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1/19/12 UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY 9TH EDITION CHARLES G. MORRIS AND ALBERT A. MAISTO C H A P T E R 5 L E A R N I N G ENDURING ISSUES Stability–Change § To what extent do organisms change over the course of their lives? Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved ENDURING ISSUES (CON T) ENDURING ISSUES (CON T) Diversity–Universality § Events that shape learning vary among individuals. Nature–Nurture § Learning is influenced by an organism s inborn characterisIcs. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved ENDURING ISSUES (CON T) Mind–Body § Learning can affect our physical health by influencing how our body responds to disease. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved LEARNING IS A RELATIVELY PERMANENT CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR OR POTENTIAL BEHAVIOR BASED ON EXPERIENCE. Classical CondiIoning: Pairing Operant CondiIoning: Consequences CogniIve Learning Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 1 Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 11:32:10 AM ET 1/19/12 LEARNING IS A RELATIVELY PERMANENT CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR OR POTENTIAL BEHAVIOR BASED ON EXPERIENCE. Classical CondiIoning: Pairing Operant CondiIoning: Consequences CogniIve Learning Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved CLASSICAL CONDITIONING LEARNING OBJECTIVES Define learning. Describe the elements of classical conditioning. Learn to recognize the…. unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response. Describe the process of establishing a classically conditioned response, including the effect of intermittent pairing. Provide examples of classical conditioning in humans, including desensitization therapy. Explain the statement that classical conditioning is selective and illustrate with examples of conditioned taste aversions. Walker_Maryann LEARNING IS A RELATIVELY PERMANENT CHANGE IN BEHAVIOR OR POTENTIAL BEHAVIOR BASED ON EXPERIENCE. Classical CondiIoning: Pavlov, Watson, Rayner, Jones, Wolpe Operant CondiIoning: Skinner, Thorndike CogniIve Learning: Tolman, Harlow, Bandura Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved CLASSICAL CONDITIONING § Classical CondiIoning (CC) is a type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by one sImulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly neutral, sImulus § CC is a type of learning discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who was studying digesIon in dogs. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Thursday, January 19, 2012 11:32:10 AM ET 2 1/19/12 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING condiIoned sImulus (CS) An originally neutral sImulus that is paired with an uncondiIoned sImulus and eventually produces the desired response in an organism when presented alone. uncondiIoned sImulus (US) A sImulus that invariably causes an organism to respond in a specific way. uncondiIoned response (UR) A response that takes place in an organism whenever an uncondiIoned sImulus occurs. condiIoned response (CR) ANer condiIoning, the response an organism produces when a condiIoned sImulus is presented. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved ESTABLISHING A CLASSICALLY CONDITIONED RESPONSE § Repeated pairings of an uncondiIoned sImulus (US) and a cue before the US becomes a condiIoned response (CS). § Spacing of pairings is also important in establishing a classically condiIoned response. • intermiYent pairing -‐ the condiIoned sImulus and the uncondiIoned sImulus on only a porIon of the learning trials. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 3 Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 11:32:10 AM ET 1/19/12 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN HUMANS Phobias are intense, irraIonal fears of parIcular things or situaIons, such as spiders or flying. § People learn phobias through classical condiIoning. § Phobias can also be unlearned through classical condiIoning. desensiIzaIon therapy -‐ condiIoning technique designed to gradually reduce anxiety about a parIcular object or situaIon. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IS SELECTIVE § Since people can develop phobias through classical condiIoning, why don t we acquire phobias of everything that is paired with harm? § According to psychology MarIn Seligman this is explained by the concept of preparedness which is a biological readiness to learn certain associaIons because of their survival advantages. § CondiIoned taste aversion, a learned associaIon between the taste of a certain food and a feeling of nausea and revulsion, is a example of preparedness. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved OPERANT CONDITIONING LEARNING OBJECTIVES Explain how operant condiIoning differs from classical condiIoning. Explain the law of effect (the principle of reinforcement) and the role of reinforcers, punishers, and shaping in establishing an operantly condiIoned response. DifferenIate between posiIve reinforcers, negaIve reinforcers, and punishment. Explain the circumstances under which punishment can be effecIve and the drawbacks to using punishment. Explain what is meant by learned helplessness. Describe how biofeedback and neurofeedback can be used to change behavior. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved OPERANT CONDITIONING Operant (or instrumental) condiIoning -‐ type of learning in which behaviors are emiYed (in the presence of specific sImuli) to earn rewards or avoid punishments. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 4 Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 11:32:10 AM ET 1/19/12 ELEMENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING § There are two essenIal components of operant condiIoning: § Emi$ed behavior or operant behaviors -‐ behaviors designed to operate on the environment in a way that will gain something desired or avoid something unpleasant § Consequence -‐ a sImulus that follows an emiVed or operant behavior Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved § There are two types of consequences: § Reinforcers -‐ sImuli that follow a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated § Punishers -‐ sImuli that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated law of effect (principle of reinforcement) Thorndike s theory that behavior consistently rewarded will be stamped in as learned behavior, and behavior that brings about discomfort will be stamped out. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved ESTABLISHING AN OPERANTLY CONDITIONED RESPONSE § SomeImes it s difficult to establish an operantly condiIoned response because a behavior has to be emiYed first. § In research seangs, the Skinner box is used with animals. The Skinner box limits the available responses and thus increases the likelihood that the desired response will occur. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved In the real world, the environment can t be easily controlled, so operant condiIoning is usually established through the process of shaping…. Shaping -‐ the process of reinforcing successive approximaIons to a desired behavior. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 5 Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 11:32:10 AM ET 1/19/12 A CLOSER LOOK AT REINFORCEMENT § There are two types of reinforcers: § posiIve reinforcers -‐ Events whose presence increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur § negaIve reinforcers -‐ Events whose removal increases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved PUNISHMENT § Punishment is any event whose presence decreases the likelihood that ongoing behavior will recur. § Punishment is different from negaIve reinforcement. Reinforcement, of whatever kind, strengthens (reinforces) behavior. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved § In order for punishment to be effecIve it must be: § swiN § sufficient without being cruel § consistent Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 11:32:10 AM ET Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved PUNISHMENT ≠ NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT § NegaIve reinforcement strengthens behavior by removing something unpleasant from the environment. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved § The use of punishment also has drawbacks because it: § cannot unteach unwanted behaviors § can backfire by sIrring up negaIve feelings § can teach aggression Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 6 1/19/12 LEARNED HELPLESSNESS § Usually individuals and animals are moIvated to avoid punishment. But in some situaIons the avoidance of punishment isn t possible. learned helplessness -‐ Failure to take steps to avoid or escape from an unpleasant or aversive sImulus that occurs as a result of previous exposure to unavoidable painful sImuli. SHAPING BEHAVIORAL CHANGE THROUGH BIOFEEDBACK Operant condiIoning can be useful in controlling biological funcIons. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved FACTORS SHARED BY CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING Biofeedback -‐ a technique that uses monitoring devices to provide precise informaIon about internal physiological processes, such as heart rate or blood pressure, to teach people to gain voluntary control over these funcIons. Neurofeedback -‐ a biofeedback technique that monitors brain waves with the use of an EEG to teach people to gain voluntary control over their brain wave acIvity. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved FACTORS SHARED BY CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING The Importance of ConIngencies ConIngency -‐ a relaIonship in which one event depends on another. Describe the importance of conIngencies in both operant and classical condiIoning. DifferenIate between the four schedules of reinforcement in operant condiIoning and their effect on learned behavior. Describe the processes of exIncIon, spontaneous recovery, generalizaIon, and discriminaIon in classical and operant condiIoning. Explain what is meant by higher order condiIoning and differenIate between primary and secondary reinforcers. LEARNING OBJECTIVES Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Classical CondiIoning In classical condiIoning, a conIngency is perceived between the CS and the US because of the predicIve informaIon the CS provides. In order for this conIngency to occur, the CS must precede and occur in close proximity with the US. Blocking -‐ a process whereby prior condiIoning prevents condiIoning to a second sImulus even when the two sImuli are presented simultaneously. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Walker_Maryann Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Thursday, January 19, 2012 11:32:10 AM ET 7 1/19/12 Operant CondiIoning – reinforcement schedules schedule of reinforcement -‐ the rule for determining when Operant CondiIoning In operant condiIoning the learner must perceive a connecIon between performing a certain voluntary acIon and then receiving a parIcular reward or punishment. The frequency of reinforcement is also important. Behaviors that are not reinforced conInuously will persist longer. and how oden reinforcers will be delivered • fixed-‐interval schedule -‐ the correct response is reinforced ader a fixed length of Ime since the last reinforcement • variable-‐interval schedule -‐ the correct response is reinforced ader varying lengths of Ime following the last reinforcement • fixed-‐raIo schedule -‐ the correct response is reinforced ader a fixed number of correct responses • Variable-‐a reinforcement schedule in which a varying number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement is presented Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved EXTINCTION AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY § ExIncIon and spontaneous recovery can occur with classical and operant condiIoning. ExIncIon -‐ a decrease in the strength or frequency, or stopping, of a learned response because of failure to conInue pairing the US and CS (classical condiIoning) or withholding of reinforcement (operant condiIoning) spontaneous recovery -‐ the reappearance of an exInguished response ader the passage of Ime, without training Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Operant CondiIoning § ExInguishing operantly condiIoned responses depends on a number of factors: Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved From point A to point B, the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus were paired; and learning increased steadily. From B to C, however, the conditioned stimulus was presented alone. By point C, the response had been extinguished. After a rest period from C to D, spontaneous recovery occurred—the learned response reappeared at about half the strength that it had at point B. When the conditioned stimulus was again presented alone, the response extinguished rapidly (point E). § Strength of the original learning § PaVern of reinforcement § Variety of se^ng in which the original learned too place § Complexity of the behavior § Learning through punishment vs. reinforcement Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 11:32:10 AM ET Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 8 1/19/12 STIMULUS CONTROL, GENERALIZATION, AND DISCRIMINATION Operant CondiIoning § GeneralizaIon and discriminaIon can occur with both classical and operant condiIoning. sImulus control -‐ control of condiIoned responses by cues or sImuli in the environment. sImulus generalizaIon -‐ the transfer of a learned response to different but similar sImuli sImulus discriminaIon -‐ learning to respond to only one sImulus and to inhibit the response to all other sImuli § Response generalizaIon, giving a response that is somewhat different from the response originally learned to that sImulus, also occurs with operant condiIoning. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved NEW LEARNING BASED ON ORIGINAL LEARNING § SImulus generalizaIon and discriminaIon can serve as the basis for new learning. § In classical condiIoning new learning occurs through higher order condiIoning which involves the condiIoned sImulus serving as an uncondiIoned sImulus for further training. § In operant condiIoning secondary reinforcers allow for new learning. primary reinforcers -‐ reinforcers that are rewarding in themselves, such as food, water, or sex. secondary reinforcers -‐ reinforcers whose value is acquired through associaIon with other primary or secondary reinforcers. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved COGNITIVE LEARNING LEARNING OBJECTIVES Define cogniIve learning and how it can be inferred from evidence of latent learning and cogniIve maps. Explain what is meant by insight and its relaIon to learning sets. Explain the process of observaIonal (vicarious) learning and the condiIons under which it is most likely to be reflected in behavior. Give examples of cogniIve learning in nonhumans. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved COGNITIVE LEARNING § Not all learning is observable and measurable. § Mental processes are important in learning. cogniIve learning -‐ Learning that depends on mental processes that are not directly observable. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 9 Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 11:32:10 AM ET 1/19/12 LATENT LEARNING AND COGNITIVE MAPS § Tolman study (1930) with rats in a maze showed they were capable of latent learning. latent learning -‐ Learning that is not immediately reflected in a behavior change. § Based on the results of the study, Tolman hypothesized that the rats used cogniIve maps. CogniIve map -‐ A learned mental image of a spaIal environment that may be called on to solve problems when sImuli in the environment change. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved The results of the classic Tolman and Honzik study are revealed in the graph. Group A never received a food reward. Group B was rewarded each day. Group C was not rewarded until the 11th day, but note the significant change in the rats behavior on Day 12. The results suggest that Group C had been learning all along, although this learning was not reflected in their performance until they were rewarded with food for demonstrating the desired behaviors. Source: Tolman & Honzik, 1930. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved INSIGHT AND LEARNING SETS LEARNING BY OBSERVING § Gestalt psychologist Wolfgang Köhler conducted a classic series of studies with chimpanzees examining another aspect of cogniIve learning: sudden insight into a problem s soluIon. § Subsequent studies confirm that many other animals and humans display insight. Insight -‐ Learning that occurs rapidly as a result of understanding all the elements of a problem. § According to social learning theorists humans and animals are capable of observaIonal (or vicarious) learning: learning by observing other people s behavior based on the punishment and rewards others receive. vicarious reinforcement (or punishment) -‐ Reinforcement or punishment experienced by models that affects the willingness of others to perform the behaviors they learned by observing those models. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved § Bandura study (1965) § Children imitated aggressive behaviors they observed. § Significantly more boys and girls exhibited imitaIve aggressive behaviors when rewarded. The study has important implicaIons regarding how not to teach aggression unintenIonally to children. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved Walker_Maryann Thursday, January 19, 2012 11:32:10 AM ET Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved 10
