is most
needed.
Its
phosphorus
requirement is only 0.17 percent,
compared with 0.24 percent for
siratro (Andrew and Robins,
1969a).
will grow on elevated slopes
above the frost line (Gilchrist,
1967).
Main deficiencies
Sowing depth, cover, time
and rate
It is frost susceptible; will not
stand heavy grazing; can reduce
the yield of subsequent crops
(seed tends to shatter on
ripening, thus reducing yields);
has a relatively low protein
content and tends to become
woody.
Ability
weeds
to
compete
with
When it is established, it
competes very successfully with
weeds and can invade natural
grassland.
It
is
aggressive
because
of
its
low
early
palatability and heavy seeding
habit (Horrell, 1963).
Temperature for growth
Prefers
high
summer
temperatures. Adapted to frostfree conditions; continues active
growth to 15°C (Allen and
Cowdry, 1961b); defoliates at 0°C
and plants are killed at -2.5°C
(Boelcke, 1964). Tops are cut by
heavy frosts. In the subtropics, it
Tolerance of drought and
flooding
Has good drought tolerance, even
in areas subject to frost. It will
tolerate temporary waterlogging
(Rijkebusch, 1967), but will not
grow in swamps (Gilchrist, 1967).
Sow into a cultivated seed bed at
a depth no greater than 1.5 cm
and
lightly
cover
with
a
"Cambridge"-type roller, harrow,
or a bush dragged over the area.
Sow at the start of the rains at
0.5 to 2.0 kg./ ha.
Lucerne (Medicago sativa)
Characteristics.
alfalfa,
common
purple
lucerne,
common
lucerne,
purple alfalfa, purple medick.
Highest yielding forage legume.
Requires
deep,
well-drained
fertile soils to maximise potential.
Perenniality and upright growth
habit make it a highly suitable
crop for conservation as hay,
silage or in dehydrated form.
Usually productive for 4-6 years.
Range of cultivars with differing
characteristics has extended its
ability to grow in environments
from very dry to very cold.
Generally grown in monoculture.
Has a higher tolerance of saline
soils than many other forage
species.
Description.
Erect or ascending, glabrous
perennial,
30-90
cm,
with
alternate trifoliate leaves; leaflets,
30
mm,
narrowly
obovate,
toothed in upper third with a
mucronate tip; stipules linearlanceolate,
usually
serrate.
Numerous stems originating from
crown buds ; as the stems
develop, axillary buds formed in
lower leaf axils produce further
stems which build up a crown of
basal buds at their base. Crown
is the main source of stems
produced after defoliation ;
axillary buds above ground
develop into branches. Deeprooted, 2-4 m, or more in deep,
well-drained soils. About 60-70%
of total root mass is in the upper
l5 cm of soil profile (Heichel,
l982). Inflorescences are compact
racemes up to 40 mm, borne in
axils of upper leaves ; purple
florets,
8
mm,
typically
papilionacious. Cross-pollinated
by various species of bee. Seed
pods spirally coiled, glabrous or
pubescent ; pods turn from green
to brown as they mature, and
contain
2-5
kidney-shaped,
yellow or brown seeds. A
proportion of the seeds are hard,
probably inversely related to
temperature during seed set
(Fairey and Lefkovitch, l99l).
Season of growth.
Spring to autumn, but main
flush
of
growth
in
late
spring/early summer. Variable in
winter dormancy. Winterhardy
types suited to cold regions have
a longer dormancy period and
shorter growing season than the
less winterhardy types suited to
warm temperate regions.
Temperature for growth.
High air temperature of 270C
optimum for seedling growth but
optimum declines to 22oC as
shoots develop (Fick et al., l988).
Optimum temperatures for root
growth, 2l-250C (Kendall et al.,
l99l). Lucerne is known to
survive temperatures of –250C in
Alaska and above 500C in
California (Barnes and Sheaffer,
l995).
Drought tolerance.
More drought tolerant than other
forage legumes such as red clover
or birdsfoot trefoil (Peterson et
al., l992). Deep-rooting ability is
an important factor in drought
tolerance and any adverse soil
physical or chemical conditions
which restrict root growth will
reduce drought tolerance. During
severe drought, plants become
dormant but resume growth
when moisture becomes available
(Hall et al., l988).
Tolerance of flooding.
Intolerant of prolonged flooding
which adversely affects root
development, forage yield and
plant persistence. Root and
crown rots, e.g. Phytophthora
root
rot
(Phytophthora
megasperma), may develop and
thus reduce plant populations
(Sheaffer et al., l988). Welldrained soils are necessary in
areas with high rainfall or for
irrigated crops so as to avoid soil
saturation.
Soil requirements.
Needs well-drained, deep friable
soils with high levels of soil
fertility, including a high soil pH,
6.0-6.5, for optimal performance.
Soils which are compacted, have
indurated layers or are inherently
shallow adversely affect lucerne
growth and development. Wheel
tracking during crop harvesting,
or during application of fertilizers
or slurry for example, reduce
plant persistence and growth
vigour
partly
through
soil
compaction and partly by plant
damage (Sheesley et al., l974).
Rhizobium relationships.
Rhizobial
N-fixation
in
the
nodules
is
by
strains
of
Rhizobium
meliloti.,
distinct
strains
being
required
for
different
lucerne
genotypes.
Nodules are concentrated on the
fibrous roots in the upper soil
layer. There is also scope to
breed cultivars receptive to a
wide range of Rhizobium strains
(Barran and Bromfield, l997).
Seed inoculation is essential
when introducing lucerne to land
without a recent history of
growing lucerne. Lime pelleting of
inoculated
seed
increased
nodulation of branch roots at the
plant crown in seedlings, thereby
increasing nitrogen concentration
and dry weight of the shoots
(Pijnenborg, et al., l99l).
Land preparation.
Well-cultivated, uniform and firm
seed bed required for good
results.
Sowing methods.
The seed is normally drilled after
conventional
seed-bed
cultivations but seed can also be
broadcast. When growing lucerne
with a companion grass there is
no advantage in sowing the two
components in alternate drills
(Fairey and Lefkovitch, l994).
Sowing lucerne under a cover
crop, e.g. wheat, barley, reduces
weed invasion and the cover crop
provides a cash crop. However,
there is a greater risk of poor
establishment compared with
direct sowing due to competition
from the cover crop and so its
seed rate and N fertilization
should be reduced. The risk is
greatest in dryland conditions
where moisture can be limiting.
Lucerne can be direct drilled (sod
seeded) into an existing grass
sward or cereal stubble, but this
method is not common since it is
more risky than conventional
seeding methods. Direct drilling
is most sucessful on swards with
low-density
vegetation
when
there is adequate moisture for
germination
and
seedling
development (Brash, l983). Dense
grass swards can be thinned out
by severe grazing, cutting for
conservation
or
by
partial
chemical desiccation. Guidelines
for
successful
establishment
include : control of perennial
weeds before sowing ; adequate
soil pH and fertilization with
water-soluble
phosphate
;
sufficient soil moisture.
.
Sowing depth and cover.
The optimum depth is l0-l5 mm
with a light but firm soil cover to
promote seed-soil contact.
Sowing time and rate.
Spring is normally the best time
since temperature and moisture
conditions
are
usually
satisfactory
for
good
seed
germination and efficiency of
Rhizobium action. Lucerne can
also be sown conventionally or
drilled into the stubble of a cereal
crop in autumn, provided there is
sufficient time for the plants to
develop enough to withstand
winter cold and possible frost
heaving of the soil. An autumn
deficit of soil moisture can be
overcome by irrigation if autumn
sowing is preferred to spring
sowing (Janson, 1975)
Seed rates between 6 and 20
kg/ha are commonly used.
Compatibility with grasses
and other legumes.
Compatible with non-aggressive
grasses. Different grass species
favoured by different countries
e.g.
smooth
brome
grass,
cocksfoot and reed canary grass
are the species most commonly
used in mixtures in northern
USA (Sheaffer et al., l990) where
mixed
stands
rather
than
monocultures are sown although
the latter two species are
considered to be aggressive
towards lucerne. In Europe,
timothy (Phleum pratense) and
meadow fescue, cocksfoot, and
tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea)
are among the species used.
Ability
weeds.
to
compete
with
Relatively
low
at
early
establishment
phase
but
improves with the development of
the canopy. Sowing a companion
grass deters weed ingress though
herbicides to control grass weeds
cannot then be used. Once
established and agronomically
well
managed,
vigorouslygrowing, dense lucerne stands
prevent severe weed invasion.
Nitrogen-fixing ability.
Estimates of annual rates range
from 85 to 360 kg N/ha with a
wide variation among sites (Witty
et al., l983 ; Heichel and Henjum,
l99l). Plant nutrient deficiencies
in the soil, excessive soil acidity,
a high soil N status, or applied
fertilizer N all limit N-fixation due
to
the
sensitivity
of
the
nitrogenase enzyme system to
the soil environment.
Grazing management.
Some form of rotational grazing
is required to sustain plant
persistence and production. The
rest intervals following defoliation
replenish the root and plant
crown reserves of carbohydrates
and nitrogen which are needed
for regrowth. Short grazing
periods ensure young regrowths
are not grazed (Janson, l982).
The duration of the rest intervals
depends
on
the
growing
conditions which prevail but are
likely to be in the 5- to 7-week
range. If continuously grazed,
defoliation should be lax to
prevent over-severe defoliaton
and damage to plant crowns. In
mixed
swards,
a
highly
acceptable grass companion is
needed and stocking rate and
grazing intensity controlled so as
to prevent selective overgrazing of
the lucerne (Leach, l983).
Dry matter yields.
In the USA DM yields up to 20
t/ha have been achieved in
experiments (Sheaffer et al.,
l988). Yields from 9.4 to l7.6 t/ha
have been reported from the UK
(Aldrich, l984 ; Frame and
Harkess, l987) and from l4.5 to
l9.0 t/ha in France (Guy, l993)
over a range of sites. On-farm
yields are likely to be less than
experimental yields because of
less-precise management control.
At fixed cutting intervals and
with no moisture stress, yields of
successive harvests decreased
over the growing season (Corletto
et al., l994). In general, annual
yields of lucerne decline with age
of stand, the decline being
accelerated by factors such as
winter
damage,
pests
and
diseases, and mismanagement.
Suitability
silage.
for
hay
and
The
inherent
growth
characteristics and good yield
response to infrequent cutting
make lucerne a highly suitable
species for conservation as hay
or silage. A succession of cut
crops firstly at l0% bloom
thereafter and at 5- to 7-week
intervals maximises yield, gives
satisfactory nutritive value and
aids stand longevity (Sheaffer et
al., l988). When making hay or
wilting crops cut for silage, it is
important to save the nutritious
leaf fraction as much as possible
during
handling
since
leaf
shatter and loss is major hazard
during drying. In spite of
lucerne’s high protein content,
low sugar content and high
buffering
capacity
against
acidification
during
silage
fermentation, compared with
grass crops, high-quality silage
can
be
made
using
the
techniques of wilting, short
chopping and the application of
an effective additive. Artificial
dehydration is also used in order
to produce high-quality lucerne
cubes, pellets or meal.
Value as standover
deferred feed.
or
Not a common method of
utilization
but
the
forage
accumulated in the late-autumn
rest period – required to build up
root carbohdyates and nitrogen
reserves – can be utilized soon
after winter dormancy has set in.
Anti-quality factors.
Bloat is a hazard when grazing
lush
lucerne
stands
but
conventional
preventative
methods
are
available
e.g.
provison of anti-foaming agent
such as poloxalene. Lucerne
contains
oestrogens
which
reduce conception rates in cattle
and sheep if grazed or fed
lucerne prior to mating. The
oestrogen content differs among
genotypes but may be increased
in the leaves by pest and fungal
attack which is often prevalent in
the
autumn
(White,
l982).
Saponin content in the forage
has a dual effect of causing
adverse haemolytic effects in
stock, but also conferring plant
resistance to pests insecticide
use as required and if cost
effective, and rotation with arable
crops.
Main attributes.
Highly productive protein- and
mineral-rich legume adapted to a
wide range of environmental
conditions. Its erect growth habit
makes it suitable for hay, silage
and artificially dehydrated forage.
Drought resistant. Has high
voluntary intake characteristics
(Conrad and Klopfenstein, l988).
Valuable break crop in arable
and organic systems on account
of N-fixation ability and as source
of oganic matter. Major source of
honey production.
Main shortcomings.
Lacks
long-term
persistence.
Unsuited to intensive grazing.
Susceptible to many pests and
diseases. May cause bloat in
ruminants. Oestrogens in the
plant can reduce fertility of
breeding ewes if they are grazed
on lucerne during pre-mating
and
mating
periods.
Plant
saponins may interact with
rumen
bacteria
and
cause
haemolysis in animals.
Greenleaf
Desmodium
(Desmodium intortum)
Description
Large trailing and climbing
perennial; roots at the nodes and
has a deep taproot; long,
pubescent stems branch freely
and are often reddish brown. Has
shorter internodes than D.
uncinatum and is leafier. Leaves
usually have reddish-brown to
purple flecking on the upper
surface. Leaflets, 2 to 7 cm long
and 1.5 to 5.5 cm broad, with a
length-width ratio of 1.4 to 1, are
shorter and more rounded than
in D. uncinatum. Terminal
raceme compact, flower deep lilac
to deep pink. Seed pod narrow,
bears 8 to 12 seeds, recurves to
the main rachis; seed adheres to
animals and to clothing, but not
as tenaciously as that of D.
uncinatum (Barnard, 1967).
Soil requirements
Grows on a wider range of soils
than D. uncinatum and does not
do quite as well on sandy soils as
S. guianensis (Stobbs, 1969f).
Will grow in a range of soils from
light to clay loams. Requires a
soil with a pH in excess of 5.0
(Andrew
and
Bryan,
1958;
Moomaw and Takahashi, 1962) .
Has no tolerance to salinity, and
is depressed by high chloride
levels (Andrew and Robins,
1969b).
Rhizobium relationships
Requires
the
specific
"Desmodium"
culture
(Date,
1969). The current Australian
recommendation is CB 627
(1970) . Boultwood (1964) found
it unnecessary to inoculate it in
Zimbabwe.
Whiteman
(1970)
showed
that
peak
nodule
formation occurred three months
before flowering in D. intortum.
Does not spread well from
natural seed sources; better by
natural vegetative means with its
stoloniferous habit.
Land
preparation
establishment
for
Because of its small seed,
Desmodium intortum requires a
well-prepared seed bed (Younge,
Plucknett and Rotar, 1964). Will
establish from broadcasting into
ashes from the air.
Sowing methods
Can be sown by drilling,
broadcasting
from
ground
machines or from the air. Has
been established by cuttings in
Zaire (Risopoulos, 1966) and on
steep slopes in Guatemala on
contour
ridges
(Johnston,
personal
communication).
Boultwood (1964) established it
by transplanted cuttings spaced
at 1 x 1 m and also by
undersowing in maize early in
the season. It generally does not
establish when oversown into
existing pastures because of low
seedling
vigour.
Extensive
pasture renovation would be
required to give any success.
Should be sown at no greater
depth than 1 cm (Suttie and
Ogada, 1967) and rolled or very
lightly harrowed.
Sowing time and rate
Can be sown from spring to
midsummer or later in frost-free
environments at a rate of 1 to 2
kg./ha. Middleton (1970) found
no seedling competition at rates
of 1. 1,3.3 and 9.9 kg./ha, and
under high rainfall conditions
seedling density was proportional
to sowing rate.
Nutrient requirements
D. intortum usually requires
adequate levels of phosphorus,
sulphur,
potash
and
molybdenum for growth. Heavy
dressings of potassium chloride,
however, can cause chlorine
toxicity (Andrew and Robins,
1969b). Younge, Plucknett and
Rotar (1964) proved that when D.
intortum is adequately fertilized
with P, K, Mo, and Zn, it is able
to compete with Kikuyu and
pangola
grass.
On
acid
ferruginous
and
aluminous
latosols in Hawaii, Younge and
Plucknett (1966b) found that
heavy P fertilization was needed.
Treatment with 1 650 kg. P/ha
allowed grazing of 6 beasts/ha
compared with 3 beasts/ha
pasture treated with 275 kg.
P/ha.
Compatibility with grasses
and other legumes
Grows well with Setaria spp.,
Paspalum commersonii, Panicum
maximum,
Pennisetum
purpureum, Melinis minutiflora
and, if adequately fertilized, with
Kikuyu and pangola (Younge,
Plucknett and Rotar, 1964). Also
grows well with siratro and
glycine. Middleton (1970) found
siratro more competitive with
Setaria anceps than with D.
intortum. Bryan (1966) recorded
that D. intortum had invaded
swards of at least 12 species of
Paspalum.
Nitrogen-fixing ability
Directly related to yield. D.
intortum fixed over 300 kg.
N/ha/year in Hawaii (Whitney,
1970). Row width had an effect.
Whitney and Green (1969b)
found
that
it
fixed
213
kg./ha/year in 90-cm rows, and
264 kg./ ha/year in 45-cm rows.
Whitney, Kanehiro and Sherman
(1967) found that it fixed 375 kg.
N/ha, of which it transferred only
5 percent to the associated grass.
Leaf fall could add an additional
1.3 kg. N/ha/week.
Grazing management
Bryan (1966) illustrates the way
cattle
graze
Desmodium
pastures: stock normally remove
the last part of the shoot and
then browse the leaves, leaving
large numbers of axillary buds
which ensure rapid regrowth. If
grazing is intermittent and
intense, a greater proportion of
the stem and buds may be
removed
or
damaged,
with
consequent reduction in bud
sites and residual leaf material.
Recovery from grazing would
then be much slower and would
ultimately
affect
persistence.
Grazing
management
must,
therefore, first allow the legume
to become established and then
adjust grazing pressure to allow
for retention of bud sites and leaf
material. This also involves the
companion
grass
and
a
compromise must be established
to protect the sward.
Dry-matter
and
matter yields
green-
Boultwood
(1964)
recorded
seasonal yields of 19 tonnes/ha
of green material with a crude
protein
percentage
of
18.8
percent. Younge and Plucknett
(1966b) recorded a five-year
average of 19 000 kg./ha/ year
from a pangola/D. intortum
pasture fertilized with 1 320 kg.
P/ha
in
Hawaii.
Whitney,
Kanehiro and Sherman (1967)
recorded a yield of 19 000 kg. dry
matter/ha/year. Roe and Jones
(1966) recorded a dry-matter
yield of 12 500 kg./ha at Gympie,
Queensland.
Riveros
(1969)
recorded over 17 000 kg. DM/ha
during a eight-month growing
season
at
Redland
Bay,
Queensland. Calma, Valera and
Santos (1958) obtained 5 875 kg.
DM/ha in four cuttings spaced at
60, 59, 86
respectively.
Suitability
silage
and
for
101
days
hay
and
Risopoulos (1966) made good hay
at Mulungu, Zaire. It has also
been made successfully in Brazil,
Queensland
and
Guatemala
(Calma, Valera and Santos,
1958). In Guatemala the hay is
ground into meal for stockfeeding. Without the addition of
molasses it made reasonable
silage with 12.2 percent drymatter loss and 0.03 percent N
loss in Brazil. The pH was 5.0
and was better with the addition
of 8 percent molasses on a greenweight basis. Boultwood (1964)
made good silage by flail
harvesting, adding 2 percent
molasses by green weight and
compacting well, because the
material is light and fluffy.
Catchpoole (1970) made stable
lactic acid silage from D.
intortum to which molasses had
been added up to 8 percent of the
green weight of the material.
Feeding value
The meal is an excellent source
of protein, riboflavin and vitamin
A for chickens (Squibb et al.,
1950, 1953; Huang, 1967). In
Puerto Rico, Warmke and Freyre
(1952) found high intake and
good palatability when grazed by
cattle.
Main attributes
A well-grazed legume with high
yield potential in frost-free areas
of good rainfall. Has a long
growing season and makes
vigorous growth in association
with grasses; gives early spring
growth and is a good fertility
builder.
Main deficiencies
Low
seedling
vigour,
poor
drought tolerance, poor salt
tolerance and relatively low
digestibility. It is grazed out
unless heavily fertilized. Leaves,
flowers and roots subject to
attack by various pests.
Ability
weeds
to
compete
with
In the early stages poor, but
when
well
established
will
suppress
weeds
(Boultwood,
1964).
Tolerance of drought and
flooding
Is susceptible to extended dry
spells, but persists well where
soils are fertile. Wilts less readily
than D. uncinatum (Ostrowski,
1966). Stobbs (1969e) showed it
to be less drought-resistant than
Stylosanthes
guianensis
at
Serere, Uganda. It carries little
foliage in the dry season, when
most of the leaves drop and form
a mulch (Horrell, 1958). Will
survive temporary flooding and
some waterlogging (Boultwood,
1964) but is susceptible to
extended waterlogging. Performs
better on slopes.
Fodder Peanut (Arachis pintoi)
Uses
Description (Cook, 1992)
Forage legume in intensively
managed grass/legume pastures
and tree plantations, ground
cover in tree plantations and
ornamental (Cook 1992).
Stoloniferous, perennial herb
developing a strong taproot on
the older crowns and forming a
dense mat of stolons and
rhizomes up to 20 cm deep.
Stems
initially
prostrate,
becoming ascendant to 20 cm in
height.
Leaves
tetrafoliolate,
margins entire, ciliate; distal
leaflets obovate and proximal
leaflets oblong-obovate, obtuse at
the apex and slightly cordate at
the base; leaflets up to 4.5 cm x
3.5 cm; the upper surface of
leaflets glabrous and darker
green than the pubescent lower
surface. Individual flowers on
short axillary racemes, standard
12-17 mm, yellow. The terminal
pod on the peg usually contains
1 seed, sometimes 2, while pods
formed along the peg contain
only
1.
Pod
moderately
reticulated, 10-14 mm x 6-8 mm.
Seed light-brown, 8-11 mm x 4-6
mm, weighing 0.11-0.20 g.
Origin and Distribution
A. pintoi originates from the
valleys of the Jequitinhonha, São
Francisco and Tocantins rivers in
central Brazil. It has been
introduced to Australia, the
United States, and to many
countries in South-East Asia,
Central and South America and
the Pacific.
Rainfall requirements
Best suited to rainfall above 1100
mm per annum, but it can
survive dry seasons of at least 4
months.
Flooding tolerance
Tolerant to periodical flooding.
Shade tolerance
High tolerance to shade, where it
often appears more vigorous than
in full sunlight.
Drought tolerance
It
shows
resistance.
some
drought
Soil requirements
Grows best in well-drained sandy
to clay soils, with low to neutral
pH and low to high fertility. Fails
to
persist
on
seasonally
waterlogged, poorly structured
clays. It tolerates high levels of Al
and Mn, but has low tolerance of
salinity.
Rhizobium relationships
Inoculation often necessary with
a highly specific strain of
Bradyrhizobium (strains QA1091,
CIAT3101
being
the
most
effective)
immediately
before
planting, but not necessary with
vegetative propagation.
Land preparation
establishment
before
A clean seed-bed is preferred.
Sowing methods
Fresh seed has a high level of
dormancy which may be reduced
by drying at 35-40°C for 10 days.
Seed at 10-15 kg seed in pod/ha
should be sown 2-6 cm deep,
followed by rolling. Seedlings
develop quickly following epigeal
germination, and with good
growing conditions and several
plants per m2, complete ground
cover can be achieved by a
network of stolons in about six
months. Seed remains viable in
the ground for more than one
season.
In moist climates vegetative
propagation succeeds well.
Nutrient requirements
Grows well in soils low in P, but
some P fertilizer is advisable for
soils extremely low in P. Liming
is rarely necessary.
Compatibility with grasses
Combines well with aggressive
creeping
grasses
such
as
Brachiaria
decumbens,
B.
dictyoneura, Paspalum notatum,
Axonopus
affinis,
Digitaria
eriantha and Cynodon dactylon,
but also forms stable mixtures
with bunch grasses such as
Panicum maximum where the
legume colonizes well the interbunch spaces.
Grazing management
Very tolerant to heavy grazing.
Feeding value
Depends on age of the material.
In vitro digestibility varies from
60-76%, N concentrations from
2.5-3.0% and P concentrations
from 0.18-0.37%. Readily eaten
by cattle at all stages of growth.
Main attributes
A. pintoi is a highly persistent
palatable pasture legume with a
high feeding value for (sub)humid
(sub)tropical climates tolerant to
heavy grazing and shade.
Performance
Moderate
to
heavy
grazing
pressures are necessary for best
performance.
In
Colombia,
annual DM production ranging
from 5 t/ha growing with
Brachiaria dictyoneura, which
produced 20 t/ha, to 10 t/ha
when grown with B. ruziziensis,
which produced 11 t/ha. It has
yielded 5 t/ha of DM in pure
stands under 30% shade in
Indonesia and 3 t/ha in full
sunlight in Malaysia. In Costa
Rica liveweight gains of cattle
grazing A. pintoi in a mixed
pasture with Brachiaria brizantha
of nearly 1000 kg/ha/year were
recorded.