Download PowerPoint Presentation - Midterm Exam 1

Memory

“Learning is the process by which we
acquire knowledge about the world,
while memory is the process by which
that knowledge is encoded, stored and
later retrieved.”
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Eric Kandel
Computer-based model
Memory
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“Learning refers to the process by which
experiences change our nervous system and
hence our behaviour. We refer to these
changes as memory… Experiences are not
‘stored’, rather they change the way we
perceive, perform, think and plan. They do
so by physically changing the structure of the
nervous system, altering neural circuits that
participate in perceiving, performing, thinking
and planning.”
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Neil Carlson
Learning and Memory Task
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Verbal Paired Associates
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Get a piece of paper and pen.
Write 1 to 8 down the left side.
Modal Memory Model
(Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
Atkinson and Shifrin’s model
rehearsal
Iconic/
receptors Echoic recoding
Sensory
registers
~1s
STM
LTM
1-~5s
unlimited
Memory
Short-Term Memory
Sensory Memory
Short-Term/
Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
Declarative
(Explicit)
Nondeclarative
(Implicit)
STM is Limited
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I’m going to read 16 numbers out loud.
After listening to the numbers, you will be
asked to recall as many as you can in the
correct order.
STM is Limited
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1867181214922003
STM is Limited
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Now I’m going to read four dates out loud, saying
each number individually. The first three years
(12 numbers) are important dates in history and
the last year is the current year. After listening,
you will be asked to recall as many of the numbers
in the correct order as possible.
STM is Limited
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Memory span. Only about 7 items (plus or
minus 2) can be reported in sequence
(Miller, 1956).
Learn these:
MTY
Rapid decay
Count backwards from 108 in 7’s
What were the three letters?
MTY
STM is Limited
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Memory span. Only about 7 items can be
reported in sequence (Miller, 1956).
Peterson & Peterson (1959). Rapid decay of
memory for short lists if rehearsal
prevented.
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For example, phone numbers are “lost” if
interrupted while rehearsing
Serial position effect
Learn this list
Serial position effect
Limes, eggs, crackers, vanilla, radish,
ketchup, soup, cereal, peas, syrup,
cheese, potato, pork, carrots
Serial position effect
Write down as many as you can remember.
Serial position effect
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How many students included:
Limes ____
Cereal _____
Eggs _____
Peas _____
Crackers _____
Syrup _____
Vanilla ______
Cheese _____
Radish ______
Potato _____
Ketchup ______
Pork _____
Soup _____
Carrots _____
STM is Limited
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Memory span. Only about 7 items can be reported
in sequence (Miller, 1956).
Peterson & Peterson (1959). Rapid decay of
memory for short lists if rehearsal prevented.
Recency in free recall. This is eliminated after 30s
of interference (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966).
STM is Limited

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Memory span. Only about 7 items can be reported
in sequence (Miller, 1956).
Peterson & Peterson (1959). Rapid decay of
memory for short lists if rehearsal prevented.
Recency in free recall. This is eliminated after 30s
of interference (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966).
All these measures suggest that a limited amount of
recent information can be stored temporarily.
Acoustic Similarity on STM
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Learn this list:
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DVETGPC
Acoustic similarity on STM
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Write down the sequence
Acoustic similarity
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DVETGPC
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Memorize this sequence:
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KRTHDSW
Acoustic similarity
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Which was more difficult?
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DVETGPC
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KRTHDSW
or
Long-term memory


Not capacity limited
Different types/divisions such as implicit
versus explicit
Memory
Type title here
Long-Term Memory
Declarative
(Explicit)
Events
(Episodic)
Facts
(Semantic)
Nondeclarative
(Implicit)
Short-Term Memory
Sensory Memory
Short-Term/
Working Memory
Memory
Type title here
Long-Term Memory
Declarative
(Explicit)
Nondeclarative
(Implicit)
Events
(Episodic)
Facts
(Semantic)
Specific personal
experiences from
a particular
time and place
world knowledge
object knowledge
language knowledge
Short-Term Memory
Sensory Memory
Short-Term/
Working Memory
Memory
Type title here
Long-Term Memory
Declarative
(Explicit)
Short-Term Memory
Nondeclarative
(Implicit)
Events
(Episodic)
Facts
(Semantic)
Specific personal
experiences from
a particular
time and place
world knowledge
object knowledge
language knowledge
Procedural
Perceptual
representation
system
Classical
Conditioning
Nonassociative
learning
Memory
Type title here
Long-Term Memory
Declarative
(Explicit)
Short-Term Memory
Nondeclarative
(Implicit)
Events
(Episodic)
Facts
(Semantic)
Procedural
Perceptual
representation
system
Classical
Conditioning
Nonassociative
learning
Specific personal
experiences from
a particular
time and place
world knowledge
object knowledge
language knowledge
Skills
(Motor and
Cognitive)
Perceptual
priming
Conditioned
response to
conditioned
stimulus
Habituation
sensitization
Explicit vs implicit memory
Techniques for investigation
 Explicit
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Free recall
Cued recall (e.g. paired associates)
Recognition
Implicit (vs incidental)
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Skills (savings on relearning)
Semantic vs Episodic memory
(Tulving)
‘LTM’ Landauer and Freedman, 1968; Collins and
Quillian,1969
Animal (breathes, moves)
Bird (has feathers, can fly)
Canary (can sing)
Dog (has fur, barks)
Alsatian (large, fierce)
Typicality
Is this a bird?
Robin
Sparrow
Duck
Ostrich
Aeroplane
 Good exemplars are quicker
Negative exemplars
Is this a fruit?
Cherry
Carrot
Brick
 Usually slower than positive exemplars
 Slowest if share common attributes
Reaction time
Proximity to boundary
Close
Typical Atypical Borderline
(Robin) (Ostrich) (Aeroplane) negative
(Rabbit)
Distant
negative
(House)
Reaction time
Proximity to boundary
Is this a
bird?
Schizophrenic patients
Close
Typical Atypical Borderline
(Robin) (Ostrich) (Aeroplane) negative
(Rabbit)
Distant
negative
(House)
3 Processes of LTM
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Encoding: information is processed prior to
storage
Storage: the information is preserved in
some form
Retrieval: the information is recovered and
reported
Forgetting may be due to deficiencies in any
of the these three key processes
Encoding
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Encoding is an active process
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Selective attention
“next-in-line effect”
Levels of processing
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Qualitative differences in how people
attend to information
Three progressive levels (Craik & Lockhart,
1972)
Encoding: Levels of Processing
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Shallow processing
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Intermediate processing
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Structure encoding
“Is the word written in capital letters?”
Phonemic encoding
“Does the word rhyme with weight?”
Deep processing
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Semantic encoding
Encoding: Levels of Processing
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Deep processing
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Semantic encoding
Elaboration
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Linking stimulus to other information at time of
encoding
Examples that illustrate an idea
Encoding: Levels of Processing
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Deep processing
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Semantic encoding
Elaboration
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Linking stimulus to other information at time of
encoding
Examples that illustrate an idea
Visual imagery
Encoding: Levels of Processing
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Deep processing
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Semantic encoding
Elaboration
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Linking stimulus to other information at time of
encoding
Examples that illustrate an idea
Visual imagery
Self-referent encoding
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Deciding how or whether the info is personally
relevant
Levels of Processing Theory
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The deeper the level of processing, the
longer and more durable the memories
will be.
Problems

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How do we define “level”?
How do we determine whether one level is
deeper than another?
Visual Imagery: dual code theory
Paivio (1971) proposed that imagery and verbal
memory were two independent ways of remembering
an item. This is supported by the fact that:
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Concrete words are remembered better than abstract words
Pictures are remembered better than words.
Suppose you wanted to
remember the following list
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Elephant
Flower
Desk
Cold
Key
Duck
Boat
High
Tea
Gloves
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Mnemonics
One is a bun
Two is a shoe
Three is a tree
Four is a door
Five is a hive
Six is sticks
Seven is heaven
Eight is a plate
Nine is a mine
One is a bun
elephant
Two is a shoe
flower
Three is a tree
desk
Four is a door
cold
Five is a hive
key
Six is sticks
duck
Seven is heaven
boat
Eight is a plate
high
Nine is a mine
tea
Ten is a hen
gloves
How many can you remember?
Mnemonics
One is a bun
Two is a shoe
Three is a tree
Four is a door
Five is a hive
Six is sticks
Seven is heaven
Eight is a plate
Nine is a mine
Ten is a hen
Storage
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“bare bones” not “exact replica” of
event
Storage
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How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory?
Storage
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How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory?
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clustering
Storage
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How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory?
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Clustering
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Tendency to remember similar or related items
in groups
Storage
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How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory?
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Clustering
Conceptual hierarchy
Storage
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How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory?
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Clustering
Conceptual hierarchy
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Multilevel classification system based on
common properties among items
Example of A Conceptual Hierarchy
Memory
Type title here
Long-Term Memory
Declarative
(Explicit)
Short-Term Memory
Nondeclarative
(Implicit)
Events
(Episodic)
Facts
(Semantic)
Procedural
Perceptual
representation
system
Classical
Conditioning
Nonassociative
learning
Specific personal
experiences from
a particular
time and place
world knowledge
object knowledge
language knowledge
Skills
(Motor and
Cognitive)
Perceptual
priming
Conditioned
response to
conditioned
stimulus
Habituation
sensitization
Storage

How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory?
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Clustering
Conceptual hierarchy
Schemas
Storage

How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory?
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Clustering
Conceptual hierarchy
Schemas
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Organized cluster of knowledge about a
particular object or event abstracted from
previous experience
More likely to remember things consistent with
your schema
Professor Smith’s Office
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Write down what you saw in
the office.
Professor Smith’s Office
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What did you see?
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Desks
Chairs
Books
Filing cabinets
Wine bottle
Picnic table
Storage
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How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory?
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Clustering
Conceptual hierarchy
Schemas
Scripts
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A kind of schema
Organizes what people know about common
activities
Script
“The procedure is actually quite simple. First
arrange things into different bundles depending
on make-up. Don’t do too much at once. In the
short run this may not seem important, however,
complications easily arise. A mistake can be
costly. Next, find facilities. Some people must go
elsewhere for them. Manipulation of appropriate
mechanisms should be self-explanatory.
Remember to include all other necessary
supplies.
Script cont.
“Initially the routine will overwhelm you, but
soon it will become just another facet of
life. Finally, rearrange everything into their
initial groups. Return these to their usual
places. Eventually they will be used again.
Then the whole cycle will have to be
repeated.”
Storage
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How is knowledge represented and
organized in memory?
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Clustering
Conceptual hierarchy
Schemas
Scripts
Semantic networks
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Nodes representing concepts that are joined
Retrieval: Getting Info Out
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Encoding specificity principle (Tulving)
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State-dependent memory
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Any stimulus that is encoded along with
the experience can later trigger memory
Context cues
Match between internal states during
encoding and recall
Semantic network
Retrieval
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Memories are reconstructions of the
past
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May be distorted
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To fit with own established schemas
May include details that did not actually
occur
Retrieval
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Memories are reconstructions of the
past
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May be distorted
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To fit with own established schemas
May include details that did not actually
occur
Source monitoring errors (misattributions)
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Mix up fictional info from movies and novels
with factual information from news reports and
personal experience
Retrieval
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Memories are reconstructions of the
past
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May be distorted
May include details that did not actually
occur
Source monitoring errors (misattributions)
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Reality monitoring errors
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Memories based on external or internal sources
“Did I turn off the stove or did I imagine doing it?”
Retrieval
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Memories are reconstructions of the
past
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May be distorted
May include details that did not actually
occur
Source monitoring errors (misattributions)
Schema/scripts
Retrieval
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Memories are reconstructions of the
past
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May be distorted
May include details that did not actually
occur
Source monitoring errors (misattributions)
Schema/scripts
Categorization – limited attention to details
Retrieval
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Memories are reconstructions:
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May be distorted
May include details that did not actually
occur
Source monitoring errors (misattributions)
Schema/scripts
Categorization – no attention to details
suggestibility
Say each word out loud:
•Sour
•Nice
•Tart
•Candy
•Honey
•Tooth
•Sugar
•Soda
•pie
•Bitter
•Chocolate
•Good
•Heart
•Taste
•Cake
Write down the words you remember
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Did you remember:
Candy?
Honey?
Tooth?
Sweet?
Pie?
Memories are reconstructions:
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May be distorted
May include details that did not actually
occur
Source monitoring errors (misattributions)
Schema/scripts
Categorization – no attention to details
AP/Wide World Photos
Memories are reconstructions:
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May be distorted
May include details that did not actually occur
Source monitoring errors (misattributions)
Schema/scripts
Categorization – no attention to details
Suggestibility
Memory bias
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To be consistent with current beliefs or attitudes
Repressed Memories
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Some recovered memory incidents have
been substantiated by independent
witnesses or belated admissions of guilt
from the accused.
Vast majority have vehemently denied
allegations of abuse and independent
corroboration not available.
Repressed Memories
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Sexual abuse is more widespread than
most people realize.
Common for people to bury traumatic
incidents.
Misinformation effect
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Hypnotic pseudomemory
Suggestibility
Source-monitoring errors
Forgetting
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Caused by deficiencies in encoding,
storage, retrieval or some combination
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Ineffective coding
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Shallow encoding
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Pseudoforgetting
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absentmindedness
Lack of attention
Interference
Forgetting
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Interference
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Blocking
Proactive interference
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Prior info prevents learning of new info
Retroactive interference
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New info interferes with ability to remember
old info
The Physiology of Memory
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Biochemistry of memory
Neural circuitry of memory
Anatomy of memory
Biochemistry of memory
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Alterations in synaptic transmissions
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Epinephrine
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Increase or decrease in release of
neurotransmitters
Induces state of arousal
Acts through glucose
Opiates and alcohol
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Depress neuronal activity
Interferes with memory
Neural Circuitry of memory
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Long-term potentiation creates
localized neural circuits
Anatomy of memory
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Amygdala
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“emotional memory”
Alteration of hormonal and neurotransmitter
release due to stress
Hippocampus
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“consolidation”
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Functions to bind together individual elements of a
specific memory which are stored in widely
distributed areas of the cortex
Contextual learning
Spatial memory
Hippocampal Formation
Anatomy of Memory
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Frontal lobes
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Working memory
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Hold information in working memory (“on-line”)
to allow comparisons, problem solving, follow
conversations etc.
Temporal sequences
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Which event happened first
Anatomy of Memory
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Hemispheric differences
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Left hemisphere
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Verbal information
Right hemisphere
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Non-verbal information