Download Sample Pages

(Avdira). A city in Thrace (northern Greece); situated on Cape
ra (a corruption of the medieval Polystylon), eleven miles northeast of
iver Nestos.Accordingto Greek mythology, the foundation of the city went
to Heracles,whoseeighth labor was the capture of the man-eatinghorses
iomedes,king of the neighboringBistonians.However, the first attempt to
Abdera, accordingto Herodotus,was made in the seventhcentury nc by
ists from Clazomenae(Klazumen) in Ionia led by Tynisias, but they were
n backby the Thracians.In 545 nc the peopleof anotherIonian city, Teos
rk), frnding Persiandomination intolerable,placedsettlerson the site (ining the poet Anacreon)and reconstructedthe town. It controlled an exten2pgs-6s6veredwith vineyards and fertile,' accordingto Pindar. An ear of
in is shownon its fine coins.However, the Abderanswereconstantlyat pains
protect their territory from Thracian incursions.Nevertheless,their city was
a centerfor trading with the Thracian (Odrysian) rulers of the hinterland,
d provided a harbor for the commerce of upper Thrace in general.
\\'hen the Persians came to Thrace in 5131512 they took control of Abdera,
did so once again tn 492.In 480 it was one of the halting placesselected
Xerxesas he marchedthe Persianarmy along the northern shoresof the Aen toward Greece. As a member of the first Athenian Alliance (Delian
ue) establishedafter the end of the PersianWars, it contributed (from 454
a sum of betweenten and fifteen talents,indicating its position as the thirdhest city in the League.ln 431,at the beginningof the PeloponnesianWar
inst Sparta, tltook the lead in an endeavor to enroll Thrace (under the Odry-
ruler Sitalces)and Macedoniain the Athenian cause.Although'Abderite'
becamea synonym for stupidity, Abdera producedtwo fifth-century thinkof outstandingdistinction, Democritusand Protagoras.
In376 the city was destroyedby the Thracian tribe of the Triballi, and c 346
its remaining inhabitants were incorporated by Philip II in his Macedonian
kingdom. After the death of Alexander the Great, Abdera fell successivelyinto
the hands of IGng Lysimachusof Thrace, the Seleucids,the Ptolemies,and
then, once again,the Macedonians,whosepossessionendediri 196 when the
Abkhazia
Romans declaredit a free state.In 170,however,it was besiegedand sacked
in Roby Roman and Pergamenesoldiers,and neverreallyrecovered,-although
early
in
the
city,'-uttd
-un imperial timelit remained,officially speakiflg,o'free
bishopric.
a
of
seat
the
and
Middle Ageswas a small Byzantinetown
The recent excavation of a cemetery@alf-a-milefrom the site) dating back
city's foundationdate
to the secondhalf of the seventhcenturyec confirmsthe
'House of the Dolphins'
gi,..n by Herodotus.The uncoveringof a Hellenistic
has now beencompleted.Other finds are on show in the museum at Kavalla.
Abkhazia seeColchis
Abonutichus,Abonou Teichos(Wall of Abonos),later Ionopolis (Inebolu)._A
small port on the Euxine (Black)Seacoastof Paphlagonia(northernAsia Minor), ut t6. mouth of the river ikiEay. Abonutichus started to issuecoinagein
the first century sc and achievedciiy statusin the-timeof the Roman Principate
(from Marcus Aurelius onward,
ijO u.; or lateri), first under that name and then
of one of the most outrageous
birthplace
io. u time; a. iotropglis. It was the
whosecareerin the
Abonutichus,
of
Alexander
world,
charlatansof the aniient
or the False
Alexander,
Lucian's
in
displayed
ruthlessly
is
eo
century
second
a new
control
to
prophet.A suicessfulexploiterof women, Alexanderclaimed
(depictGlycon
called
snake
ofa
form
-unif..tution ofthe god Asclepius,in the
.J on the city's coinlge), witli whose assistancehe uttered oraclesand staged
mysteries.His circular shrine has been identified'
Abrit(t)us, Abrittos (Razgrad).A stronghold_in Lower Moesia (northea_st9rn
Bulgaria),on the.oud from Marcianopolis(RekaDevnia)to the Danube.originall"y aThracian settlement,it becamea Roman fortressin the first century AD
and attained urban statusin the second.Extensivefortifications have survived,
probably dating from the Gothic incursions of the mid-third century.
In 25i, theseattacksmadeAbrittus the sceneof one of the most catastrophic
battlesin Roman history. After the king of the Goths, Kniva, had invaded Lower Moesia, the .-p.toi Trajanus Decius arrived in the province and tried to
cut off the Goths'ietreat. ln the ensuingbattle, however,Decius and his son
Herennius Etruscus, following initial successes,were trapped (as the fiftlt;;;tr;y historian Zosimus, deipite his partiality for Decius, had to admit) in
; bo;, *h... they were killed an-dthe bodiesnever recovered.This was the first
greater
time a Roman .*p.ror had been slain in battle by a foreign,foe.The
afterward,
soon
part of the imperiai ur-y was destroyed.The city walls,'erected
bombine towers of three different shapes.
Abu Serai seeCircesium
Abydus (Na[ara Point). A city in Mysia (northwesternAsia Minor); on the Asiatii bank oithe Hellespont (bardanelles),at the narrowestpoint of the strait.
the best harbor
lUVO"r, which lies awiy from the main current and possesses
ships in the
the
of
catalog
in itre Fiellespont,was first mentioned in the lliads
2
fircL Themormmml
hre boen th nard
fors
l
the Trojan Srr- Ahpq
T5 r Nfilerus€sriltrq
I tc 6ti-65-r- fhbld
the rnesern dofLt
)bn-which Xerxcsl@
. it_ioined t-ile Delim Lq
Ab{
4- to the Athenim.
i
Fnans-.{ilrens'ql
a deiba: off rhe o&rl- h I
bg' ,tueran&r the Grcr r
minedny against Philb Yd
R]-euuslater it temporarityl
us III. Tne LrngdomdE
a troe state- and rmdg'E
il gold rnriner it bm,m r I
todal'. since it form ft ol
trings and rnalls nilRrclcpaq
rir-ed.
I
The place atnined tfucrery (
ich rl as told by- the G'raek p(
s back t0 an .rrlexandrier {
was priestessot'Apfuut:
der. u-ho lir-ed at -{hrqfu. I
the strait to r.istt hcr- C|
ich she euided hirn acrm. d
tire sea.
see holen'lals
us, -{.kanthos{tremssosfr
-'the three promontorles of
lnland. Acanthus uas tounfi
n ed prosperitl'from agicil
nith the inr-aders during the h
donius (492\ and then Kilng Xc
the isthmus (though his camelsr
eganga bull on the ci4''s ertensi
oithe Delian League (contnoMnd
sided u-ith Athens in ttre Peilop
from their oligarchic pary soeil
Under the Peaceof \icias {41tr}l
t0 resume the pa)'ment of tr,lhn
\facedonia in the fourth cenrur1
its port remained of some slgnn
Acanthus
D\\iler. it was besieged and sacked
;er r:al11-recovered,
although in Ropea{rng.a'free city,,'and in the early
lnc the seat of a bishopric.
rit-a-mile from the site) dating back
:cont-lrmsthe city's foundation date
'House
of the Dolphins'
Heiienistic
tn s.rou'in the museum at Kavalla.
rcnos). later Ionopolis (Inebolu). A
of Paphlagonia (northern Asia Minu::chus started to issue coinage in
in ihe time ofthe Roman Principate
hen i:iom Marcus Aurelius onward,
lace oi one of the most outrageous
of,-{lonutichus, whose career in the in Lucian's .llexander, or the False
Alerander claimed to control a new
rtrn ;,ia snake called Glycon (depict[ance he uttered oracles and staged
ntil-::d.
rlc .n Lo*'er Moesia (northeastern
S.eiia Der-nia) to the Danube. Origi)mal tbnress in the first century AD
Iensi\ - fortihcations have survived.
rs o: the mid-third century.
cen. oione of the most catastrophic
he Gr-rths.Kniva, had invaded Lowr:l.rr:d in the province and tried to
ntiie. horvever, Decius and his son
cessis. \\'ere trapped (as the fifthua,rti for Decius, had to admit) in
s ner er recovered. This was the first
battie b1' a foreign foe. The greater
re cirl n'alls, erected soon afterward,
rnhs.esternAsia Minor); on the Asiat the narrowestpoint of the strait.
the best harbor
rrent and possesses
he lliads catalogof the shipsin the
n fleet.The mountainsto the southeastcontainedgold mines,which were
to have been the sourceof King Priam's wealth, and the region was also
in horses.
After the Trojan War, Abydus was said to have been settled by Thracians,
1lc 675 nc Miletus establisheda colony there,by agreementwith King Gyges
L1'dia(c 685-657).DariusI of Persiaburnedthe city down in 5l2,btt in 480
formed the westernend of the double bridge (replacinganother destroyedby
) by which XerxesI crossedover the Hellespontto Europe.Shortly after. it joined the Delian League, which became the Athenian empire. Never
iendly to the Athenians,Abydus revolted in 411, providing a naval baseto
Spartans-Athens' enemyin the PeloponnesianWar (43l-404)-who sufa defeatoffthe coast.In 386 the city passedinto Persianhands,urrtil liberion by Alexander the Great in 334. In 200 the people of Abydus fought
rminedly againstPhilip V of Macedonia,but were compelledto surrender.
reeyearslater it temporarily becamean outpost of the Seleucidmonarch Anus III. The kingdom of Pergamum,and the Romans, officially regarded
as a free state,and under the Roman empire, despitethe exhaustionof the
al gold mines,it becamean important customsstation.Abydus is inaccessitoday, since it forms part of a Turkish military zone;extensiveremains of
ildings and walls were reported by earlier travelers,but have not apparently
ived.
The place attained literary fame through the story of Hero and Leander,
r-hich was told by the Greek poet Musaeusin the fifth or sixth century Ro, but
goesback to an Alexandrian tale originating many hundreds of years earlier.
Hero waspriestessof Aphrodite at Sestus,on the other bank of the Hellespont.
Leander,who lived at Abydus, fell in love with her and usedto swim by night
acrossthe strait to visit her. One night, however, a storm put out the light by
n'hich sheguidedhim across,and he wasdrowned;whereuponshethrew herself
into the sea.
Abydus seePtolemais
Acanthus,Akanthos (Ierissos).A city on the isthmus that links Acte (4v),one
of the three promontories of the peninsulaof Chalcidice,with the Macedonian
mainland. Acanthus was founded by colonists from the island of Andros, and
derived prosperity from agriculturalproduceexportedfrom its harbor. It sided
rvith the invaders during the PersianWars, supporting first their generalMardonius (492) and then King Xerxes I, whom it helpedto dig his canal across
the isthmus(thoughhis camelsweresetupon by lions nearby;a lion is seensavaginga bull on the city's extensivecoinage).The Acanthians later formed part
of the Delian League(controlled by Athens)and Athenian empire, and initially
sided with Athens in the PeloponnesianWar (431-404),but under pressure
from their oligarchic party went over to the SpartangeneralBrasidasin 424.
Under the Peaceof Nicias (421)the city wasconcededautonomy but compelled
to resume the payment of tribute to Athens. Taken over by the kingdom of
Macedoniain the fourth century, it was plundered by the Romans in 200; but
its port remained of some significance,and the town continued to survive in
Acarnania
imperial times. Although excavationshave not been extensive,imposing remains of the acropolis walls are still to be seen.Moreover, the line of Xerxes'
canal can be traced, starting at a village a mile and a half to the southeastof
Ierissos.
The name of the city is also that of a herbaceousplant, belongir-rg
to the perennial family of the Acanthaceae,that was reproducedin stylized.formon Corinthian capitals (spinosus,'thorny,' preferred by the.Greeks; mollis, 'soft,'
favored by the Romans).
Acarnania. A region of northwesternGreece,bounded by the river Achelous,
the Ionian Sea,and the Gulf of Ambracua.The lower reachesof the Achelous
wereborderedby a fertile plain, but otherwisethe territory wasringed by mountains. The inhabitants ranked as Greeksbut (unlike those of neighboringAmphilochia) long remained relatively uncivilized. In the fifth century, if not
earlier, the Acarnaniansformed their own cantonal league,with its capital at
Stratuson the right bank of the Achelous,which issuedcoinageportraying the
personifiedriver-god and his daughterthe spring-goddess
Callirhoe, mother of
the mythical Acatnan.
The Acarnanians were originally called Cephallenians,from the island of
that name (Cephalonia),and were subject to Odysseusof Ithaca, accordingto
Homer. Corinthian colonieshad beensettledin the most favorablecoastallocations from an early date,and during the mid-fifth century Corinthian and Athenian commercial interests came into conflict in the area. In 432/31 the
membersof the Acarnanian Leagueinvoked the aid of Athens againstAmbracia (Arta) and other colonies,and then rn 429/26,after the outbreakof the PeloponnesianWar, they renewedthe appeal.About 400a federalcoinagemade its
appearance.In 390, however,the Acarnanianswere subjugatedby King Agesilaus II of Sparta,remaining under Spartancontrol until fifteen yearslater, when
they becamemembers of Athens' SecondLeague.They backed Thebes in its
successfulassertionof power againstSparta,but joined Athens in resistingKing
Philip II of Macedonia(359-336),of which country, however,they subsequently becamedependants.
In 314, prompted by one of Alexander the Great's successors,
Cassanderthe ruler of Macedonia and most of Greece-they supersededtheir Leagueby
a new federationof recentlyfounded cities. Amid continuousfrontier disputes,
Acarnaniawas partitioned in 263/255betweenAetolia and Epirus, but after the
collapseof the Epirote monarchy a quarter of a century later it regainedits independenceand acquired the island of Leucas,which became the federation's
principal mint. In 200 the Acarnanianstook the losing sideof Philip V of Macedonia againstthe Romans, and lost Leucasin 167,but were allowed to retain
their confederacyuntil the time of Augustus(31 sc-eo l4). Seealso Actium,
Stratus.
Ace, Acre seePtolemais
Achaea, Akhaia. (l) A name derived from Akhaioi, employed in the lliad to
mean 'Greeks,' with particular referenceto the followers of Achilles and Agamemnon.
4
The historical Acha@-r
PeloponnesebetweenS
of Corinth, was known as
migrants from the Argolid
ists to south Italy and rer
) An ancient Achaeancotr
to which the remainir[
joined in 251 by Sic-von(
Arcadian cities, including il
Eventually including almt
Greece as well, the Achr
, until conflict with the
ignment of its territory to I
(a) In 27 sc Achaea+xtel
Greece-became a senatui
betweenep 15and 44 wl
announcedthe'liberati{
later by Vespasian.Epiru
a, the former to becomc
part of Macedonia. In fi
also taken away from Ar
Agrigentum (Aerigcil
earlier occupation by' nm
river on its east side, while t
t-was founded c 580 Bc b
n origin from Gela led
ised by Polybius) occnpia
surrounded on three sidef
ridge rising to two peakr o
was ruled by an oligarc
of the otyrant' Phalarir wl
native towns in the interiq
ts alive in a hollow brazen
becamerich from thef
;hich were sent to Carthagp
ing of cattle.
The great period of the city
of 100,000,was the reign of T
hr as the north coast of Sicilyrhaglnians,who controlled the
historic, decisive defeat by thc
Himera (480).The yearsthar fo
grandiose building for the Acr
clared the place to be the'faires
ides of Ceos, too, was a visiu
Acragas
ot been extensive,imposing rer- \Ioreover, the line of Xerxes'
e and a half to the southeastof
rous plant, belongiggto the peroduced in stylized-formon Co'soft,'
il bl the Greeks; mollis,
bounded by the river Achelous,
e lorr er reachesof the Achelous
heterritory wasringedby mounmlike those of neighboringAmEd. In the fifth century, if not
rtonal league,with its capital at
ch issuedcoinageportraying the
ng-goddessCallirhoe, mother of
phalienians,from the island of
X1'sseusof lthaca, accordingto
r the most favorablecoastallocaftfi century Corinthian and Athect in the area. In 432131the
[e ard of Athens againstAmbra6. a:ter the outbreakof the Peloa federal coinagemade its
nt -$[u,r
$ere subjugatedby King Agesirol until fifteen yearslater, when
gue. They backed Thebes in its
n jornedAthensin resistingKing
rntrf'. however,they subsequentCassanderGreat'ssuccessors,
thel supersededtheir Leagueby
rid continuousfrontier disputes,
Aetolia and Epirus,but after the
creorur)'laterit regainedits inderxhich became the federation's
e losingsideof Philip V of Macen6-. but were allowedto retain
[3] ec-ro l4). Seea/so Actium,
khaioi, employedin the lliad to
e followers of Achilles and Aga-
The historical Achaea,which was a narrow territory on the north coast
PeloponnesebetweenSicyon and Elis (southeasternThessaly,acrossthe
of Corinth, was known asAchaeaPhthiotis). Descendedfrom Late Bronze
rrigrants from the Argolid, the Achaeansof the northern Peloponnesesent
niststo south Italy and remainedneutral in the Persianand Peloponnesian
An ancient Achaeanconfederacywas revived in 280 by the union of four
to which the remaining Achaean communities were soon added. They
joined in 251 by Sicyon (the birthplace of the statesmanAratus) and then
Arcadian cities,,including Megalopolis(the birthplace of the historian PolybEventually including almost the whole of the Peloponnese and part of cenGreece as well, the Achaean confederacy became the principal power in
, until conflict with the Romans resultedin its dissolution (146)and the
ignment of its territory to the Roman province of Macedonia.
(a) In 27 sc Achaea-extended in significanceto comprise the greaterpart
Greece-became a senatorialprovince on its own account (apart from the
betweeneo 15 and44 when it was temporarily reunited with Macedonia).
announcedthe 'liberation' of Greece(67), but this was cancelleda few
later by Vespasian.Epirus and Thessalywere subsequentlydetachedfrom
, the former to becomea province on its own account and the latter to
part of Macedonia. In the later empire Crete and the Cyclades(Insulae)
also taken away from Achaeato become separateprovinces.
, Agrigentum (Agrigento). A city near the southwesterncoastof Sicily.
r earlier occupationby native Sicans,the Greek city-taking its name from
river on its east side, while the river Hypsas (SantaAnna) bounded it to the
t-was founded c 580 sc by colonistsof Rhodian and (in smaller numbers)
an origin from Gela, led by Aristonoos and Pystilos. The extensive site
ised by Polybius) occupied a large, basin-like plateau two miles from the
. surroundedon three sidesby low cliffs, and dominated from the north by
ridge rising to two peaks,one of which was the acropolis. In its early years
wasruled by an oligarchy,which wassupersededc 57| by the autocratic
of the otyrant'Phalaris,who vigorously extendedhis territory, ove{powernative towns in the interior. He was said to have roastedhis political oppots alive in a hollow brazen bull. From the latter part of the same century
becamerich from the production ofgrain, the export ofwine and olives
'hich were sent to Carthage,according to Timaeus and Diodorus), and the
ing of cattle.
The great period of the city, when its population may have reacheda total
100,000,was the reign of Theron (488-472),wtro expandedits territory as
r as the north coastof Sicily. In so doing, he came into conflict with the Caraginians,who controlled the westernpart of the island; but they sufferedan
historic, decisive defeatby the forces of Acragasand Syracuseat the battle of
Himera (480).The yearsthat followed were a period of conspicuouswealth and
grandiosebuilding for the Acragantines.Pindar, who lived at their court, declaredthe placeto be the'fairest'ofmortal cities,'andeulogizedits ruler. Simonides of Ceos, too, was a visitor, and repaired relations between Acragasand
Acre
Syracuse,which had deterioratedsince Himera. After expelling Theron's son
Thrasydaeus,Acragasadopted a semi-aristocraticand then a democratic form
of government,under the guidanceof its most famouscitizen,the philosopher"
scientist,poet,orator,statesman,mysticand supposedmiracleworkerEmpedocles.The chariotsof Acragaswerevictoriousin the major Greekgames;in 412
the Olympic sprint winner Exaenetuswas escortedinto the city by three hundred chariots,and honored by magnificentcoins.
Neutral in the strugglebetweenAthens and Syracusein the Peloponnesian
War, Acragaswas besiegedand sackedby the Carthaginiansin 406, a disaster
from which it did not fully recover.Refoundedby Timoleon (sentby the Corinthians to Sicily) in 338,it regaineda certain local importanceunder the autocrat
Phintias (289-279)but soon afterwardit fell a victim to the rivalry betweenthe
Romans and Carthaginians,who sackedthe city in succession(26211,25514);
the Romans sold 25,000of its inhabitantsinto slavery.Finally, in 2ll/210, it
was once more besiegedand occupied by the Romans (who againsold many
of its peopleas slaves)and disappearedfrom the political scene.However, after
repopulation by Roman colonists under the name of Agrigentum (197), it enjoyed a considerableeconomic recovery. By the time of Cicero's speeches
againstVerres, the former governor of the island (70), its people had regained
much of their wealth. Diodorus emphasizesthe riches they derived from vineyards, olives and racehorses;and in the imperial period they developedtextile
and sulphur industries, and possessedan important commercial harbor.
Tracesof a settlementgoing back to pre-colonialtimes have come to light.
The splendorof the city in the classicalGreek epochis displayedby a seriesof
Doric temples,forming an almost continuous sacredarea(now an archaeological zone)lining the ridge at the southernend of the site. No lessthan nine such
shrineswere built between480 and 400,a figure exceededonly by Athens. The
best preserved is a temple conventionally, though inaccurately, ascribed to
Concord;its correctdesignationis unknown.It owesits survival to conversion
into a church (St. Gregory of the Turnips) in early Christian times; similarly,
the fourth century Ro church of SantaMaria dei Greci was built over a temple
attributed to Athena. \ecent excavationshave revealeda shrine of the underworld (chthonic)divinities, and a temple of Asclepiuswas erectednear mineral
springsoutsidethe walls.
Acre seePtolemais Ace (Judaea)
Acropolis seeAthens
Acte, Akte (Athos), Mount. The easternmostof the three promontories of the
peninsula of Chalcidice, in northern Greece,which extend'sdownward from
Macedoniato the AegeanSea.Acte is thirty miles long and six-and-a-halfmiles
wide at its broadestpoint, and has a mountainous spine culminating in apyramid-shapedpeakthat risessheerfrom the seato a heightof 6,667feet.According to Aeschylus,the mountain was sacredto Zeus. One legendrecountsthat
it was the stone flung at Poseidonby a giant named Athos; another story tells
how Poseidonseparatedit from the peninsulain his strugglewith the giant. As
6
m(
it$
rTa
*ilLl
d_t
t
del
I
tolirl
nffihc
b&c
-
NffidT
G@
rflfr
dAmi
'
Atil
fiircr
Anto
r
ftRmen
mtothF
llmy:ndO
rdprtiml
ffihhfrefoll,or
ilrhosp
mu$Fatiq
lile comm
gndl. andl
&e ee
Aanizn era srus
-w Tropeum Tn
ruAsnria
AilriN
-w Hadnanopolir
Aegina
But, aboveall, it was Athensthat resistedthe commercialsupremacyof the
Aeginetans.Already in the early yearsof the sixth centuryits statesmanSolon
passedlaws designedto restrictAeginetantrading, which causedthe island to
ally itself in turn with Spartaand Thebesin the hopeof checkingthe Athenians'
risingpower;and in 506the long struggleagainstthem began.In 490the Aeginetans took no part in the Greek resistanceto Darius I culminatingin the battle
of Marathon, and two years later they won a naval victory againstAthens.
(They also constructeda new port at about this time.) Indeed,the greatAthenian fleet that defeatedXerxesI at Salamisin 480 had ostensiblybeenraised
to deal with the Aeginetans,becauseof the sympathythey had shown toward
the Persians.In the event,however,the Aeginetansdid contributea squadron
to the Greek fleet that confrontedXerxesat Salamis,and their bravery in the
battlewon them 'the hrst prizefor valor.' In the followingyear,too, they fought
besidetheir Athenian rivals at Plataea.But Aegina'sspecialglory was its inspiration of at leastsevenof the finestodesof Pindar,includingthe eighthPythian.
'eyesore
Nevertheless,the Athenian statesmanPericlescalledthe island the
of the Piraeus,'and war broke out betweenthe two statesin 459. It endedwith
the captureof Aeginaby the Athenians,followedby its compulsoryenrollment
in the Athenian confederation(Delian League)to which it was obligedto contribute thirty talentsannually.But resentmentremainedstrong,and the Aeginetans playeda substantialpart in persuadingSpartato enter the Peloponnesian
War againstAthens(431).As a result,the Atheniansdeportedthe island'sentire
population and apportionedthe land among their own people,while Sparta
gavea new home to the exiled inhabitantsat Thyrea;though in 424 the Athenians capturedthat town too, and transferredthe refugeesto Athens.In 405,
however,when the PeloponnesianWar had finally gone in favor of the Spartans, they were allowed back to their island under a Spartangovernor.
From 322 to 229 Aegrnawas under Macedoniancontrol, and then belonged
to the AchaeanLeagueuntil 2l l, when it was taken over by the Romans and
attachedto the Aetolian League(which enslavedits inhabitants),only to be
sold, in the following year,to Attalus II of Pergamum-a transferwhich introduceda new period of prosperity.After the Pergamenekingdom was annexed
by Rome (133),Aeginawent with it. During the 30s,,Mark Antony assignedthe
islandto the Athenians.In Ro 267 the city suffereda destructivesiegefrom German (Herulian)invaders.
Tracesof ThessalianBronze Agesettlementhavecometo light on the slopes
of Mount Elia. But the principal monument of the island is the temple of
Aphaea(a pre-Greekgoddess,assimilatedto Athena),on the highestpoint of
CapeColonna,a pine-cladhill abovethe sea.The building, of which part survives today includinga number of columnsand fine pedimentsculpturesin varying styles(now to be seenin the Munich and Athens museums),datesfrom
520-478nc (startinga decadeafter a fragmentaryTemple of Apollo). In the late
Roman period it was destroyedand replacedby a massivefortress.Remains
of two earliershrineson the site have alsobeendiscovered,and portions of all
three altarscan be seen.The sacredarea also containsa theaterand stadium.
A further sanctuary,in the district of Mesagro,was built over a Mycenaeansite
in the seventhcenturv.
10
Adriatic Sea
Adriatic Sea. The term was usedinterchangeablywith'Ionian Sea'to denote
the watersbetweenItaly and the Balkan peninsula.Later,it becameconvenient
to call the northern and southernparts of this gulf the Adriatic and Ionian Seas
respectively,with their division at the Straitsof Otranto (althoughthe Adriatic
coast north of that point was also describedas the Ionian Gulfl.
Aea seeColchis
Aegae,Aigai (Vergina). In the region of Pieria in Macedonia,south of the river
Haliacmon. Aegaewas said to have been a residenceof the god Poseidon,and
the surrounding area was known as the Garden of Midas-an historical being
proverbial for his wealth, and worshipped at the foot of Mount Bermionbecauseof its vines, orchards and roses.The city replacedLebaea,the capital
of the kings of Macedonia until Archelaus(413-399 nc) establishedhimself at
Pella instead.Aegaehasnow beenconvincingly identified with Vergina,where,
in addition to a largeprehistoric necropolis,an imposing number ofrectangular
and bartel-vaultedtombs of c 340-320have come to light. Their grandeurand
artislic excellencesuggestthat they werebuilt to housethe ashesof the Macedonian royal family, and one graye,theGreat Tomb, is believedto have contained
the remainsof the ruler Philip II (359-336):a conclusionconfirmedby examination of the skull, which revealsa gravehead-woundcorrespondingto Philip's
known lossof an eye.(The tomb also coversa smallermound housingadditional graves.)
Some of these burial places were adorned by wall paintings-including a
Rape of Persephoneand a Lion Hunt-that provide a unique contribution to
our knowledgeof this rarely preservedancient Greek art. The grave goodsinclude a ceremonial parade-shield,ornamentedwith ivory (and now restored),
in addition to casketssheathedin gold and silver plate (one containing remnants of cloth), and a superblyexecutedcrown of gold leaves.Ivory headi from
the same site representAlexander the Great and, apparently,his father Philip
II and his mother Olympias.
The ruins of an ancient city extendbetweenVergina and the town of Palatitsa,about a mile and a halfto the west.On a small plateaubetweenthe acropolis
and a cemeterystandthe remainsofa royal palaceofthe third century,containing largeperistylecourts,double-storeyedcolonnadesand circular halls.A hundred yards north of the palace,the theater in which Philip II was murdered
(336) has now been located; a statue-baseis inscribed with the name of his
mother Eurydice.A three-aisledearly Christian basilica came to light in 1982.
Aegates Islands (Egadi) off the western extremity of Sicily. The principal islands were Aegusaor Bucinna (Favignana)-the easternmostof the islandsand Phorbantia (Levanzo) and Hiera (Marettimo).
In24l nc, during the twenty-third year of the First Punic War, a newly raised
Roman fleet under the consul Gaius Lutatius Catullus defeateda new Carthaginian fleet under Hanno in the watersbetweenAegusaand Hiera. Hanno's vessels,carrying mercenaries,foodstuffsand money, had set sail from north Africa
to westernSicily early in March, beforethe winter storms ended.Anchoring off
I
ft
lm
eil
ET
t'ft
Aegina
Hngeablywith 'Ionian Sea'to denote
rninsula. Later,it becameconvenient
'this gulf
the Adriatic and Ionian Seas
airs of Otranto (althoughthe Adriatic
bed as the Ionian Gulfl.
ited a favorablewind to enablehim to crossover to Sicilv. where
to land his soldiers(underthe command of the experiencedHamilthey could engagethe Romans in battle. Meanwhile Lutatius, learnDno's arrival and correctly conjecturing what he had in mind,
is own
rs
lOth, tne
Carthaginiansquaoron
own lleet
fleet oil
Aegusa. un
March lutn,
the Lannagrnlan
squadron
offAegusa.
On vlarcn
of two hundred and fifty ships according to Diodorus, four hundred
)iena in Macedonia,south ofthe
river
a residenceof the god poseidon,and
iarden of Midas-an historical being
ed at the foot of Mount BermionThe cit-vreplacedLebaea,the capital
s (-1i3-399 nc) establishedhimself at
singli identified with Vergina,where,
s. an imposing number of rectangular
t\"ecome to light. Their grandeurand
ullt to housethe ashesof the Macedot Tomb. is believedto have contained
6):a conclusionconfirmedby exami€,ad-rr,ound
correspondingto philip's
rs a smallermound housingadditionrned b-".wall paintings-including a
rat provide a unique contribution to
clent Greek art. The grave goods in:nted with ivory (and now restored),
nd silver plate (one containing remoun of gold leaves.Ivory headsfrom
at and, apparently,his father philip
reenVeryina and the town of palatitr small plateaubetweenthe acropolis
I paiaceof the third century,contain:olonnadesand circular halls. A hunr in which Philip II was murdered
I is inscribed with the name of his
istianbasilicacameto light in 1982.
rtremity of Sicily. The principal isFthe easternmostof the islandsrettimo).
f the First Punic War, a newly raised
ius Catullus defeateda new Carthaeen Aegusaand Hiera. Hanno's vesloney, had set sail from north Africa
r*inter stormsended.Anchoring off
lo Eutropius and Orosius)set sail for the Sicilian shore.Lutatius, devorable wind, confronted them, and the Carthaginians,weighed
ir heavy cargo,were overwhelmed.Fifty of their ships were sunk
capturedwith their crews.This proved the decisivevictory that at
ught the First Punic War to an end. The peaceterms that Carthage
to acceptincluded the evacuationof Sicily, which thus became
overseasprovmce.
Aigaion (Turkish Ege). The seabetweenGreeceand Asia Minor
'urkey),
with Creteasits southernmostpoint. It includesa remarkable
islands,including, especially,the Cyclades,Northern and Southern
and largeislandsadjoining Greece(Euboea)and westernAsia Minor
ios, to the south: Samosand Rhodes to the southeast;while Crete
Cretan Sea).The name Aegeanis variously derived from the city of
Aeolis (Nemrud Kalesi) or from the Amazonian queenAegeaor TheAegeus,both of whom were believed to have drowned themselves
The term AegeanCivilization is sometimesusedfor the Bronze Age
of the region (Minoan, Cycladic, Helladic [including Mycenaean]and
ffrojanl).
Aegialeia seeSicyon
Aigrna. A mountainous, volcanic Greek island in the Saronic Gulf,
betweenAttica and the Peloponnese.This geographicalposition is the
its importancein Mediterraneancommercefrom the earliestperiods.
ieved that the island, formerly known as Oenone,was colonized sucb-vArgives,Cretansand Thessalians(Myrmidons, after whom it took
Myrmidonia); the last-namedsettlementseemsto have been establbout the thirteenth century nc, then abandoneda century or two later.
foland was supposedlyconqueredc 1100nc by the Dorian Greeksunder
a descendantof Heraclesin the fifth generation.But then we are
after a period of abandonment,it receivedfurther immigrants, perEpidaurus;their settlementmay be attributed to c 950-900. Aegina
ber of the Amphictyony of Calauria(Poros),a maritime council repthe principal cities on the Saronic and Argive Gulfs; and under the
a stablemercantileoligarchy,it became,in the seventhcentury, a Greek
rer of the first order. Its silver coinage(from c 550),with the designof
circulatedextremelywidely; and the Aeginetansalsodevelopedthe oldof weightsand measuresknown to the classicalworld, and produced
and bronzeware which becamewell-known throughout the MediterraThere was often rivalry betweenAegina and Samos,notably at the
port of Naucratis (Kom Gieif) in Egypt.
Adrianople
r Himera. After expellingTheron's son
-aristocraticand then a democratic form
its nrost famous crtizen,the philosopher,
ic and supposedmiracleworkerEmpedoorious in the major Greekgames;tn 412
s'as escortedinto the city by three hunEcentcoins.
hensand Syracusein the Peloponnesian
I b1 the Carthaginiansin 406,a disaster
loundedby Timoleon (sentbythe Corinrtain local importanceunder the autocrat
it fell a r.ictim to the rivalry betweenthe
ed the city in succession
(262/1,255/4);
ants into slavery.Finally,in 2ll/210, it
I b1 the Romans (who again sold many
lfrom the political scene.However, after
er the name of Agrigentum(197),it en'erf . B)' the time of Cicero's speeches
'the island (70), people
its
had r-egained
sizes the riches they derived from vinee imperial period they developedtextile
an important commercial harbor.
l pre-colonialtimes have come to light.
lGreek epochis displayedby a seriesof
inuous sacredarea(now an archaeologin end of the site.No lessthan nine such
)-a t-rgureexceededonly by Athens. The
nall1. though inaccurately,ascribedto
Do\\rr.It owesits survival to conversion
ips) in early Christian times; similarly,
Haria dei Greci was built over a temple
ns har-erevealeda shrine of the underh of .{sclepiuswas erectednear mineral
reports,Acte was colonizedby Chalcis in Euboea(probably in the
nc), though its non-Greek population remained considerable.
Persianfleet invading Greeceunder Mardonius was wrecked off
by a storm, with the loss of three hundred ships and twenty thouBeforehis campaignof 480 to avoid the passagearound this dangerXerxes dug a canal, from sixty-five to a hundred feet in breadth and
ftet deep,through the narrow neck of the promontory, which at this
a mile and a half across.Deinocratesof Rhodes subsequently
carve the mountain into a giganticbust of Alexanderthe Great. Durle AgesChristian hermits cameto the peninsula,and the theocratic
of monks, which has given Athos the name of the Holy Mountain
Oros), began to take shape(the monastery of the Grand Lavra dates
e63).
seeAttica. Chalcidice
Aktion (Akra Nikolaos). A flat, sandypromontory on the coastof Acia in northwester.nGreece,on the southernside of the strait leading from
Ionian Seainto the Ambracian Gulf. Actium belongedoriginally to the Cohian colonists of Anactorium, who founded the worship of Apollo Actius
the Games named the Actia before 575 nc. By the early third century the
ple was the federal shrine of the Acarnanians.The harbor was used to ext local pearl fisheries.
When Antony (MarcusAntonius) and Octavian (the future Augustus)disputthe mastery of the Roman world in 31 nc, Actium was the site of Antony's
p, and gaveits name to the naval battle (September2nd) foughtjust outside
gulf in which Antony and Cleopatraweredecisivelydefeated.After breaking
with only a small portion of their fleet, they escapedto Egypt, where they
mmitted suicidein the following year.Actium was,in consequence,
celebratby Augustusand all who supportedhim-notably Virgil and Horace-as the
isive landmark inaugurating the empire-wide principate that he now proceededto establish.He commemorated his victory by founding Nicopolis on
tte other side of the strait, and establishingActian Gamesthere,a quadriennial
festival that transformedthe earlier Actia and ranked equally with the Olympic
Games.A new Actian era was also introduced.
klissi seeTropaeum Trajani
nmost of the three promontoriesof the
ireece.which extends downward from
rinl miles long and six-and-a-halfmiles
runtainousspine culminating in a pyrahe seato a heightof 6,667feet.Accordred to Zeus.One legendrecounts that
giant named Athos; another story tells
insuia in his strugglewith the giant. As
seeAssyria
a see Atrta
seeHadrianopolis