Download biology study sheet for midterms

BIOLOGY STUDY SHEET FOR MIDTERMS
1) CHEMISTRY
Reading an Element
Bohr’s Model
Dehydration Synthesis
Taking out water to make a complex substance
Lewis Structure
Hydrolysis
Adding water to break apart a molecule
Diatomic Molecule
A molecule only two atoms. Ex) CO, H2, N2
Ions
A molecule that gains electrons (-) or loses electrons (+)
CHNOPS
Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorous, Sulfur
Functional Groups of Macromolecules
Biomacromolecules
I. WATER
Polar Covalent Bonds
Partial sharing of electrons when the electron pair is closer to the more electronegative atom
Intermolecular Forces
Between 2 molecules of water
Intramolecular Forces
Interactive forces inside a molecule of water
2) TAXONOMY
Taxonomy
Naming organisms based on their characteristics
Carolus Linnaeus
Father of binomial nomenclature
Binomial Nomenclature
Identifying an organism by first the genus and then the species
Species
An organism capable of breeding offspring of its own kind
3) MICROSCOPE
Parts
Electronic
Shows organelles
Calculating Magnification
Ocular Lens (10)
x Objective (4, 10, 40)
Magnification (40,100,400)
mm into Micrometers
Multiply x1000
Magnification vs. Resolution
When the magnification is
increased, the resolution needs
to be adjusted to see the small
details.
Cell Theory
1. Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life.
2. If it is a living thing, then it must contain one or more cells.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Pseudopods
Temporary projections of the cytoplasm used for locomotion
Protista
A kingdom containing
eukaryotic organisms that
have one or more cells
and also a nucleus enclosed
by a membrane.
Paramecium
4) CELLS
Organelles
Cell wall
Cell membrane
Nuclear membrane
Cytoplasm
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi bodies
Ribosome
Vacuoles
Chloroplast
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Chromosomes
Mitochondria
Microtubules
Microfilaments
Lysosomes
Functions
Protects and supports plant cell and maintains shape.
Controls transport of materials into and out of cell
Controls transport of materials into and out of the nucleus
Provides an organized watery environment in which life functions
take place by means of organelles contained in it.
Provides channels through which transport of materials occurs in
cytoplasm.
Packages secretions for discharge from the cell
Sites for protein synthesis
Storage sacs fro water, dissolved materials, and wastes; maintain
internal pressure of cell
Continual chlorophyll in green plant cells; act as sites for food
manufacture
Contains centrioles that function during reproduction of animal cells
The information center for cell reproduction and control of cell
functions
Contain the hereditary material; are agents for distribution f
hereditary information.
Cites of cellular respiration and ATP production
Serves as support of the cell
Aid in cell movement
Have chemical used in cellular digestion
6) HIERARCHY OF LIFE
Hierarchy of Life
1. Subatomic particle
2. Atom
3. Element
4. Compound
5. Micromolecule
6. Macromolecule
7. Organelles
8. Cell
9. Tissue
10. Organ
11. Organ system
12. Organism
13. Population – a group of organisms that inhabit a specific area
14. Community – a group of organism sharing an environment
15. Ecosystem – a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals, and microorganisms
16. Biosphere – a global ecosystem
4) ENZYMES
Substrate Complex
The attachment of the substrate + the complex
Active Site
To where the substrate attaches to
Factors that affect the rate of action of an enzyme
1) pH
Most enzymes have an optimum pH.
A pH that is too high or too low can denaturizes
enzymes and cause it to be ineffective.
2) Temperature
If the temperature is too high, the enzyme unravels
If it is too low, the chemical process slows down
3) Concentration of enzymes and substrates
With a fixed amount of enzyme and excess
substrate, the reaction speeds up then levels off.
5) DIFFUSION/OSMOSIS
Passive Transport
No energy required; simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion
a) Simple Diffusion
Movement of non-polar molecules from high to low concentration across the membrane
b) Facilitated Diffusion
Movement of polar molecules from high to low concentration using a protein channel
Active Transport
Movement of molecules from low to high concentration using a protein pump and ATP
Osmosis
Movement of water into a highly concentrated substance from a low concentration substance.
6) INDICATORS
Indicator Test
Benedict’s Solution
(+ Heat)
Lugol’s Solution
Biuret’s Solution
Brown Bag (Paper)
Test For
Simple Sugars
Negative Result
(Color)
Blue
Positive Result
(Color)
Orange
Starches
Proteins
Lipids
Amber
Transparent/Gray
Brown
Black
Lavender
Translucent
7) PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Reactants and Products
Light Dependant Reaction
Location: Grana
Function: Produce ATP (energy carrier) and NADPH (electron carrier) for the dark reaction
1) Light goes to Photosystem II
2) Electrons from the water in the grana go to the electron transport chain (Oxygen secreted)
3) The electrons go through the ETC to Photosystem I and ATP is produced.
4) Photosystem I combines the electrons with NADP+ to form NADPH
Light Independent (Dark) Reaction
Location: Stroma (Liquid matrix of the chloroplast)
Function: To produce glucose
1) 6CO2 (1-Carbon) bonds to 6RuBP (5-Carbon) to make 6 6-Carbon molecule
2) The 6C molecules break down because they’re unstable into 12 3C molecules called PGA
3) ATP and NADPH energize PGA and make it PGAL, so now we have 12 PGAL molecules
4) 2 PGAL bond to make glucose while 10 PGAL are recycled back into RuBP
Chloroplast Anatomy
Outer Membrane- Membrane that protects the organelle
Intermembrane Space- Located between inner and outer membrane
Inner Membrane- Innermost membrane that protects the organelles in the chloroplast
Thylakoid- Flat membrane sacks that house chlorophyll
Grana- Stacks of thylakoids (Location of Light Dependant Reaction)
Lumen- The inside of the thylakoid
Lamella- Thin film connecting granum
Stroma- Liquid outside the thylakoids containing DNA, ribosomes, and products of photosynthesis
(Location of the Dark Reaction)
Why do leaves change color in the autumn/winter?
Because there is less sunlight
Chromatography
Using laboratory techniques to separate mixtures
Photolysis
Using light to break apart molecules
8) LEAVES
Parts of a Leaf
Cuticle- waxy layer that prevents water loss
Upper Epidermis- Flat cells that protect the inner tissues
Palisade Mesophyll- Primary site of photosynthesis because it has many chloroplasts
“Spongy” Mesophyll- Irregularly shaped cells allowing for the diffusion of CO2
Bundle Sheath Cells- Conduct water to the xylem, to the mesophyll, to the intercellular
spaces; store water; prevent air from entering the xylem
Xylem- Transports water
Phloem- Transports food
Stomata- Permit exchange of moisture and CO2
Guard Cells- Open and close the stomata
Lower Epidermis- Protects the cell tissues
9) CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Reactants and Products
C6H12O6 + O2
→
CO2
+
Glucose
Oxygen
Carbon Dioxide
H2O + Energy
Water
Anaerobic Respiration (Glycolysis)
Location: Cytoplasm
Products: 2 ATP; Ethanol + CO2 OR Lactic Acid
Aerobic Respiration (Krebs
Cycle and ETC)
Krebs Cycle
Location: Mitochondrial
Matrix.
Products: 2 ATP; 6 NADH; 4
CO2; 2 FADH2
Electron Transport System
Location: Inner Mitochondrial Membrane.
Products: 32-34 ATP; H2O
Parts of a Mitochondria
10) BODY SYSTEMS
I. Digestive System
Food enters the oral cavity, where it begins physical digestion. Food is bit into smaller
pieces to increase the surface area of chemical digestion. Salivary glands release saliva,
which contains amylase, an enzyme that breaks down polysaccharides. Carbohydrates
are broken down – for example, starch is broken down into glucose.
All this travels down the esophagus, where it is propelled into the stomach when the
epiglottis covers the air pathway.
At the stomach, food goes through physical digestion as muscle contractions churn the
food. It stores ingested food to release slowly into the small intestine. The lining
produces:
Hydrochloric acid: activates pepsin.
Pepsin: protease enzyme, breaking down proteins to peptides.
Mucus: protection prevents the stomach from self-digestion.
The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder. It also stores fats and
carbohydrates, regulates blood glucose levels, synthesizes blood proteins, stores vitamins,
and detoxifies the body.
The pancreas creates pancreatic juice, which provides an abundance of enzymes that
digest food later on in the small intestine.
In the small intestine, chemical breakdown and absorption of food molecules occur with
the help from pancreatic juice and bile.
Bile is a fat emulsifier, which breaks fat globules to increase surface area for chemical
digestion. Lipase from the pancreatic juice then takes over the chemical digestion – they
are broken down to glycerol and fatty acids.
Peptidases –break down small peptides into amino acids through hydrolysis.
Dissacharidases/ carbohydrases – breaks down dissaccharides into monosaccharides
through hydrolysis.
Amino acids, glycerol, fatty acids, and
monosaccharides pass through the wall into the
bloodstream as they are absorbed through villi.
Fiber, usually in the form of cellulose, is
indigestible and stimulates the release of H2O. It
bulks up the waste and keeps the intestines
healthy.
At the large intestine, the bacteria created there
produce vitamins that are absorbed along with
water and salts. Elimination of undigested
material occurs here, where it is led through the
rectum out the anus.
Breakdown
Humans
Mouth → Pharynx → Esophagus → Stomach → Small Intestine → Large Intestine → Rectum → Anus
Worms
Mouth → Pharynx → Esophagus → Crop → Gizzard → Intestine
Grasshopper
Mouth → Esophagus → Crop → Gizzard → Stomach → Hindgut
II. Circulatory System
Human Heart
Blood enters through the
superior vena cava (above
the heart) and the inferior
vena cava (below the
heart). These structures that
bring deoxygenated blood
to the heart from the
muscles are called veins.
The blood enters the right
atrium, and as the
ventricles contract, the
blood passively goes
through the tricuspid valve
to the right ventricle,
where it is pushed up the
pulmonary valve to the
pulmonary arteries. They
lead to the left and right
lungs.
When the blood circles
back, they come through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium. There, it goes through
the mitral valves to the left ventricle, where it is pushed up the aortic valve to the
aorta. The newly oxygenated blood goes to the rest of the body through arteries.
Controlling Heartbeat
SinoA trial node (SA node or pacemaker):
Location: the right atrium of the heart near the entrance of the superior vena cava
Function: initiates and generates electrical impulses in order for the contraction to occur;
controls the contractions of the atrium
Atrioventricular node (AV node):
Location: an area between the atria and the ventricles of the heart
Function: which conducts the normal electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricles;
controls the contractions of the ventricles
Bundle of His:
Location: between the atria and the ventricles to the point of the apex of the fascicular
branches
Function: transmits the electrical impulses from the AV node
Breakdown
Humans
Superior/Inferior vena cava → Right Atrium → Tricuspid valve → Right ventricle →
Pulmonic valve → Pulmonary artery → Lungs → Pulmonary veins → Left atrium →
Bicuspid/Mitral valve → Left ventricle → Aortic valve → Aorta and into the body
Worm
Anus → Dorso-subneural vessel → Intestine → Dorsal vessel → Hearts (aortic arches)
→ Mouth → Ventral vessel → Subneural vessel
Grasshopper
Open Circulatory System
Heart Attack
When oxygenated blood is blocked from getting to the heart
III. Respiratory System
Pathway
 Nasal passage: exchanges carbon dioxide and oxygen
 Lined with mucus used to trap bacteria
 Hairs also remove unwanted “germs”
 Pharynx: (back of the throat) transports air from the mouth and nose to the lungs
 Larynx: (“voice box”) vocal chords vibrate with the passage of air
 Trachea: (“wind pipe”) transports air to the bronchi
 Bronchial tubes: transports air to small vessels called bronchioles
 Pleura: membrane fluid filled sac surrounding the lungs that keeps the lungs moist to
facilitate diffusion
 Bronchioles: smaller vessels used to transport air to the alveoli
 Alveoli: allows the direct diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide in and out of the
blood and tissue
 Diaphragm: expands the chest cavity to allow the maximum amount of air into the
lungs
Transport of Carbon Dioxide into/out of the Blood
CO2 makes blood have an acidic pH
In order for carbon dioxide to be removed from the tissues, it must be carried on RBC
(red blood cell)
Carbon dioxide must be converted to bicarbonate using carbonic amyhydrase
H2O +
CO2
 H2CO3

H+ +
HCO3water carbon dioxide
carbonic acid
Hydrogen
bicarbonate
H+ dissociates from carbonic acid to produce bicarbonate
Transport of red blood cells in and out of the lungs
They go through the capillaries near the arterioles
Emphysema
A condition in which the air sacs of the lungs are damaged and enlarged, causing
breathlessness.
Bronchitis
Inflammation of the mucous membrane in the bronchial tubes
Breakdown
Humans
Nasal Passage → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchial Tubes → Pleura →
Bronchioles → Alveoli → Diaphragm
Worms
It has no circulatory system. It takes in oxygen through its skin and gives off CO2
Grasshopper
Spiracles in the abdomen take in air and use trachea to conduct air to cells. Cells are
always near one of these tubes.
IV. Excretory System
Excretion
Removal of waste from metabolic processes
Waste Removed
1) Urea- water, uric acid, salts, hormones, and products of hemoglobin
Hemoglobin: pigment used to transport oxygen in the blood
Nitrogenous wastes: excess amino acids due to the digestion of protein
Ammonia: substance made when amino acids break down through deamination
2) CO2
3) H2O
4) Salts
What Organs Make up the Excretory System?
 Kidneys: remove urine
 Lungs: remove carbon dioxide
 Liver: participate in deamination
 Sweat glands
The Kidneys
 Secrete nitrogenous waste
 Regulate the concentration of salt in the body
 Maintain a stable internal environment for cells
The Nephron (Functional Unit of the Kidney)
Steps in the nephron filtration process:
 Bowman’s capsule: water is forced out of the glomerular capillaries into the Bowman’s
capsule. This water is funneled into the tubules
 Glomerular capillaries: highly permeable to water. Brings waste products to the nephron
 Proximal tubule: highly permeable to water. Water follows the nutrients out of this
tubule. Toxins remain in the tubule
 Descending limb: thin tube. Permeable to water and not to salt and minerals
 Loop of Henle: essential for urine concentration. Water leaves this portion of the
neuron and what is left is a high concentration of salt
 Ascending limb: thicker tube. Impermeable to water and urea. Permeable to salt. Salt is
pumped out leaving waste behind
 Distal tube: transfers filtrate to the collecting duct
 Collecting duct: highly permeable to water. Utilizes the hormone ADH (antidiuretic
hormone)
 ADH present: water moves out of the collecting tube
 ADH absent: collecting duct is impermeable to water
 Flow of blood through the nephron:
aorta => renal artery => afferent arteriole => glomerulus => efferent arteriole =>
peritubular capillaries => venules => renal vein => vena cava
You drink too little water
 Blood volume low, high solute concentration in urine
 ADH secreted
 High reabsorption of water
You drink too much water
 Blood volume high, dilute urine
 No ADH secreted
 Distal tubule not permeable to water
Filtration
Location: Bowman’s Capsule/Glomerulus
Function: to pass pressurized blood over a filter (glomerulus) to form a filtrate (water,
glucose, amino acids, and salts)
*Note: proteins and blood cells remain in the glomerulus
Selective reabsorption
Location: proximal tubule
Function: useful items are reabsorbed (glucose, water, and amino acids) while wastes and
water remains in the tube
*Note: reabsorption of water occurs through structures called microvilli via osmosis
however, active transport is required for the reabsorption of glucose and amino acids
Concentration and dilution
Location:
1. Loop of Henle – as water is reabsorbed into the blood the filtrate becomes more
concentrated
2. Distal tubule – requires the hormone ADH (antidiuretic hormone) for the reabsorption
of water
Ions Na+, Cl-, K+
Function: urine (dilute or concentrated) will be secreted
*Note: transport of urine out of the body
nephron => collecting ducts => renal pelvis => ureter => urethra => out
In Earthworm
Nephridia carry around wastes and dispose of them in the gut.
In Grasshopper
Maliphagan tools carry around the waste
11) BLOOD
Blood Types
Rh Factor
An additional protein that is present in some blood but not in others
Blood Pressure
The force of blood against the walls of arteries
Hypertension
Abnormally high blood pressure
12) IMMUNITY
Active Immunity
Exposed to pathogen
Passive Immunity
Received from a parent
Allergy
When your immune system responds to a usually harmless substance in a defensive way
Koch’s Postulates
1. The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms suffering from the
disease, but should not be found in healthy animals.
2. The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure
culture.
3. The cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy
organism.
4. The microorganism must be re-isolated from the inoculated, diseased experimental
host and identified as being identical to the original specific causative agent.
Non-specific external barriers
The skin and mucus membranes. If the pathogen penetrates and enters the body…
Non-specific internal defenses
These include phagocytes and natural killer cells, fever, and inflammation.
Inflammation
1. Tissue is wounded and bacteria enter.
2. Wounded tissues send signals to increase white-blood cell production and stimulate
local mast cells to release histamine.
3. Histamine causes the capillaries to become leaky and increase blood flow.
4. White blood cells and fluids seep out of the capillaries. White blood cells engulf the
pathogen while the fluids cause swelling at the wound.
5. Local capillary clotting occurs to prevent future invasions.
Specific internal defenses
These include T and B lymphocytes that engage in cell-mediated and humoral immunity.
Humoral Immunity
1. Each B-cell contains only one type of antibody receptor on its surface, and has a
matching antigen. The antigen is identified by one of the B-cells.
2. B-cells produce memory cells, which are kept for the future so that immune responses
to a certain antigen will be faster and plasma cells, which release antibodies that kill the
bacteria.
* B-cells are produced and matured in the bone marrow, and then sent out to lymph
nodes and the circulatory system.
Cell-Mediated Immunity
1. In order to be activated, T-cells must have viruses, or viral antigens, presented to them
by other cells such as macrophages.
2. When activated, T-cells produce memory cells to speed up future invasions by the
same virus, cytotoxic cells to search for the viruses and kill them, and helper T-cells to
amplify the immune response of both B and T cells.
* T-cells are produced in the bone marrow, and mature in the thymus.