Download Frameworks for Moral Arguments

Frameworks for Moral
Arguments
From “Medicine and Moral Arguments” by Carol Levine, in
Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Bioethical
Issues, 3rd ed.
Definitions
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Morality: “The general term for an
individual’s or society’s standards of
conduct, both actual and ideal, and of
the character traits that determine
whether people are considered “good”
or “bad.”
Ethics: “A broad set of moral
principles (or one overriding principle)
that is used in measuring human
conduct.
Descriptive Ethics
“The scientific study of morality…a
scientist…can describe in empirical
terms what the moral beliefs,
judgments, or actions of individuals or
societies are and what reasons are
given for the way they act or believe.”
Metaethics
“…approaches the subject of
morality…as an analysis of the
concepts, terms, and method of
reasoning…meanings of moral terms
and logic.”
Normative Ethics
“…reflects on the kinds of actions and
principles that will promote moral
behavior.”
 Rejects moral relativism
 With careful moral reasoning and
reflection, people can discern the
“more moral” solutions to ethical
dilemmas.
Examples: business ethics, military
ethics, bioethics, etc.
Ethical Theories
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Divine Law
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Teleological Theories
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Deontological Theories
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Natural Law Theory
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Theory of Virtue
Divine Law
In Western traditions, “the law of
God is interpreted in terms of
human moral principles.”
However, a theory of ethics must be
accessible to all people, not just
followers of a particular faith.
Teleological Theories
from the Greek telos, or end
 The end justifies the means.
Examples
 Utilitarianism argues that “an act is moral if it
brings more good consequences than bad ones.”
 Situational Ethics argues that “true Christian
morality does not blindly follow moral rules but acts
from love and sensitivity to the particular situation
and the needs of those involved.”

Deontological Theories
from the Greek deon, or duty
 “The rightness or wrongness of an act…should
be judged on whether it conforms to a moral
principle or rule, not on whether it leads to good
or bad consequences.”
Example
 “Kant’s Categorical Imperative…says that all
persons have equal moral worth and no rule
can be moral unless all people can apply it
autonomously to all other human beings.”
 John Rawls’ social justice theory argues that
“some action is good only if it benefits the least
well off.”
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Natural Law Theory
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St. Thomas Aquinas developed this
theory that states “Actions are morally
right if they accord with our nature as
human beings.” We have the ability to
reason, and by exercising our
intelligence we can discern right
action.
Theory of Virtue
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Has roots in the Aristotelian tradition
“…stresses not the morality of any
particular actions or rules but the
disposition of individuals to act morally,
to be virtuous.”
Ethical Principles
Three most important principles:
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Respect for persons
Beneficence
Justice
Respect for Persons
“Individuals should be treated as autonomous agents.”
 “Persons with diminished autonomy are entitled to
protection.”
Derivation from Kant: “Because human beings have the
capacity for rational action and moral choice, they have a
value independent of anything they do or can provide to
others…should be treated in a way that respects their
independent choices and judgments.”
Two important moral rules (in bioethics) are derived from the
principle of respect: informed consent and truth-telling;
others include confidentiality and privacy.
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Beneficence
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from the Latin bene, or good
Frankena’s four elements of
beneficence:
1) One ought not to inflict evil or harm.
2) One ought to prevent evil or harm.
3) One ought to remove evil or harm.
4) One ought to do or promote good.
Justice
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“what is fair” or “what is deserved”
“An injustice occurs when some benefit to which a
person is entitled is denied without good reason or
when some burden is imposed unduly.”
“Equals should be treated equally.”
“Some distinctions—such as age, experience,
competence, physical condition, and the like—can
justify unequal treatment.
“Those who appeal to the principle of justice are
most concerned about which distinctions can be
made legitimately and which ones cannot.”
Conflicting Principles
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No easy solution!
We must interpret and weigh the
issues with regard to these
fundamental principles.
Then we make hard choices.