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Grasses Most of the fodder plants belong to the families of grasses and legumes. In the natural flora of Bhutan many grass species can be found.. species like Argopyron, Agrostis, Eragrostis, Bromus, Poa,etc. However, only few are considered good for fodder plant. Other grasses are grown for their grains, such as paddy, wheat, barley and maize. The general structure of grass( after R.J Moilroy ’76) The stem of the grass, bearing the leaves and flower head, is termed as culm. It is cylindrical and often hollow except at the nodes or joints which are of solid tissue. The hollow portion between the node are internodes. In few grasses the basal inter node may be swollen or bulbous. The nodes form the part of attachment of the leaves, which are arranged in to two rows alternating on opposite sides of the stem. The upper expanded part is the leaf or the lamina and the basal part which embrace the stem is the sheath. The leaf blade often widens at the base into a ledge like process or may form earlike projections on either sides. The later are termed auricles. At the point where the blade forms the sheath there is usually a membranous out growth called ligule . The production of new stem or shoots within the axils of older leaves is the normal method of branching in grasses and is called tillering. If the stem grow up within the leaf sheath of the older leaves, dense tuft of foliage are produced( intra-vaginal mode of growth). If the new shoot pierce the sheath near to their point of origin and grow out horizontally or obliquely( extravaginal mode of growth) loose or open tufts result. Roots arise adventiously from the lowest node or nodes of the stem and are this and fibrous. In the case of certain perennial grasses (chloris gayana), the roots are produced at every node of a surface creeping stem or stolon. In certain grasses roots arise fro the nodes of under ground creeping stem or rhizomes (pennisetum perpureum). The flower head or the inflorescence, which is terminal on the stem is frequently a panicle consisting of cluster of spreading branches terminated by long structure called spikelets. These are composed of one or more flowers with enveloping scales that conceal the flowers from view except at flowering stage. Alternatively the spikelets may be stalked directly on the main axis, when the flower head is a raceme or borne on the main axis itself, when the flower head is known as spike. The small flower when bisexual consists of one carpel and three or more stamens. The later have long, slender filaments bearing long anthers. The ovary which be glabrous or hairy bears two divergent feathery stigmas. The flowers of annual grass are generally self sterile and cross pollinated by agency of wind. The naked fruit or grain is called caryopsis. It is one seeded with the pericarp fused into testa(seed coat) and consist of the embryo together with its store of endosperm for nurishment of the developing seeding. The embryo consists of primary shoot (plumule) and primary root (radicle) and often not applied not only the naked fruit but also to the entire spikelet or even to a group of united spikelets. Grasses are suitable as herbage plants for grazing by livestock or for mowing for the following reasons. Reproduction of fresh shoots by tillers provide a means of recovery from cutting or grazing. New tissues produced during growth arises chiefly at the base of the leaves where it is least likely to be damaged by cutting or grazing. Many grasses maintain continuous growth interrupted only by periods of drought or cold. Many grasses spread by rhizomes or stolon which readily forms adventitious roots and give rapid ground coverage. The root system binds the soil particles together forming a sod and brings to the surface layers nutrients that have been leached into the subsoil by heavy rainfall. Legumes In all fodder development works, legumes plays the major role as they enrich the soil with nitrogen and produce highly digestible and protein rich fodder. The family of legume is one of the biggest in the plant kingdom. Almost all plants are used as fodder belongs to the sub- family papilionoidese. Many species can be found in the natural flora of Bhutan. Such species belong to the genus Astragalus, desmodium, lespedeza, vicia etc. Other legume are grown as pulses or vegetables. Most of the legumes produce nodules on their roots in which bacteria colonies live in symbiosis with the host plant. The structure of leguminous plant.( after Bogdan ’77) The papilionoideae sub-family includes trees, shrubs, woody laines and herbs. Herbaceous legumes can be erect, sub-erect or creeping and also climbing by means of twinning stems often supported by means of tendrils developed instead of terminal leaflets. Such as species of vicia or lathyrus, are relatively rare in the tropica. Some species vary in habit and they can be bushy, prostrate or climbing cultivars of the same species. In some species leaves can be simple but they are usually compound and a large number of species, including most of the cultivated legumes, have trifoliolate leaves. In a number of other species, the leaves are paripinnate (terminating in a pair of leaflet) or imparpinnate ( terminating in a single leaflet). There is often a pair of stipules at the base of the petiolules which in some species are fused with the low portion of petiole. Leaflet can be sessile or have petiolues which can have stepels, usually small and very narrow at it base. Young seedling have two cotyledons, the first true leaf to appear is usually simple with one leaflet, but further leaves are trifoliolate or pinnate. The plant usually have a well developed tap root penetrating deep into soil and in some species side roots can be thickened and serve as strong organs. In prostrate forms the creeping stem can root at the nodes but those roots are relatively shallow. Rhizobium Bacteria The rhizobium bacteria living on the roots of the legumes can fix the atmospheric nitrogen and make it available to the plants. So, legumes are permanent nitrogen factories. The quantities of nitrogen fixed in a legume field can go up to 200 kg N ( equal to 260 kg urea) per acre in a year. Grasses grown with legume can benefit highly from this nitrogen. In crop rotation, first crop after legume can still get good quantity of nitrogen which is left in the soil. If a legume is newly introduced in an area the seed have to be inoculated with bacteria, as legume will show good performance only in presence of bacteria. Different group of legume have different strains of bacteria. Only the right strain used will be successful. The experience so far indicates that: Inoculation of lucerene, clover, lotus major and crown vetch is an absolute must. Any attempt to introduce any of these species will fail without inoculation . Inoculation of desmodium, glycine, stylo helps to hasten their development and should when ever possible be done. If inoculation is successful nodules should be found on young plants 2-4 weeks after germination. Reddish, pink coloration of cross section of nodules is considered as a proof of effective nodulation. Temperate Grass species Perennial perenne) rye grass (Lolium Perennial ryegrass (English) Description Perennial plant, robust, medium size, hairless, cespitous. Stems erect, 10 - 60 (- 90) cm high. Blade folded when young, narrow (2 - 6 mm), rather long (3 - 20 cm), dark green, shiny on the lower side, veines well marked on the upper side. Ligule short, greenish to transparent. Auricles narrow. Sheaths of the inferior leaves red to purple red. Spikelike inflorescence. Spikelets applied on the axis by one of their sides. One glume per spikelet except on the top spikelet where there are 2. Glume shorter than the spikelet. Spikelets 6 10 (- 14) - flowered. Glume(s) exceed(s) usually the inferior lemma. Lemma without awn (not aristate) (see Lolium multiflorum). The weight of 1000 seeds is: diploids: 1.3 to 2.7 g (average seeds), tetraploids: 2.0 to 4.0 g (average to big seeds). Chromosome number: 2n = 14 (diploid), 2n = 28 (tetraploid). Physiological peculiarities: The plant tillers freely. The tiller density is very high in grazing (20,000 to 50,000 tillers/m² and even up to 70,000 talles/m² in case of sheep grazing) and lower in a cutting regime (6,000 to 15,000 tillers/m²). The maximum number of leaves per tiller reaches 3. Almost 100 day.degrees are required to produce a new leaf. Each leaf has a lifetime of 300 day.degrees. The leaf turn-over is thus very fast. This is a competitive advantage in frequently defoliated covers. In spring, the first leaves that appear are relatively small. The next leaves increase in size until the maximum size is reached. In autumn, the opposite evolution is observed. The size of new leaves decreases with time. The roots are densely fasciculate. They can reach 1 - 1.5 m deep though the great majority of roots can be found in the first 15 centimeters of the soil. Root growth starts early in spring, almost 1 to 2 months before the leaves grow. It slows down in summer and restarts in autumn. It is thus parallel to the aerial part growth but it is earlier in spring. The roots have a lifetime of 2 to 3 months during the growing season. Perennial ryegrass is not alternative. It does not head the year of sowing. During the next years, there is always a certain percentage of new shoots after the first cut. The interval between the heading date of the earliest and the latest varieties is very important in this species. It can reach 1.5 month at low altitude in oceanic climate. Hybridizes with Festuca pratensis: x Festulolium loliaceum (Huds.) P. Fourn. and more rarely with Festuca arundinacea: x Festulolium holmberii (Dbrfi.) P. Fourn. Hybridizes with Lolium multiflorum: Lolium x hybridum Hausskn. These opportunities of hybridization are used in artificial breeding to get hybrids more resistant to drought (x Festulolium), more persistant (x Festulolium holmberii) or more productive (Lolium x hybridum). Temperature Typical of oceanic and mild climates. Sensitive to intense frostand to high temperatures. However less cold sensitive than Italian ryegrass but more sensitive to strong heat. Quite sensitive to shade. Water Often found in rainy climates and sensitive to drought but also very sensitive to winter flooding. Soil Optimum on normally drained to cool soils. Dry or wet soils are not suitable. Optimum on nutrientrich or very rich soils and slightly acid to neutral. Quite indifferent to soil texture. Loams and clays are nevertheless more suitable. Sands can be suitable if the water supply (irrigation or water table close to the surface) and the nutrient availability are sufficient. Rarer on peat soils. Distribution Native to Europe, temperate Asia and North Africa. Has become subcosmopolitan in temperate regions: introduced in North and South America, in Australia and in New Zealand. From the lowlands to almost 1200 m in the Alps. Tall Fescue arundinacea) (Festuca Water Tall fescue (English) Very resistant drought. Description Soil Perennial plant, very robust, hairless (except auricles), cespitous to a rather rhizomatous. Stems erect, 50 110 (- 150) cm high. Blade rolled when young, large (3 - 10 mm), flat, strongly veined, coarse, rough on the upper side, shiny below, dark green. Sheaths of the inferior leaves purple-red. Ligule short, greenish. Auricles strong, ciliate. Panicle-like inflorescence, spreading even after flowering, oblong, loose. Spikelets 4 - 7 flowered, briefly aristate, 10 - 15 mm long. Variable species. The weight of 1000 seeds is 1.8 to 2.5 g (average seeds). Chromosome number: 2n = 42 (hexaploid). Physiological peculiarities: Hybridizes with Lolium perenne: x Festulolium holmbergii and with Festuca pratensis: x Festolium braunii. Often invaded by endophytes Acremonium type. Large range of soil humidity. Tolerates remarkably well a sodden soil in winter. Optimum on cool soils, normally drained to dry. Very well adapted to alternations of the water supply regime. Able to absorb water far beneath the surface by a strong root system. Large range for nutrient availability but excluded from very poor soils (mesotrophic to eutrophic species). Widely encountered on slightly acid to alcaline soils. Often on heavy clay soils or on deep loam but quite indifferent to the soil texture. Temperature Very good resistance to climate extremes (heat and cold). The tall fescues native to the Mediterranean bassin are however sensitive to low temperatures. to summer Distribution Native to Europe. Has become subcosmopolitan in temperate regions. In the lowlands, only below 300 m in the United Kingdom. Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) Soil Cocksfoot (English) Optimum on normally drained to dry soils. Can grow on slopes, on shallow, very dry soils. Dislikes excessive humidity. Wide range for nutrient availability. Can grow on rather poor soils but much more productive on rich soil. Its strong root system can develop over a big volume of soil and thus absorb more nutrients than the other species of the same community. Quite large range for pH. Thrives on slightly acid to alcaline soils. Quite indifferent to soil texture. Very rare or absent from peat soils. Description Perennial plant, robust, hairless, cespitous. Stems erect, 20 - 120 cm high, compressed at the base. Blade folded when young, large (4 - 12 mm), quite stiff, long, with no visible nerve, hulled at the top. Ligule very big, irregular, torn, white. No auricles. Inflorescence in stiff panicle, spreading or dense, erect, with basal branches without spikelets over a long area. Spikelets 3 - 6 flowered, 5 - 6 mm long, in compact clusters. The weight of 1000 seeds is 0.8 to 1.4 g (average seeds). Chromosome number: 2n = 28 (tetraploid). Some mediterranean cocksfoot are diploid: 2n = 14. Temperature Large climate range. Frost and heat resistant. Markedly thermophilous: appreciates well oriented slopes (warm microclimates). However, tolerates shade very well, for instance in old orchards. Water Drought resistant. Distribution Native to Europe, West Asia and North Africa. Has become subcosmopolitan in temperate regions. From the lowlands to alpine levels in mountain areas. Italian Rye Multiflorum) Grass (Lolium Italian ryegrass (English), Raygrass Description There are 2 types of Italian ryegrass: the westerwoldicum type, the Westerwold ryegrass that is annual. The plants die after seed formation. And the multiflorum or italicum type, the typical Italian ryegrass that is a short living perennial. It persists usually 2 to 3 years. Annual or perennial plant, very robust, rather big, hairless, cespitous. Stems erect, 20 - 100 cm high. Blade rolled when young, large (up to 10 mm), long (6 - 25 cm), flexible, pale green, shiny on the lower side, less than 16 well marked veins on the upper side (more than 16 veins in Festuca pratensis). Sheaths of the lower leaves purple-red. Ligule quite short, membranous. Auricles long, well developped. Spike-like inflorescence. Spikelets 10 - 14 flowered (up to 20 - 25) applied on the axis by one of their sides. One glume per spikelet except on the top spikelet where there are 2. Glume shorter than the spikelet. Lemma exceeds the glume and is usually aristate (see L perenne). The weight of 1000 seeds is Multiflorum diploid varieties: 2.0 to 2.5 g (average seeds), tetraploid varieties: 3.0 to 4.6 g (average to big seeds), Westerwold diploid varieties: 2.5 to 3.0 g (average seeds), tetraploid varieties: 3.7 to 5.1 g (big seeds). Chromosome number: 2n = 14 (diploid), 2n = 28 (tetraploid). Physiological peculiarities: Hybridizes with Lolium perenne: L. x hybridum Hausskn. Hybridizes very rarely with Festuca pratensis and F. arundinacea: x Festulolium. This opportunity of hybridization is used in artificial breeding to get hybrids more resistant to drought and more persistant. Temperature Requires mild or warm climates. Very sensitive to winter cold. Tolerates heat providing that the water supply is sufficient. Can be cultivated in rather cold climates but its persistance is then reduced. Water Sensitive to summer drought. Soil Optimum on normally drained soils. Dry or very wet soils are not suitable. Very sensitive to winter flooding. Needs nutrient rich soils, slightly acid to alkaline. Small requirements for soil texture. Distribution Native to Central and Southern Europe, to North Africa and to SW Asia. Introduced in most temperate regions. From the lowlands to about 800 m in the Alps. Tropical Grass species Ruzi (Brachiaria ruzizensis) It requires a soil of high fertility, such as latosols carrying mesophyll rain forest. It will tolerate acid soils. It needs good drainage. Kennedy ruzi grass (Australia), Congo signal grass (Africa), prostrate signal grass (Kenya). Ability to spread naturally Description Land preparation establishment A spreading perennial with short rhizomes, similar in habit to Para grass. The inflorescence consists of dense and spikelike racemes. The spikelets are all sessile and close together, the rachis of the racemes winged, broad and over 3 mm wide. The spikelets are hairy and the lower glume under half the length of the spikelet (Harker & Napper, 1960). It has softer leaves than B. brizantha. Distribution Lake Edward and Lake Kivu districts, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Ruzizi plains in Zaire, now widely distributed in the tropics. Rainfall requirements It requires a reasonably high rainfall, but can endure hot dry spells. A rainfall of 1 000 mm or more is best. Drought tolerance It spreads well from rhizomes. for A well-prepared seed-bed is recommended, but light discharrowing gives good results. Sowing methods Drill the seed into a wellprepared seed-bed. In Zaire it has been sown in rows 60 cm apart, or broadcast over the land after scarification of the soil with a disc harrow or brushcutter, without burning the native pastures, and grazed as soon as it is ready (Risopoulos, 1966). Sowing depth and cover Surface sow in moist soil, and sow no deeper than 2 cm in dry soil (Bogdan, 1964). In Zaire it is recommended to sow at a depth of 1-2 cm. Under humid conditions seeds lose their vitality after one year (Risopoulos, 1966). It has good drought tolerance. Soil requirements Vigour of growth growth rhythm and It gives good early wet season growth for eight weeks after the opening rains (Falvey, 1976) and it seeds heavily in April at South Johnstone, north Queensland (lat. 17°36'S). Response to defoliation It forms a dense mat under grazing which withstands grazing well (Davidson, 1966). The yields of dry matter did not vary very significantly in Sri Lanka with monthly cutting at 2.5 cm or 7.6 cm but bimonthly cuts yielded a little higher (Appadurai & Goonawardene, 1973). Grazing management In combination with Stylosanthes humilis in northern Australia it must be grazed heavily to maintain this legume in the sward (Falvey, 1976). Suitability silage for hay and It made very good silage with Stylosanthes guianensis in Zaire with 1 percent molasses and without additive (Risopoulos, 1966) and made good hay in Zambia (van Rensburg, 1969). Cultivars 'Kennedy', described above, is the only present cultivar. Selection 6019 has been tested at CIAT, Colombia. Main attributes Its fast growth early in the wet season, its compatibility with Stylosanthes humilis and S. hamata, its good seed production and ease of establishment. Main deficiencies Its winter growth is slow. It needs well-drained fertile soils. Frost tolerance It is killed by heavy frosts, and spring regrowth is very slow after light frosts. Ability weeds to compete with It successfully suppresses weeds. Palatability It is very palatable. At the Cerrado Centre, Brazil, it was preferentially grazed ahead of Stylosanthes guianensis during the rainy season. Fertilizer requirements It needs high phosphorus in the early growth on a wide range of soils. It responds well to nitrogen, either inorganic or from legumes, but its nitrogen requirement exceeds that of Guinea grass, which makes the latter more attractive (Mellor, Hibberd & Grof, 1973b). Risopoulos (1966) recorded an increased yield of 10 739 kg/ha from nitrogen application in Zaire. Compatibility with other grasses and legumes Ruzi grass combines well with legumes such as Centrosema pubescens or Pueraria phaseoloides if the mixture is leniently grazed. In Zaire it has combined well with Setaria sphacelata and Stylosanthes guianensis. In northern Australia Stylosanthes humilis and S. hamata can be introduced by cultivating the grass and oversowing the legumes (Falvey, 1979). Green-matter matter yields and dry- In Tanzania, ruzi grass yielded 21 159 kg DM/ ha (Naveh & Anderson, 1967). At South Johnstone, north Queensland it yielded 19 500 kg DM/ha under a six-week cutting interval and an input of 220 kg N/ha/year (Grof & Harding, 1970). In Sri Lanka yields of 16 807, 22 031 and 25 585 kg DM/ha per year with nitrogen applications of 112, 224 and 366 kg N/ha (Appadurai, 1975). In French Guyana the yield was 20 574 kg DM/ha and 1 180 kg/ha crude protein (Borget, 1966) and in Zaire yields of 31 352 kg and 21 468 kg green matter per hectare per year were obtained in successive years, 1958-59, with 100 kg nitrogen and 100 kg superphosphate per hectare per year (Risopoulos, 1966). At Gualaca, Panama, it produced 11 000 kg DM/ha without fertilizer and 27 000 kg DM/ha when fertilized with 600 kg N/ha per year in a rainfall area of 3 997 mm per year. Napier Grass purpureum) (Pennisetum Drought tolerance Elephant grass. It survives drought quite well when established because of its deep root system. Description Soil requirements A robust perennial with a vigorous root system, sometimes stoloniferous with a creeping rhizome. Culms usually 180-360 cm high, branched upwards. Leaf-sheaths glabrous or with tubercle-based hairs; leaf-blades 20-40 mm wide, margins thickened and shiny. Inflorescence a bristly false spike up to 30 cm long, dense, usually yellow-brown in colour, more rarely purplish (Chippendall, 1955). It grows best in deep, fertile soils through which its roots can forage. Deep, friable loams are preferable. Distribution Native to subtropical Africa (Zimbabwe) and now introduced into most tropical and subtropical countries. Altitude range Sea-level to 2 000 m. Rainfall requirements Elephant grass grows best in high-rainfall areas (in excess of 1 500 mm per year), but its deep root system allows it to survive in dry times. Mean, 1 483 mm + 620 (Russell & Webb, 1976). Land preparation establishment for Full land preparation with ploughing and subsequent discharrowing and drilling will repay the cost of establishment of this perennial grass. Sowing methods Either root cuttings or stem pieces with at least three nodes are planted in the drills. When planting stem pieces, two nodes should be covered with soil, the third being exposed. One hectare of grass will provide propagating material for 15-25 hectares. Planting rooted elephant grass pieces directly into an Imperata sward during the rainy season in the Philippines has had some success (Farinas, 1970). Sowing time and rate At the beginning of the wet season, at about 2 000 kg/ha of stem material. Grazing management Elephant grass is commonly used in a cut-and-carry system, feeding it in stalls, or it is made into silage. For grazing, it should be heavily stocked to maintain it in a lush vegetative form. The mature leaves are razor sharp and sometimes provide a problem for grazing cattle. The coarse stems produce new shoots and leaves; the grass is best grazed when the new growth consists of five new leaves and associated stem growth. A stem plus leaf takes a year to grow (Younge & Ripperton, 1960). Odhiambo (1974) showed no drop in nutritive value. Grazing at six- to nine-week intervals at a height of about 90 cm gives good utilization. Nitrogen can be applied after each grazing or cutting in high-rainfall areas. Any coarse, leafless stems should be mowed. Value as a standover or deferred feed If the grass is allowed to reach maturity before the last wetseason cut, it gives better dryseason use. On the Atherton Tableland, Queensland, it is used for dry-season feed by rolling at the end of winter, as it can make some winter growth during this period (Quinlan & Edgley, 1975). Toxicity García-Rivera and Morris (1955) recorded 2.48 percent of oxalates in the dry matter of elephant grass and 2.5 percent in the Merker variety but no toxicity was experienced. Ndyanabo (1974) recorded 3.1 percent total oxalates but again no toxicity. Main attributes Its high dry-matter yield, especially with frequent cutting under fertilization and irrigation. Its suitability for silage and its deep and extensive root system which enables it to forage widely for moisture and nitrogen. Main deficiencies Its high fibre content at maturity, poor seed production, and susceptibility to frosts. Minimum temperature for growth About 15°C. Mean minimum temperature of the coldest month 11.5° + 5.4°C (Russell & Webb, 1976). ye Frost tolerance It is susceptible to frosts. Response to light It will grow in partial shade as a cut-and-carry fodder in tropical gardens, but produces better in full sunlight. Ability weeds to compete with When established, elephant grass will suppress weeds. Palatability It is highly palatable in the leafy stage. Fertilizer requirements A complete fertilizer mixture may be needed for establishment according to soil fertility. In Tobago, West Indies, a crop of elephant grass removed 463 kg nitrogen, 96 kg phosphorus and 594 kg potassium per hectare per year. The optimum phosphorus content of the dry matter for growth was determined as 0.248 percent for the purple type and 0.215 percent for the green variety (Falade, 1975). High rates of nitrogen generally give good responses (Walmsley, Sargeant & Dookeran, 1978) especially in the third and subsequent years when the native soil nitrogen has been exhausted (Vicente-Chandler et al., 1953). The latter authors suggested that the highest yields could be expected from cutting at 12-week intervals and applying nitrogen after every cut. Compatibility with other grasses and legumes It is generally grown as a pure pasture. However, it has been sown in alternate rows with such legumes as Pueraria phaseoloides in Puerto Rico, Centrosema pubescens (Venezuela) and Neonotonia wightii in Uganda. Cutting or grazing management will have to be adjusted to favour the legume to maintain a satisfactory mixed sward. Seed production harvesting and Elephant grass does not produce much seed, and so is propagated vegetatively. Economics It is one of the most valuable forage, soilage and silage crops in the wet tropics. Value for erosion control Elephant grass will give very effective control of erosion in its own ecological niche. Kikuyu grass clandestinum). (Pennisetum Description Tufted perennial up to 150 cm high, often sticky, with a characteristic odour of molasses or cumin. Pubescent leaf-blades. Panicle 10-30 cm long with small glabrous spikelets 1.5 to nearly 2.5 mm long, awn 6-16 mm (Napper, 1965). It is usually established on burnt country to give a quick cover to suppress weeds. A rough cultivation will usually suffice if a burn is not obtainable. Sowing methods It is usually sown by seed, broadcast on a clean seed-bed and mixed with sawdust or rice hulls for even distribution. It can be undersown with cereal crops. Distribution Sowing time Tropical and southern Africa and Brazil, introduced to many tropical countries as a fodder grass and now naturalized. It is best to sow just before the expected normal rainy season. Altitude range It should be well established before grazing and then grazed sparingly. Heavy stocking thins it out. 800-2 000 m. Drought tolerance Relatively drought-hardy over a dry season of four to five months. Soil requirements It is tolerant to soils of fairly low fertility, high aluminium (Spain & Andrew, 1977) and light texture but will respond to more fertile soils. It does well in ashes left from a scrub burn, and on steep hillsides and road cuttings. It needs good drainage. Land preparation establishment for Grazing management Dry-matter and matter yields green- In Colombia, dry-matter yields reach 6000-8 000 kg/ha per year. This yield is doubled with 150 kg N/ha (Crowder, Chaverra & Lotero, 1970). In Fiji an average yield of 4 814 kg/ha of dry matter with a crude protein content of 6.8 percent was obtained over a three-year period (Roberts, 1970a, b). In Nigeria, annual dry-matter yield at Agege was 6 500 kg/ha (Adegbola, 1964). Main attributes Its quick establishment and ground cover which suppresses weeds, and, when used as a pioneer plant, its inflammability at maturity, paving a way for establishment of more productive pastures. Compatibility with other grasses and legumes It is sensitive to frost, and repeated heavy frost will kill it. Molasses grass usually dominates other grasses initially but it combines well with legumes, for example Centrosema pubescens in Brazil, Neonotonia wightii (glycine), Macroptilium atropurpureum, Desmodium spp., etc. An aqueous mixture of molasses grass, siratro seed and fertilizer is sprayed on newly established highway edges in Queensland, Australia, to effect quick stabilization. It is a transient grass and should not be the only species sown. Ability weeds Economics Main deficiencies Its susceptibility to fire. It should not be sown as the sole grass species in an area, as it is transient. Frost tolerance to compete with It is very palatable to stock. It is an important pioneer grazing species to give cover on newly cleared land. In Zaire the indigenous people claim it has insect-repellent properties and use it as bedding for sitting fowls and bitches about to give birth. In Manipur, India, it is believed mosquitoes avoid it, possibly both the odour and viscid hairs being repellent (Bor, 1960). Fertilizer requirements Animal production As a pioneer species sown on the ashes of scrub burns, initial fertility may be high enough for establishment. The critical value of phosphorus as a percentage of the dry matter at the immediate pre-flowering stage is 0.18. Using upgraded San Martinero cattle, daily gains of 0.48 percent per head were obtained in Colombia with a stocking rate of one animal per hectare (Crowder, Chaverra & Lotero, 1970). Outstanding on newly burnt land in Laos (Thomas & Humphreys, 1970), and on roadsides in areas difficult to cultivate. In the Andes it is grown up to 2 000 m to suppress weed growth (Roseveare, 1948). Palatability Value for erosion control Excellent in high-rainfall areas and as a temporary cover in subtropical areas of lower rainfall. four subsessile spikelets which are partly enclosed within the uppermost leaf-sheath. The spikelets are bisexual, or functionally unisexual. The florets are protogynous and the stamens are rapidly exserted on long filaments, usually in the early morning. The stigma is branched and feathery. The large seed (2 mm long) is dark brown, flat or ellipsoidal with a prominent style (Mears, 1970). Distribution Kikuyu grass clandestinum) (Pennisetum Description A prostrate perennial which may form a loose sward up to 46 cm high when ungrazed, but under grazing or mowing assumes a dense turf. The grass spreads vigorously from rhizomes and stolons which roots readily at the nodes and are profusely branched. Short, leafy branches are produced from stolons, with leaf- blades strongly folded in the bud, later expanding to 44.5114.3 mm long and 6 mm wide, tapering to sub-obtuse tips; leaf surface is sparsely and softly hairy. The ligule can be recognized by a ring of hairs, and the collar by its prominent pale yellow colour. The flower is small, consisting of a spike of two to From Zaire and Kenya the grass has been introduced widely in tropical areas, especially Costa Rica, Colombia, Hawaii, Australia and southern Africa. Altitude range Sea-level to 3 500 m. Drought tolerance Reasonably good because of its deep root system. It extends to 5.5 m, but only sparsely below 60 cm, with 90 percent of the total root weight found in the 060 cm layer. Added nitrogen improves the efficiency of water use. Soil requirements Its natural occurrence is mainly on deep latosolic soils of good fertility, and it has quickly adapted to similar soils elsewhere. It also thrives on alluvial soils and on moist, sandy soils where the fertility has been raised by animal excrete or mineral fertilizer. It is an excellent colonizer and soil stabilizer in small paddocks around dairy bails, piggeries and feed-lots, and where non-toxic effluent is discharged from factories. It does require soils with good drainage. Land preparation establishment for A properly prepared seed-bed is necessary for good establishment from seed. For stem and root cuttings a rougher seed-bed may suffice, as long as the vegetative material is adequately planted. Sowing methods. Hand planting of vegetative stem and root cuttings has been traditional. Sprigs containing two or three nodes, planted on a 1-m grid is a usual plant spacing, but availability of sprigs and desired rapidity of establishment will decide procedure. For large areas, broadcasting sprigs (produced by putting plants through a chaff cutter) and then disc-harrowing them in will give adequate establishment if accompanied by a fertilizer mixture of nitrogen and phosphorus (Mears, 1970). Now that seed is available, well prepared seed-beds are essential as seed is costly. Pellet seed with activated charcoal at 1.3 kg a.c./ha and use atrazine at up to 4.5 a.c./ha. This reduces weed competition, especially from Eleusine indica and gives satisfactory stands (Cook & O'Grady, 1978). A drill with attached fluted furrow press wheels gives excellent results (Wilson, 1978). Grazing management Close grazing or cutting designed to avoid the build-up of a dense mat of stolons is necessary to maintain temperate legumes with Kikuyu. Renovation of worn-out or degenerate pastures by mechanical ripping has no longterm effect unless accompanied by fertilization with inorganic nitrogen or the inclusion of a legume. Where Neonotonia wightii cv. Clarence was the associated legume, grazing every four weeks reduced the legume percentage, compared with the eighth- or 12-week grazing interval. The sward should be maintained with a dressing of at least 150 kg N/ha applied in split dressings in spring and autumn. If weeds are troublesome the pasture can be slashed. With a Kikuyu/tropical legume mixture, grazing to a height of 10-15 cm should take place every six to eight weeks. With strip grazing, 50 beasts per hectare per day can be grazed on a grass/legume mixture. Dry-matter and matter yields green- In northern New South Wales, a ceiling yield of 30 000 kg/ha of dry matter was obtained by applying 1 120 kg/ha of fertilizer nitrogen. On the Atherton Tableland, Queensland, a Kikuyu-dominant pasture produced 12 170 kg DM/ha per year. Suitability silage for hay and Although Kikuyu grass silage is palatable to dairy cattle, a considerable loss of dry matter occurs and digestibility of the silage is about 19.5 units lower than freshly-cut grass. Milling and pelleting the leaf for sheep resulted in a live-weight increase three times that of sheep fed the un-milled leaf Main attributes Kikuyu is a highly digestible, high protein, low fibre, palatable grass which responds readily to nitrogen, stands heavy grazing, holds soil against erosion and is an excellent lawn grass. Main deficiencies It does not easily lend itself to mixed grass/legume pastures, and may become a weed of cultivation. Optimum temperature for growth 16-21°C. It has a poor adaptation to high temperatures. Mean 18.8° + 2.8° (Russell & Webb, 1976). Frost tolerance It tolerates an occasional frost but not sustained frosting. Response to light Kikuyu does not grow well in shade. Ability weeds to compete with With adequate moisture and fertility, Kikuyu will suppress weeds. Palatability Very high. Fertilizer requirements Beyond basic nutrient requirements according to soil fertility, Kikuyu responds readily to nitrogen fertilizer which gives it a competitive advantage against Axonopus spp. and Paspalum dilatatum in Australia. Colman (quoted by Mears, 1970) in northern New South Wales obtained an efficiency response of 17-24 kg DM/ha/kg N applied. Responses in Colombia were recorded up to 150 kg N/ha. An effective association with the legume Trifolium repens (white clover), where the clover provides 25-60 percent of the pasture, reduced the need for nitrogen (Mears, 1970). Kikuyu does not give a good response to phosphorus except on markedly deficient soils, though phosphorus application increases the legume component. The critical level for phosphorus as a percentage of the dry matter at the immediate pre- flowering stage is 0.22. Potassium response is not likely unless intensive removal of the vegetative growth occurs. Symptoms of potassium deficiency appear as tip- burning and senescence of the lower leaves, and a reduced potassium content of the herbage (0.64-1 percent). Sulphur may also become deficient under heavy grazing or cutting. It is usually corrected in one normal superphosphate application (Mears, 1970). Compatibility with other grasses and legumes Under suitable conditions of soil and moisture, Kikuyu will dominate a pasture; most existing Kikuyu pastures are monospecific. With renovation and application of phosphoruscontaining fertilizers, it can be combined with white and red clovers or Desmodium uncinatum and D. intortum, but management and fertilizer treatment must be good to maintain the mixture. Trifolium burchellianum and T. semipilosum occur naturally with Kikuyu on the East African highlands, and some success has been achieved with the latter on the Atherton Tableland. Pure Kikuyu pastures, top-dressed with nitrogen, are usually more productive than grass/legume mixtures. . Setaria (Setaria sphacelata) (Australia), golden timothy (Zimbabwe), golden bristle grass (southern Africa). Description Tufted perennial 45-180 cm high with the lower culm nodes compressed. Basal leaf-sheaths often nearly flabellate in arrangement. False spike dense with orange bristles and subacute spikelets, 2.5-3 mm long (Napper, 1966). Distribution Naturally confined to the African continent, now introduced into several tropical countries. Drought tolerance Only fairly drought tolerant. Cultivar Kazungula is the most tolerant of dry conditions. Soil requirements 'Kazungula' is the most tolerant of poor sandy and stony soils. 'Nandi' and 'Narok' prefer medium-textured, fertile soils. It is not common on alkaline or very acid soils, the majority of collections being made from soils in a pH range of 5.5-6.5. Land preparation establishment for A well-prepared seed-bed is preferred for establishment by seed. Sowing methods In the Philippines, propagation of new material by rooted cuttings or divided root-stocks has been successful, but drilling seed into a well- prepared seed-bed is better. Grazing management It should be lightly grazed until established, then heavily grazed to prevent it becoming stemmy. Early grazing may cause plants to be pulled up by the roots when the soil is moist. Undergrazing causes the plants to become coarse and to shade companion legumes, a real problem with cv. Kazungula. Heavy grazing in winter can clean up a pasture ready for early spring growth. Dry-matter and matter yields green- At Redland Bay, Queensland, Riveros and Wilson (1970) recorded dry-matter yields from 23 500-28 200 kg/ha over a sixmonth growing season. The grass was irrigated and supplied with 225 kg N/ha per year. The soil was a basaltic red loam (latosol). Value as a standover or deferred feed Setaria is usually too coarse to be of much value as deferred feed, but it has a place as lowquality roughage, as a supplement to urea-molasses feeding. It is used for this purpose in Kenya and Uganda, but losses of crude protein and dry matter may reach 33 percent. Toxicity The setarias contain oxalates which can poison cattle. The amount of oxalate varies with the cultivar and stage of growth. Young plants contain more than older plants and strains highest in nitrogen are also highest in oxalate. Amounts of oxalates ranging from 3.7 percent in cv. Nandi to 7.8 percent in cv. Kazungula have been reported. Lactating cows and horses have been affected. Affected cattle have a staggering gait and diarrhoea, and then collapse and lie on their briskets. Rectal temperatures vary from 37.7 to 38.5°C. The muzzles are dry and rumination ceases. In eight days there is extensive subcutaneous oedema of the brisket and dewlap, and the animals die within three weeks of eating the grass. Death results from a build-up of calcium oxalate crystals in the kidney, which brings on acute hypocalcaemia. Poisoning rarely happens, but animals, especially lactating cows, should not be placed on young, luscious setaria pastures after a period of starvation (Everist, 1974). Horses, also, should be kept away from setaria pastures, as they can contract big-head disease (Cook, 1978). Feeding a calcium supplement, such as ground limestone or lucerne hay (containing calcium), can help control the disease. Main attributes Setaria sphacelata var. sericea is palatable, establishes easily from seed, persists under grazing on a wide range of soils, gives high yields of digestible energy, has some cold tolerance, gives early spring growth, responds to fertilizer and will cross-pollinate. Main deficiencies Heavy summer seeding of cv. Nandi and cv. Kazungula is a disadvantage (Quinlan & Edgley, 1975); susceptibility to frost in low-lying areas, and its oxalate content. Frost tolerance Compared with other summergrowing grasses it is fairly frost tolerant. It will make some growth in winter if frosts are not too heavy. 'Nandi' is best adapted to cold (Hacker & Jones, 1969). Ability weeds to compete with When established, it suppresses most weeds. In the first season, cv. Nandi is troubled by weed competition but recovers well after the first grazing or mowing. Palatability The various cultivars are very palatable when young but less so as they approach maturity. Natural habitat Grassland, woodland and swampy places, usually on clay soils. Fertilizer requirements A basal dressing of NPK is usually required. The critical level of phosphorus as a percentage of the dry matter at the immediate pre-flowering stage is 0.21 (Andrew & Robins, 1971). The rate of potassium uptake is very high and the critical level for potassium in cv. Nandi is about 1 percent of the dry matter. Setaria responds markedly to nitrogen and in Queensland gave an average response over a four-year period of 30 kg dry matter and 3 kg protein for every kilogram of applied nitrogen (Hacker & Jones, 1969).b Compatibility with other grasses and legumes The setarias compete successfully with Rhodes grass, green panic, paspalum and blue couch in coastal districts of Queensland, but generally should be the sole grass in mixtures of grass and legumes. This setaria combines well with white clover, Neonotonia wightii, Desmodium intortum, D. uncinatum and siratro. 'Kazungula' has little compatibility with legumes on the Atherton Tableland, Queensland (Quinlan & Edgley, 1975). Economics The setarias are important pasture plants in Africa and have been introduced to other tropical areas. They do not contain prussic acid and so can replace Sorghum spp. They are nutritious and, though they contain oxalate, they usually give little trouble. Animal production In Kenya, live-weight gains from three pasture species over a three-year trial, without nitrogen fertilizer and without a legume, respectively, were 336 and 192 kg/ha from Nandi setaria, 369 and 220 kg/ha from Nzoia Rhodes grass, and 369 and 131 kg/ha from molasses grass. Hereford steers continuously grazing Nandi setaria and Samford Rhodes grass, fertilized with 330 kg N/ha each at Samford, Queensland, and stocked at 2.5 and 4 steers per hectare, gained a mean of 575 and 522 kg/ha per year on Nandi setaria and 535 kg/ha on the Samford Rhodes grass. In the first two years the animals on Nandi setaria gained significantly more weight at the higher stocking rate than did those on Rhodes grass (Hacker & Jones, 1969). Dormancy Fresh seed has a germination inhibitor and should be stored for two months (Hacker & Jones, 1969). Germinate at 25-35°C, moistened with water. Exposure to light increases germination. Sugar cane officinarum (Saccharum Description Cane to 5 m, leaves broad. Panicle large, plumelike, tapering from base to tip with silky spikelets. The sets, when planted, sends out roots to nourish the growing shoot from the node and, beneath the surface of the soil, the shoot forms a succession of very short joints; the buds of these germinate in turn to give rise to secondary shoots to form a "stool" below ground. These secondary shoots are fed by a further series of roots to produce a root mass, spreading to a depth of 30 cm or more and laterally for up to 1 m. Land preparation establishment for As the crop may occupy the ground for up to four years, thorough land preparation is required. Deep ploughing and deep ripping should be carried out and the final seed-bed prepared by disc cultivators. Sowing methods Sugar cane is propagated by burying whole stalks in furrows, then chopping the stalks into at least two-node lengths in the furrow. It can also be planted with a chopper-planter, cutting the stalk into two-node lengths as it is fed into a planting chute. The setts are usually treated with a fungicide as they are planted. Distribution Response to defoliation First domesticated in India or Southeast Asia, now cultivated extensively in tropics and subtropics throughout the world. It is not usually grazed, the whole stalk being harvested at maturity. It will then grow again from the roots and produce a succession of ratoon crops, the number being dictated by the economics of retaining the crop. When the old "stool" is reduced by subsoil ploughing, it will give good regrowth after being shaved to ground level and fertilized. Drought tolerance It is fairly drought resistant, but production is low in drought periods. Soil requirements It has a wide range of soil tolerance, but drainage is essential. Heavy soils may be "bedded" to lift the soil level, and an open drainage furrow provided every five to ten rows. Dry-matter and matter yields green- At Grafton, New South Wales, cv. Pindar yielded 149 000 kg green matter per hectare, and cv. 40 SN5819 produced 129 000 kg green matter per hectare (Mead & Norman, 1950). In Brazil, Zuniga, Sykes and Gomide (1967) recorded 69 900 kg and 66 200 kg DM/ha with two cultivars. Suitability silage for hay and Silage has been made from sugar-cane tops in Queensland (Skerman, 1941), Argentina (Bragadin & Diaz, 1957), Puerto Rico (Vicente-Chandler et al., 1953) and Taiwan. The silage is very low in crude protein (1.4 percent of the green matter) and is fed to cattle, with concentrates, as low- quality, perennially-available roughage. Value as a standover or deferred feed Sugar cane can stand in the field for several years and can be used in emergency as low-quality roughage. Cultivars Numerous cultivars are bred for sugar production, disease resistance, maturity, varying soils, dry conditions and flooding. They are available in sugar- producing countries. Frost tolerance Sugar cane is susceptible to frost, the growing shoot and top "eyes" (buds) being the first to die, but the buds from the lower nodes may provide new growth, according to frost severity. Response to light Sugar cane will grow in shade, but sugar production is aimed at the greatest use of incoming radiation to promote maximum photosynthesis. Ability weeds to compete with Sugar-cane land has to have thorough preplanting preparation, inter-row tillage and herbicide treatment to suppress weeds until the cane is "out of hand", when the dense shade from the canopy will control weeds. Palatability Sugar-cane stalks are quite palatable because of the sugar content, but the high fibre makes chewing a slow process. Seed production harvesting and Seed production is controlled by ecological factors. "Arrowing" (emergence of seed-heads) usually reduces the sugar yield, so the sugar cane is generally harvested before this would occur. Cane breeders encourage it artificially for cross-breeding purposes, and pollen can be deep frozen for future use. Economics Sugar cane is one of the two main world sources of sugar for domestic and industrial use. Its products, such as molasses and sugar-cane tops, are available for livestock feeding and industrial use. Molasses. The nutritive value of sugar-cane molasses based on all the sugar mills in Queensland, Australia, expressed as a percentage of the dry matter, is shown in Table 15.62. Table 15.63 shows the analyses in comparison with maize grain. Molasses is low in crude protein but supplies a lot of energy. It is also low in fibre and so has a laxative effect on cows if fed in large amounts. Protein, phosphorus, sodium and fibre should be added to molasses when feeding. Molasses will give on average 0.7 kg of milk per kg of grain fed, and maize grain will give 1 kg. The maximum intake of molasses per cow should be 3.6 kg per day. Milk production falls sharply when more than 25 percent of the dry- matter intake is molasses, that is, more than 4 kg per day. Molasses may be used successfully for survival feeding of cattle when roughage supplies are limited. It is advisable to add 30 g of urea for each kilogram of molasses. As a liquid, a suitable mixture is 80 percent molasses, 17 percent water and 3 percent urea. The urea can be dissolved first in the water, which makes the molasses easier to handle. Once the molasses has been mixed in, care must be taken to avoid fermentation. Cattle should be introduced slowly to this type of mixture; 1-2 kg per head for the first week, reaching full strength by the third week. In 3.5 kg of the mix are 130 g of urea, the required daily amount. Value for erosion control Sugar cane can be used to hold soil and act as a wind- break, but retention of small areas for this purpose would endanger diseasequarantine efforts. For erosion or wind control, should be sown in rows on the contour. Oat (Avena sativa) naked & stampede countries are recorded by FAO as harvesting oats (FAO, 2000). Status Description A tall annual cereal, widely grown as a fodder in temperate and sub-tropical countries, also does well in the high-altitude tropics. Oats are only known as a cultigen, of uncertain origin, but were known to Lake Dwellers of Europe. It is now cultivated throughout the temperate zones of the Old and New Worlds as a summer crop and in the subtropics as a cool-season crop (mainly as forage); they are also a good forage in the high altitude tropics. Oats are believed to be derived chiefly from two species, wild oat (A. fatua L.) and wild red oat (A. sterilis L.). Avena sativa L. An annual grass to 1.5 meters high; culms tufted or solitary, erect or bent at the base, smooth. The leaves are non-auriculate, green and the sheaths rounded on the back; ligules blunt, membranous. The inflorescence is a diffuse panicle with 2 – 3 florets, all bisexual or the distal one or two may be reduced and male or sterile; glumes sub-equal 7 – 11 veined, longer glume 17 – 30 mm; lemmas 7 – 9 veined, either bifid or with a bristle at their apex; lowest lemma 12 – 25 mm. (2n = 42). The rachilla of the cultivated oat does not disarticulate at maturity (that of several weed species do). Its lemmas are rarely awned. The grain is tightly enclosed by the hard lemma and palea. Seed size varies with cultivar, it is commonly about 30 000 seeds per kilogramme. The green plant is a good forage and makes good hay and silage. The straw is a useful roughage. The grain is an important livestock feed and the unhulled, crushed fruit is the usual form in which it is fed to ruminants and horses. Oat forage, hay, straw and grain are renowned horse fodder. The area of oats harvested for grain in 2000 was 14 416, 29 ha, 5 500 000 ha of which were in the Russian federation: there is, however, no information on how much is grown for fodder but it is an important forage. Most oat grain is used for onfarm animal production in their country of origin. Seventy two Avena sativa subsp. byzantina (C. Koch) C. Romero Zarco = A. byzantina C. Koch., the Red or Algerian Oat, differs from A. sativa in that its rachilla eventually breaks off just above each floret and remains attached to the next floret above. It is a minor Mediterranean crop. Seed rates and mixtures Local practices vary widely and rates as low as 60 to over 100 kg/ha are used. Oats are often mixed with vetches, and sometimes peas, for hay or silage, the cereal giving support to the trailing legume; the oat seed rate should be reduced by about half; the growth cycles of both varieties must synchronise. Crop use and management grazing Oats are usually mown but can be grazed; controlled, rationed grazing with electric fencing is best for young crops; if lightly grazed a second grazing will be produced. The final grazing, of course, should aim to remove the whole crop. At high altitudes with well-distributed rainfall, oats provide many months of grazing if carefully managed. Mowing is easily mechanized and the crop is also suitable for harvesting by scythe or sickle. Conservation Oats are an excellent crop for both hay and silage. Haymaking Single-cut types are mown after flowering, multicuts should be cut earlier to encourage further growth. Mowing and handcutting are easy and the crop gives few problems in the making of hay. With a single cut crop it should be mown once the grains are formed; multi-cuts should be mown just prior to flowering, the ultimate cut should be when the grain is well formed. Information on haymaking techniques suitable for smallholder, and on conservation of straw, is given in Suttie 2000. Since the stems of oats are relatively thick compared to those of pasture grasses, the crop is best suited to haymaking in areas with assured dry, sunny weather at haymaking time. Silage Oats are an excellent silage crop in areas too cool for maize; they may be grown pure or in mixture with vetch (Vicia spp.)or peas (Pisum sativum). Harvest should be when the grain is fully formed. Guatemala grass, zacate prodigio (Latin America Suriname, it podzolic soils. Botanical name: Tripsacum Laxum /andersonii Sowing methods It has recently been suggested that Tripsacum laxum should be renamed Tripsacum andersonii but as T. laxum is still common then both names are used here Description Culms stout, up to 3 m tall and 2.5 cm thick at base. Leaf-blades broad (to 9 cm wide), sheaths glabrous. Racemes slender, several in a terminal group; one male spikelet of a pair sessile, one pedicelled. It differs from T. dactyloides in having a slender inflorescence, and the male spikelets are 4 mm long (Gilliland et al., 1971). Distribution Mexico and South America; now introduced to Sri Lanka and some other tropical countries, including Fiji. Rainfall requirements Humid areas with rich soils, moist, but well drained. Drought tolerance It has poor tolerance to drought. Soil requirements It needs rich soil, but will tolerate acidity and aluminium. In does best on Established by planting stem cuttings or rooted culms at the beginning of the rainy season, either in holes or in a plough furrow 50-65 cm apart in 1 m rows (about 10 000 per hectare; Risopoulos, 1966). Vigour of growth and growth rhythm Optimum production is reached six months after planting the cuttings, with four months between harvests. Main attributes Its high yield and persistence Main deficiencies Its poor seed production. Chemical digestibility analysis and This coarse tropical grass contains less than half as much digestible crude protein, and approximately three-quarters as much starch equivalent, as the fine grasses of the temperate zone. Harrison (1942) showed Guatemala grass cut at six weeks to contain 20 percent dry matter, 1.3 percent digestible crude protein and 7.9 percent starch equivalent. Tolerance to flooding It does not tolerate flooding. Fertilizer requirements Tripsacum removes 400 kg nitrogen, 80 kg phosphorus, 50 kg potassium, 50 kg calcium and 50 kg magnesium annually per hectare of soil, and so must be adequately fertilized (Risopoulos, 1966). . Economics A good fodder plant, and much used in Sri Lanka as a soil binder and organic-matter builder in upland tea estates (Bor, 1960; Andrew, 1971). It is also used as a fodder grass in Fiji, Suriname, Malaysia and Puerto Rico. It is more persistent than elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) but less productive and of lower nutritive value. Animal production It is used by dairy farmers in Fiji as green chop-chop for zero grazing (Roberts, 1970a, b). On the podzolic soils of the Lelydrop landscape in Suriname, planted cuttings of T. laxum after three years' grazing at intervals of two months gave a live-weight increase of 300 kg/ha, with a live-weight gain of 278 g per head per day over ten months (Appelman & Dirven, 1972). In Brazil, a mixed silage of 50 percent Tripsacum laxum, 30 percent Lablab niger and 20 percent Saccharum officinarum decreased milk yield by 10 percent, compared with maize silage; a T. laxum and S. officinarum silage reduced yield by 19 percent (Assis et al., 1962). . Suitability for silage Andrew (1971) states that it is capable of very high production. It makes useful silage (Boudet, 1975; Medling, 1972; Assis et al., 1962). It lost 12 percent of its dry matter during ensilage (Paterson, 1945). Seed production harvesting and It does not flower readily, and seed production is unusual except in its native habitat. White clover repens) ( Trifolium Origin: First cultivated in northern Europe. Ladino clover, is a large form of white clover, originated near Lodi in the Po River Valley in northern Italy. Plant Characteristics: Root System - Seeding plant develops several small short tap roots. Additional short fine roots arise at the nodes of trailing stems which spread over the ground. Because of the relatively small shallow root system, white clover, including Ladino, is very sensitive to dry weather. Stems - Main stems trail on the ground surface, but many upright stems or petioles, some bearing leaves and some seed heads, arise at nodes. Stems and leaves are soft and succulent, making white clover and Ladino the most palatable and nutritious of the clovers. Flower head - Flower heads and flowers are white and smaller than those of red clover. Soil Adaptation: Adapted only to soil with moderate to good moisture relationships. Ladino clover and New Zealand type white clovers are among the most productive, palatable, and nutritious legumes available, especially for pasture. The most serious problem is animal bloat, hence these clovers must be grazed with caution. Ladino clover is larger leafed and more suited to hay situations when combine with grass than Dutch or common white clover. Stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis) Soil requirements Common names Does well on the coarser textured soils, but not so well on heavy clays. It grows on tropical latosols, gleys, loams and sandy podzolic soils. Does not do well on fine-textured montmorillonitic clays; prefers well-drained opentextured soils. Can tolerate highly acid soils (Davies and Hutton, 1970), and nodulates at pH 4.0. It is not very tolerant of salinity. Common stylo, stylo (Australia, Malaysia); tropical lucerne (Malaysia). Description Erect summer-growing herbaceous perennial with branching upright stems up to 1 m tall, which may become more prostrate under grazing. Stems hairy, becoming woody at the base with age; leaves pinnately trifoliate with elliptic leaflets 15 to 55 mm long and 7 to 13 mm wide; sticky in some ecotypes; petiole 6 to 15 mm long. Inflorescence of several spikes of a few flowers crowded into terminal heads; spikes sessile in unifoliate bracts and hairy; no axis rudiment; flowers yellow; pod hairy with one fertile joint and a very small beak. Seeds yellowish brown, averaging 1.75 mm long (Barnard, 1967), flat sided, tightly enclosed in a brown hull which can be removed by light threshing. Main taproot extends to 1 m. Runners root downwards but are ineffective (Gilchrist, 1967). At three months, 83.7 percent of the roots were in the top 20 cm of profile, 11 percent from 20 to 40 cm, 3.4 percent from 40 to 60 cm, 1.3 percent from 60 to 80 cm, and 0.4 percent had reached from 80 to 100 cm (Blouard and Thuriaux, 1962). Rhizobium relationships Inoculates freely with native rhizobia in the soil, although it nodulates better in the second year. On new land it is advisable to inoculate the seed. At Pitanguerias, Brazil, plants inoculated with the Australian strain of cowpea type, CB756, grew better than those inoculated with a local strain. Nodules are abundant, of small to medium size on the taproots and laterals, 30 per 5 cm on the taproot, and 15 per 5 cm on the laterals (van Rensburg, 1967). Land preparation establishment for For drill-sowing on a prepared seed bed, the soil should be ploughed in early spring and worked down to a fine tilth with disc harrows, finishing with a peg-tooth harrow. Allow weeds to germinate and then apply a preplant 2,4-D amine spray at 0.55 kg. acid equivalent per hectare (280 ml of 50 percent 2,4-D/ha) on old cultivation and sow one week later with a minimum of soil disturbance (Gilchrist, 1967). For cheaper introduction, it can be sown without land preparation or with only one cultivation. Sowing methods Where necessary (e.g. on erosion terraces or ridges on slopes), it can be planted by stem cuttings (Schofield, 1941; Vivian, 1959; Nwosu, 1960). Vivian (1959) stated that stylo cuttings can be established in this grass by digging individual holes 1 to 2 m apart, adding 50 g rock phosphate per hole and planting three to five stylo cuttings per hole with at least three nodes buried under the damp soil. Seed treatment planting before Mechanically harvested seed does not require scarification to break dormancy (Rijkebusch, 1967; Gilchrist, 1967). Otherwise: (a) soak for 25 min. in water at 55°C (Risopoulos, 1966) or 85°C for 2 min. (Gilchrist, 1967); (b) scarify mechanically with scarifier or rice polisher (Blouard and Thuriaux, 1962); or (c) treat with concentrated sulphuric acid for 10 min. (Gilchrist, 1967). Pelleting is not necessary unless to protect rhizobia, when it should be pelleted with rock phosphate (Norris, 1967). For insect and disease control, dust with Fernasan D (Wendt et al., 1970). Nutrient requirements Stylo is efficient in extracting phosphorus from the soil and is often not fertilized, but it responds to dressings of 125 to 250 kg./ha of superphosphate. At high levels of P, stylo responds to additions of copper (Grof, 1966), and heavy dressings of muriate of potash can cause chlorine toxicity. Horrell and Newhouse (1966) at Serere, Uganda, on a low fertility soil improved the yield of a stylo/Hyparrhenia pasture by 153 percent with added P, 197 percent with added S, and 243 percent with added P and S. Risopoulos (1966) in Zaire established it with 200 kg./ha dicalcic phosphate, 100 kg./ha ammonium nitrate and 50 kg./ha potassium sulphate, with good results for at least two years. Compatibility with grasses and other legumes Stylo combines well with colonial guinea grass (P. maximum) in north Queensland (Davies and Hutton, 1970) and in Brazil; molasses grass and Brachiaria ruziziensis in Madagascar (Granier, 1966) and Zaire (Risopoulos, 1966); and Hyparrhenia rufa, Rhodes grass, Panicum maximum and Setaria at Serere, Uganda (Stobbs, personal communication). It grows with pangola grass in Brazil and north Queensland. Schofield (1945) found that stylo was shaded out by Brachiaria decumbens, B. brizantha, P. maximum and P. coloratum, lasted two years with Brachiaria mutica and persisted with Kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) and Paspalum dilatatum. Ordinary guinea grass (P. maximum) offers it intense competition in summer (Gilchrist, 1967). If the pasture is short, it is compatible with puero, centro and siratro. Nitrogen-fixing ability Unfertilized stylo/Hyparrhenia pastures at Serere, Uganda, yielded equivalent to grass receiving 165 kg. N/ha (Horrell and Newhouse, 1966) . In north Queensland, soil nitrogen under a bare fallow was 34.4 ppm, and in soil which had stylo ploughed in after 18 months of growth the nitrogen content was 54.5 ppm (Schofield, 1945). Grass/legume swards containing stylo and centro fertilized with phosphorus and sulphur gave liveweight gains equivalent to animal production from grass swards receiving 157 kg. N/ha/year (Stobbs, 1969). In Nigeria, stylo fixed 4.6 mg N/day, compared with 14.5 mg for Cajanus cajan and 10.3 mg for Centrosema pubescens, and 98 percent of the fixed N was transferred to the plant (Oke, 1967a). Response to defoliation Heavy grazing is detrimental. Grof and Harding (1968) found that harvesting at 18-week frequency caused the lower stems and crown to become woody, with an almost complete loss of stand. There are very few growing points on these plants as they mature. Stylo persisted under grazing at eight-week intervals at Sigatoka, Fiji (Payne et al., 1955). Root-stocks die if cut after two years' ungrazed growth, as the base of the plant is very woody then (Risopoulos, 1966). Cutting lower than 20 cm also affects it (Vivian, 1959). Grazing sheep do less damage to stylo as they tend to pluck the leaves (Tuley, 1968). Grazing management Stylo should be lightly grazed in the first year after six to eight weeks, to promote tillering and prevent it from becoming woody (Risopoulos, 1966). Long grass should be prevented from shading the stylo. Rotational grazing, one week on and four to eight weeks off, is best. Cattle graze the leafy material first and then move lower down with each successive grazing until the woody parts are consumed and damage results. Dry-matter and matter yields green- Otero (1952) recorded yields of 15 to 20 t/ha of green material, in Brazil; Risopoulos (1966), 35 t/ha/year in Zaire; and Granier (1966) 43 t/ha on high ground and 70 t/ha after one year on low ground in Madagascar. At Sigatoka, Fiji, Payne et al. (1955) recorded 4 180 kg./ha/year of dry matter averaged over three years; and van Rensburg (1967) reported 4 600 kg./ha/year in Zambia. Gilchrist (1967) gives yields of 11 000 kg. DM/ha in north Queensland. Blouard and Thuriaux (1962) recorded no significant differences in yield from four cutting regimes over 24 months in Zaire. The average annual yield from four cuts over 24 months was: cut every three months at 15 cm, 7 281 kg./ha/year; at 25 cm, 6 785 kg. Cut every 41/2 months at 15 cm, 6 845 kg.; at 25 cm, 6 529 kg. Suitability silage for hay and Makes good hay, containing 14 to 16 percent crude protein. Only one cut should be taken annually in north Queensland, in late summer to autumn at a height of at least 20 cm. The stubble after seed threshing has 5 percent crude protein and can be hammer-milled for roughage feedingthe seed left in it is then distributed by the livestock (Gilchrist, 1967). Nwosu (1960) cut it three times a year in Nigeria, taking only the top 45 cm of crop (cut at 45-cm height), dried it in the field for seven days and hammer-milled it into feeding meal containing 17.17 percent crude proteinat a cost of about 19.8 U.S. cents/kg. In well-established stands in Malaysia, cutting has little effect for up to four years, but thereafter yield declines and at six years its economic production is finished (Vivian, 1959). The hay should be handled as little as possible to preserve the more nutritious leafy portion. Risopoulos (1966) sowed sorghum and stylo in alternate rows 0.6 m apart and with this mixture made excellent silage of 6 to 7 percent crude protein. The first year the proportion of stylo to sorghum is 1:3, the second year the mixture is balanced and from the third year there is a pure stylo crop. Cattle ate stylo silage whether ensiled with 1 percent salt, 1 percent molasses, 1.5 percent molasses, 2 percent molasses or with no additive. One percent molasses gave a pleasant odour to the silage. Value as a standover or deferred feed It is excellent as standover feed as its palatability is high at this stage. Sillar (1969b) showed that cattle could be fattened during the three normal dry months in north Queensland on a pure diet of standing stylo. Main attributes Where fertilizer costs are high it offers one of the best opportunities to raise productivity of natural grassland because of its low phosphorus requirement. An adaptable nonclimbing legume, it grows in poor soils, is easily established by oversowing, continues to increase in palatability and persists into the dry season, when it is most needed. Its phosphorus requirement is only 0.17 percent, compared with 0.24 percent for siratro (Andrew and Robins, 1969a). will grow on elevated slopes above the frost line (Gilchrist, 1967). Main deficiencies Sowing depth, cover, time and rate It is frost susceptible; will not stand heavy grazing; can reduce the yield of subsequent crops (seed tends to shatter on ripening, thus reducing yields); has a relatively low protein content and tends to become woody. Ability weeds to compete with When it is established, it competes very successfully with weeds and can invade natural grassland. It is aggressive because of its low early palatability and heavy seeding habit (Horrell, 1963). Temperature for growth Prefers high summer temperatures. Adapted to frostfree conditions; continues active growth to 15°C (Allen and Cowdry, 1961b); defoliates at 0°C and plants are killed at -2.5°C (Boelcke, 1964). Tops are cut by heavy frosts. In the subtropics, it Tolerance of drought and flooding Has good drought tolerance, even in areas subject to frost. It will tolerate temporary waterlogging (Rijkebusch, 1967), but will not grow in swamps (Gilchrist, 1967). Sow into a cultivated seed bed at a depth no greater than 1.5 cm and lightly cover with a "Cambridge"-type roller, harrow, or a bush dragged over the area. Sow at the start of the rains at 0.5 to 2.0 kg./ ha. Lucerne (Medicago sativa) Characteristics. alfalfa, common purple lucerne, common lucerne, purple alfalfa, purple medick. Highest yielding forage legume. Requires deep, well-drained fertile soils to maximise potential. Perenniality and upright growth habit make it a highly suitable crop for conservation as hay, silage or in dehydrated form. Usually productive for 4-6 years. Range of cultivars with differing characteristics has extended its ability to grow in environments from very dry to very cold. Generally grown in monoculture. Has a higher tolerance of saline soils than many other forage species. Description. Erect or ascending, glabrous perennial, 30-90 cm, with alternate trifoliate leaves; leaflets, 30 mm, narrowly obovate, toothed in upper third with a mucronate tip; stipules linearlanceolate, usually serrate. Numerous stems originating from crown buds ; as the stems develop, axillary buds formed in lower leaf axils produce further stems which build up a crown of basal buds at their base. Crown is the main source of stems produced after defoliation ; axillary buds above ground develop into branches. Deeprooted, 2-4 m, or more in deep, well-drained soils. About 60-70% of total root mass is in the upper l5 cm of soil profile (Heichel, l982). Inflorescences are compact racemes up to 40 mm, borne in axils of upper leaves ; purple florets, 8 mm, typically papilionacious. Cross-pollinated by various species of bee. Seed pods spirally coiled, glabrous or pubescent ; pods turn from green to brown as they mature, and contain 2-5 kidney-shaped, yellow or brown seeds. A proportion of the seeds are hard, probably inversely related to temperature during seed set (Fairey and Lefkovitch, l99l). Season of growth. Spring to autumn, but main flush of growth in late spring/early summer. Variable in winter dormancy. Winterhardy types suited to cold regions have a longer dormancy period and shorter growing season than the less winterhardy types suited to warm temperate regions. Temperature for growth. High air temperature of 270C optimum for seedling growth but optimum declines to 22oC as shoots develop (Fick et al., l988). Optimum temperatures for root growth, 2l-250C (Kendall et al., l99l). Lucerne is known to survive temperatures of –250C in Alaska and above 500C in California (Barnes and Sheaffer, l995). Drought tolerance. More drought tolerant than other forage legumes such as red clover or birdsfoot trefoil (Peterson et al., l992). Deep-rooting ability is an important factor in drought tolerance and any adverse soil physical or chemical conditions which restrict root growth will reduce drought tolerance. During severe drought, plants become dormant but resume growth when moisture becomes available (Hall et al., l988). Tolerance of flooding. Intolerant of prolonged flooding which adversely affects root development, forage yield and plant persistence. Root and crown rots, e.g. Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora megasperma), may develop and thus reduce plant populations (Sheaffer et al., l988). Welldrained soils are necessary in areas with high rainfall or for irrigated crops so as to avoid soil saturation. Soil requirements. Needs well-drained, deep friable soils with high levels of soil fertility, including a high soil pH, 6.0-6.5, for optimal performance. Soils which are compacted, have indurated layers or are inherently shallow adversely affect lucerne growth and development. Wheel tracking during crop harvesting, or during application of fertilizers or slurry for example, reduce plant persistence and growth vigour partly through soil compaction and partly by plant damage (Sheesley et al., l974). Rhizobium relationships. Rhizobial N-fixation in the nodules is by strains of Rhizobium meliloti., distinct strains being required for different lucerne genotypes. Nodules are concentrated on the fibrous roots in the upper soil layer. There is also scope to breed cultivars receptive to a wide range of Rhizobium strains (Barran and Bromfield, l997). Seed inoculation is essential when introducing lucerne to land without a recent history of growing lucerne. Lime pelleting of inoculated seed increased nodulation of branch roots at the plant crown in seedlings, thereby increasing nitrogen concentration and dry weight of the shoots (Pijnenborg, et al., l99l). Land preparation. Well-cultivated, uniform and firm seed bed required for good results. Sowing methods. The seed is normally drilled after conventional seed-bed cultivations but seed can also be broadcast. When growing lucerne with a companion grass there is no advantage in sowing the two components in alternate drills (Fairey and Lefkovitch, l994). Sowing lucerne under a cover crop, e.g. wheat, barley, reduces weed invasion and the cover crop provides a cash crop. However, there is a greater risk of poor establishment compared with direct sowing due to competition from the cover crop and so its seed rate and N fertilization should be reduced. The risk is greatest in dryland conditions where moisture can be limiting. Lucerne can be direct drilled (sod seeded) into an existing grass sward or cereal stubble, but this method is not common since it is more risky than conventional seeding methods. Direct drilling is most sucessful on swards with low-density vegetation when there is adequate moisture for germination and seedling development (Brash, l983). Dense grass swards can be thinned out by severe grazing, cutting for conservation or by partial chemical desiccation. Guidelines for successful establishment include : control of perennial weeds before sowing ; adequate soil pH and fertilization with water-soluble phosphate ; sufficient soil moisture. . Sowing depth and cover. The optimum depth is l0-l5 mm with a light but firm soil cover to promote seed-soil contact. Sowing time and rate. Spring is normally the best time since temperature and moisture conditions are usually satisfactory for good seed germination and efficiency of Rhizobium action. Lucerne can also be sown conventionally or drilled into the stubble of a cereal crop in autumn, provided there is sufficient time for the plants to develop enough to withstand winter cold and possible frost heaving of the soil. An autumn deficit of soil moisture can be overcome by irrigation if autumn sowing is preferred to spring sowing (Janson, 1975) Seed rates between 6 and 20 kg/ha are commonly used. Compatibility with grasses and other legumes. Compatible with non-aggressive grasses. Different grass species favoured by different countries e.g. smooth brome grass, cocksfoot and reed canary grass are the species most commonly used in mixtures in northern USA (Sheaffer et al., l990) where mixed stands rather than monocultures are sown although the latter two species are considered to be aggressive towards lucerne. In Europe, timothy (Phleum pratense) and meadow fescue, cocksfoot, and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) are among the species used. Ability weeds. to compete with Relatively low at early establishment phase but improves with the development of the canopy. Sowing a companion grass deters weed ingress though herbicides to control grass weeds cannot then be used. Once established and agronomically well managed, vigorouslygrowing, dense lucerne stands prevent severe weed invasion. Nitrogen-fixing ability. Estimates of annual rates range from 85 to 360 kg N/ha with a wide variation among sites (Witty et al., l983 ; Heichel and Henjum, l99l). Plant nutrient deficiencies in the soil, excessive soil acidity, a high soil N status, or applied fertilizer N all limit N-fixation due to the sensitivity of the nitrogenase enzyme system to the soil environment. Grazing management. Some form of rotational grazing is required to sustain plant persistence and production. The rest intervals following defoliation replenish the root and plant crown reserves of carbohydrates and nitrogen which are needed for regrowth. Short grazing periods ensure young regrowths are not grazed (Janson, l982). The duration of the rest intervals depends on the growing conditions which prevail but are likely to be in the 5- to 7-week range. If continuously grazed, defoliation should be lax to prevent over-severe defoliaton and damage to plant crowns. In mixed swards, a highly acceptable grass companion is needed and stocking rate and grazing intensity controlled so as to prevent selective overgrazing of the lucerne (Leach, l983). Dry matter yields. In the USA DM yields up to 20 t/ha have been achieved in experiments (Sheaffer et al., l988). Yields from 9.4 to l7.6 t/ha have been reported from the UK (Aldrich, l984 ; Frame and Harkess, l987) and from l4.5 to l9.0 t/ha in France (Guy, l993) over a range of sites. On-farm yields are likely to be less than experimental yields because of less-precise management control. At fixed cutting intervals and with no moisture stress, yields of successive harvests decreased over the growing season (Corletto et al., l994). In general, annual yields of lucerne decline with age of stand, the decline being accelerated by factors such as winter damage, pests and diseases, and mismanagement. Suitability silage. for hay and The inherent growth characteristics and good yield response to infrequent cutting make lucerne a highly suitable species for conservation as hay or silage. A succession of cut crops firstly at l0% bloom thereafter and at 5- to 7-week intervals maximises yield, gives satisfactory nutritive value and aids stand longevity (Sheaffer et al., l988). When making hay or wilting crops cut for silage, it is important to save the nutritious leaf fraction as much as possible during handling since leaf shatter and loss is major hazard during drying. In spite of lucerne’s high protein content, low sugar content and high buffering capacity against acidification during silage fermentation, compared with grass crops, high-quality silage can be made using the techniques of wilting, short chopping and the application of an effective additive. Artificial dehydration is also used in order to produce high-quality lucerne cubes, pellets or meal. Value as standover deferred feed. or Not a common method of utilization but the forage accumulated in the late-autumn rest period – required to build up root carbohdyates and nitrogen reserves – can be utilized soon after winter dormancy has set in. Anti-quality factors. Bloat is a hazard when grazing lush lucerne stands but conventional preventative methods are available e.g. provison of anti-foaming agent such as poloxalene. Lucerne contains oestrogens which reduce conception rates in cattle and sheep if grazed or fed lucerne prior to mating. The oestrogen content differs among genotypes but may be increased in the leaves by pest and fungal attack which is often prevalent in the autumn (White, l982). Saponin content in the forage has a dual effect of causing adverse haemolytic effects in stock, but also conferring plant resistance to pests insecticide use as required and if cost effective, and rotation with arable crops. Main attributes. Highly productive protein- and mineral-rich legume adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions. Its erect growth habit makes it suitable for hay, silage and artificially dehydrated forage. Drought resistant. Has high voluntary intake characteristics (Conrad and Klopfenstein, l988). Valuable break crop in arable and organic systems on account of N-fixation ability and as source of oganic matter. Major source of honey production. Main shortcomings. Lacks long-term persistence. Unsuited to intensive grazing. Susceptible to many pests and diseases. May cause bloat in ruminants. Oestrogens in the plant can reduce fertility of breeding ewes if they are grazed on lucerne during pre-mating and mating periods. Plant saponins may interact with rumen bacteria and cause haemolysis in animals. Greenleaf Desmodium (Desmodium intortum) Description Large trailing and climbing perennial; roots at the nodes and has a deep taproot; long, pubescent stems branch freely and are often reddish brown. Has shorter internodes than D. uncinatum and is leafier. Leaves usually have reddish-brown to purple flecking on the upper surface. Leaflets, 2 to 7 cm long and 1.5 to 5.5 cm broad, with a length-width ratio of 1.4 to 1, are shorter and more rounded than in D. uncinatum. Terminal raceme compact, flower deep lilac to deep pink. Seed pod narrow, bears 8 to 12 seeds, recurves to the main rachis; seed adheres to animals and to clothing, but not as tenaciously as that of D. uncinatum (Barnard, 1967). Soil requirements Grows on a wider range of soils than D. uncinatum and does not do quite as well on sandy soils as S. guianensis (Stobbs, 1969f). Will grow in a range of soils from light to clay loams. Requires a soil with a pH in excess of 5.0 (Andrew and Bryan, 1958; Moomaw and Takahashi, 1962) . Has no tolerance to salinity, and is depressed by high chloride levels (Andrew and Robins, 1969b). Rhizobium relationships Requires the specific "Desmodium" culture (Date, 1969). The current Australian recommendation is CB 627 (1970) . Boultwood (1964) found it unnecessary to inoculate it in Zimbabwe. Whiteman (1970) showed that peak nodule formation occurred three months before flowering in D. intortum. Does not spread well from natural seed sources; better by natural vegetative means with its stoloniferous habit. Land preparation establishment for Because of its small seed, Desmodium intortum requires a well-prepared seed bed (Younge, Plucknett and Rotar, 1964). Will establish from broadcasting into ashes from the air. Sowing methods Can be sown by drilling, broadcasting from ground machines or from the air. Has been established by cuttings in Zaire (Risopoulos, 1966) and on steep slopes in Guatemala on contour ridges (Johnston, personal communication). Boultwood (1964) established it by transplanted cuttings spaced at 1 x 1 m and also by undersowing in maize early in the season. It generally does not establish when oversown into existing pastures because of low seedling vigour. Extensive pasture renovation would be required to give any success. Should be sown at no greater depth than 1 cm (Suttie and Ogada, 1967) and rolled or very lightly harrowed. Sowing time and rate Can be sown from spring to midsummer or later in frost-free environments at a rate of 1 to 2 kg./ha. Middleton (1970) found no seedling competition at rates of 1. 1,3.3 and 9.9 kg./ha, and under high rainfall conditions seedling density was proportional to sowing rate. Nutrient requirements D. intortum usually requires adequate levels of phosphorus, sulphur, potash and molybdenum for growth. Heavy dressings of potassium chloride, however, can cause chlorine toxicity (Andrew and Robins, 1969b). Younge, Plucknett and Rotar (1964) proved that when D. intortum is adequately fertilized with P, K, Mo, and Zn, it is able to compete with Kikuyu and pangola grass. On acid ferruginous and aluminous latosols in Hawaii, Younge and Plucknett (1966b) found that heavy P fertilization was needed. Treatment with 1 650 kg. P/ha allowed grazing of 6 beasts/ha compared with 3 beasts/ha pasture treated with 275 kg. P/ha. Compatibility with grasses and other legumes Grows well with Setaria spp., Paspalum commersonii, Panicum maximum, Pennisetum purpureum, Melinis minutiflora and, if adequately fertilized, with Kikuyu and pangola (Younge, Plucknett and Rotar, 1964). Also grows well with siratro and glycine. Middleton (1970) found siratro more competitive with Setaria anceps than with D. intortum. Bryan (1966) recorded that D. intortum had invaded swards of at least 12 species of Paspalum. Nitrogen-fixing ability Directly related to yield. D. intortum fixed over 300 kg. N/ha/year in Hawaii (Whitney, 1970). Row width had an effect. Whitney and Green (1969b) found that it fixed 213 kg./ha/year in 90-cm rows, and 264 kg./ ha/year in 45-cm rows. Whitney, Kanehiro and Sherman (1967) found that it fixed 375 kg. N/ha, of which it transferred only 5 percent to the associated grass. Leaf fall could add an additional 1.3 kg. N/ha/week. Grazing management Bryan (1966) illustrates the way cattle graze Desmodium pastures: stock normally remove the last part of the shoot and then browse the leaves, leaving large numbers of axillary buds which ensure rapid regrowth. If grazing is intermittent and intense, a greater proportion of the stem and buds may be removed or damaged, with consequent reduction in bud sites and residual leaf material. Recovery from grazing would then be much slower and would ultimately affect persistence. Grazing management must, therefore, first allow the legume to become established and then adjust grazing pressure to allow for retention of bud sites and leaf material. This also involves the companion grass and a compromise must be established to protect the sward. Dry-matter and matter yields green- Boultwood (1964) recorded seasonal yields of 19 tonnes/ha of green material with a crude protein percentage of 18.8 percent. Younge and Plucknett (1966b) recorded a five-year average of 19 000 kg./ha/ year from a pangola/D. intortum pasture fertilized with 1 320 kg. P/ha in Hawaii. Whitney, Kanehiro and Sherman (1967) recorded a yield of 19 000 kg. dry matter/ha/year. Roe and Jones (1966) recorded a dry-matter yield of 12 500 kg./ha at Gympie, Queensland. Riveros (1969) recorded over 17 000 kg. DM/ha during a eight-month growing season at Redland Bay, Queensland. Calma, Valera and Santos (1958) obtained 5 875 kg. DM/ha in four cuttings spaced at 60, 59, 86 respectively. Suitability silage and for 101 days hay and Risopoulos (1966) made good hay at Mulungu, Zaire. It has also been made successfully in Brazil, Queensland and Guatemala (Calma, Valera and Santos, 1958). In Guatemala the hay is ground into meal for stockfeeding. Without the addition of molasses it made reasonable silage with 12.2 percent drymatter loss and 0.03 percent N loss in Brazil. The pH was 5.0 and was better with the addition of 8 percent molasses on a greenweight basis. Boultwood (1964) made good silage by flail harvesting, adding 2 percent molasses by green weight and compacting well, because the material is light and fluffy. Catchpoole (1970) made stable lactic acid silage from D. intortum to which molasses had been added up to 8 percent of the green weight of the material. Feeding value The meal is an excellent source of protein, riboflavin and vitamin A for chickens (Squibb et al., 1950, 1953; Huang, 1967). In Puerto Rico, Warmke and Freyre (1952) found high intake and good palatability when grazed by cattle. Main attributes A well-grazed legume with high yield potential in frost-free areas of good rainfall. Has a long growing season and makes vigorous growth in association with grasses; gives early spring growth and is a good fertility builder. Main deficiencies Low seedling vigour, poor drought tolerance, poor salt tolerance and relatively low digestibility. It is grazed out unless heavily fertilized. Leaves, flowers and roots subject to attack by various pests. Ability weeds to compete with In the early stages poor, but when well established will suppress weeds (Boultwood, 1964). Tolerance of drought and flooding Is susceptible to extended dry spells, but persists well where soils are fertile. Wilts less readily than D. uncinatum (Ostrowski, 1966). Stobbs (1969e) showed it to be less drought-resistant than Stylosanthes guianensis at Serere, Uganda. It carries little foliage in the dry season, when most of the leaves drop and form a mulch (Horrell, 1958). Will survive temporary flooding and some waterlogging (Boultwood, 1964) but is susceptible to extended waterlogging. Performs better on slopes. Fodder Peanut (Arachis pintoi) Uses Description (Cook, 1992) Forage legume in intensively managed grass/legume pastures and tree plantations, ground cover in tree plantations and ornamental (Cook 1992). Stoloniferous, perennial herb developing a strong taproot on the older crowns and forming a dense mat of stolons and rhizomes up to 20 cm deep. Stems initially prostrate, becoming ascendant to 20 cm in height. Leaves tetrafoliolate, margins entire, ciliate; distal leaflets obovate and proximal leaflets oblong-obovate, obtuse at the apex and slightly cordate at the base; leaflets up to 4.5 cm x 3.5 cm; the upper surface of leaflets glabrous and darker green than the pubescent lower surface. Individual flowers on short axillary racemes, standard 12-17 mm, yellow. The terminal pod on the peg usually contains 1 seed, sometimes 2, while pods formed along the peg contain only 1. Pod moderately reticulated, 10-14 mm x 6-8 mm. Seed light-brown, 8-11 mm x 4-6 mm, weighing 0.11-0.20 g. Origin and Distribution A. pintoi originates from the valleys of the Jequitinhonha, São Francisco and Tocantins rivers in central Brazil. It has been introduced to Australia, the United States, and to many countries in South-East Asia, Central and South America and the Pacific. Rainfall requirements Best suited to rainfall above 1100 mm per annum, but it can survive dry seasons of at least 4 months. Flooding tolerance Tolerant to periodical flooding. Shade tolerance High tolerance to shade, where it often appears more vigorous than in full sunlight. Drought tolerance It shows resistance. some drought Soil requirements Grows best in well-drained sandy to clay soils, with low to neutral pH and low to high fertility. Fails to persist on seasonally waterlogged, poorly structured clays. It tolerates high levels of Al and Mn, but has low tolerance of salinity. Rhizobium relationships Inoculation often necessary with a highly specific strain of Bradyrhizobium (strains QA1091, CIAT3101 being the most effective) immediately before planting, but not necessary with vegetative propagation. Land preparation establishment before A clean seed-bed is preferred. Sowing methods Fresh seed has a high level of dormancy which may be reduced by drying at 35-40°C for 10 days. Seed at 10-15 kg seed in pod/ha should be sown 2-6 cm deep, followed by rolling. Seedlings develop quickly following epigeal germination, and with good growing conditions and several plants per m2, complete ground cover can be achieved by a network of stolons in about six months. Seed remains viable in the ground for more than one season. In moist climates vegetative propagation succeeds well. Nutrient requirements Grows well in soils low in P, but some P fertilizer is advisable for soils extremely low in P. Liming is rarely necessary. Compatibility with grasses Combines well with aggressive creeping grasses such as Brachiaria decumbens, B. dictyoneura, Paspalum notatum, Axonopus affinis, Digitaria eriantha and Cynodon dactylon, but also forms stable mixtures with bunch grasses such as Panicum maximum where the legume colonizes well the interbunch spaces. Grazing management Very tolerant to heavy grazing. Feeding value Depends on age of the material. In vitro digestibility varies from 60-76%, N concentrations from 2.5-3.0% and P concentrations from 0.18-0.37%. Readily eaten by cattle at all stages of growth. Main attributes A. pintoi is a highly persistent palatable pasture legume with a high feeding value for (sub)humid (sub)tropical climates tolerant to heavy grazing and shade. Performance Moderate to heavy grazing pressures are necessary for best performance. In Colombia, annual DM production ranging from 5 t/ha growing with Brachiaria dictyoneura, which produced 20 t/ha, to 10 t/ha when grown with B. ruziziensis, which produced 11 t/ha. It has yielded 5 t/ha of DM in pure stands under 30% shade in Indonesia and 3 t/ha in full sunlight in Malaysia. In Costa Rica liveweight gains of cattle grazing A. pintoi in a mixed pasture with Brachiaria brizantha of nearly 1000 kg/ha/year were recorded.