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Tourism’s interface with the environment and climate change in SADC
Presented at the
Trade Research Forum
Theme:
“African Trade under Climate Change and the Green
Economy”
7 – 8 August 2012
Arusha, Tanzania
Dr Albert Makochekanwa
[email protected]
The views contained within do not necessarily represent those of trapca or its
partners.
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Table of Contents
1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 3
2
Models of tourism as a system ........................................................................................... 5
3
Negative impacts of tourism on environment and climate change .................................... 7
4
5
3.1
Tourism’s pollution impacts........................................................................................ 8
3.2
Tourism’s physical damage impacts ........................................................................... 9
3.3
Other impacts ............................................................................................................ 10
Measures to mitigate negative impacts of tourism .......................................................... 11
4.1
Sectoral actions ......................................................................................................... 11
4.2
Contribution of tourism sector towards mitigation ................................................... 15
4.2.1
Financial contributions....................................................................................... 15
4.2.2
Improved environmental management and planning ......................................... 15
4.2.3
Environmental sensitization ............................................................................... 15
4.2.4
Protection and preservation................................................................................ 16
4.2.5
Alternative employment..................................................................................... 16
4.2.6
Regulatory measures .......................................................................................... 17
Conclusion and policy recommendations ........................................................................ 17
References ................................................................................................................................ 18
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1
Introduction
Tourism is one of the world’s largest, fastest growing and most climate-dependent economic
sectors. Organizations and scholars such as the United Nations World Tourism Organization
(UNWTO, 2002); the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific (ESCAP, 2003) and Hall (2007) among others argue that, tourism, if sustainably
developed, that is with a responsible, pro-poor and equitable approach, can result in
significant poverty reduction. This implies that tourism can yield high levels of employment
and income for the poor, especially in the Southern African Development Community
(SADC) where biodiversity and indigenous cultures are still intact. Additionally, the sector
has the ability to bring relatively powerful consumers to southern African countries, an
important market potential for local entrepreneurs and an engine for local sustainable
economic development. Recent studies suggest that the tourism industry has a higher
multiplier and positive spillover effect than other economic sectors, with one job directly
created for every additional 3.5 tourist, and a further 0.8 indirectly created in support sectors
(SASEC/ADB 2008).
Whilst tourism has often been seen narrowly as a profitable private sector undertaking for a
long time, many governments the world over have started accepting it as a ‘serious’
contender for contributing to development. Its assemblage of backward and forward linkages
into all other areas of economic activity, into society and culture, agriculture and
manufacturing industry, and the environment and into government, are often ignored (Ashley,
et al, 2001). Thus, once tourism is understood as a complex system, its capacity to work as a
positive tool for development and poverty reduction is enhanced. In this context, when
tourism is understood as a system, one can therefore challenge the widely held criticism of
tourism as a service sector which ‘does not produce anything’. Box 1 provides a brief
illustration, adapted from Sofield and Mactaggart (2005), of the multiplicity of forward and
backward linkages on the Cambodian economy, demonstrates the fact that tourism ‘produces
products’.
Box 1: Illustration of tourism derived production
1.5 million tourists visiting Cambodia every year for an average of six days is the equivalent
of Cambodia having to produce additional food for almost 25,000 more permanent residents
for 365 days for each of those tourists – approximately 22,500,000 eggs (at 2.5 eggs each per
day), 4,500,000 chickens (at half a chicken each per day), 9 million fish, 2,250,000 kgs of
potatoes for French fries (at a quarter of a kilo each per person per day), 2.25 million kgs of
rice (at 250gms each per day) and if they eat only five prawns per day somebody has to
produce 45 million prawns! At one bottle of beer each and one coca cola each per day, 18
million beverages will be consumed. Add in electricity consumption and light bulbs; furniture
to sit on and sleep on; soap for showers and laundry; bed linen, table linen, curtains, and
lounge fabrics; pots and pans, cups and plates and knives and forks; flowers and pot plants;
toilet paper and tissues; insect spray; etcetera and etcetera, and the myth of tourism being
‘just a service industry that doesn’t produce anything’ is completely exploded.
Source: Sofield and Mactaggart (2005:8)
In SADC, tourism has been one of the sectors which have contributed immensely in terms of
economic growth and employment in some countries. Global estimates show that tourism has
the potential to contribute on average around 12% to a country’s GDP. Table 1 provides a
snapshot of tourism’s contribution to SADC member states’ national economies as measured
by contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) and the contribution in most countries is
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relatively low, though it has potential. Seychelles and Mauritius are the two countries where
tourism is contributing well above the global average showing the sector’s importance to the
economies of these countries. In the former country, tourism contributes as much as 24%
towards GDP, while in the latter country it contributes 13%. With regards to employment
contribution, 25% of all formally employed people in Seychelles work in the tourism sector,
while 12.5% of formally employed Mauritians are in this sector. These same two countries
receives sizeable amounts of foreign currency from tourism exports, accounting for 36% of
total export earnings in Mauritius and 33% in Seychelles. Significant contributions are also
observed in Madagascar, Namibia and Zimbabwe. Overall, Table 1 shows that tourism is an
important sector to the SADC region as it has the potential to contribute to the economies of
these countries in various ways.
Table 1: SADC tourism’s contribution 2012
Country
% of GDP
% of whole
Receipts as a %
employment
of Exports
Angola
1.4
1.2
1.4
Botswana
1.5
3.3
15.2
DRC
2.1
1.7
0.2
Lesotho
7
5.9
2.5
Madagascar
6
4.7
25.2
Malawi
2.9
2.4
2.6
Mauritius
13
12.5
36
Mozambique
2.9
2.5
8.3
Namibia
4.5
7
10
Seychelles
24
25
33
South Africa
2.78
4.15
8.5
Swaziland
1.8
1.55
1.6
Tanzania
5
4.2
20
Zambia
2.3
1.4
1.9
Zimbabwe
5.8
4
9
SADC
2.91
2.88
7.5
Source: Author compilation from www.wttc.org online database
Capital investment as
% of GDP
2.3
6.2
3.3
9.1
16
1.3
6.8
5.9
11
37
7.5
5.2
10.5
1.8
6
6.9
Although tourism offers potential benefits especially to host countries and destinations as
well as stakeholders who participate in this sector’s value chain, the sector is posing negative
impacts on the environment and/or climate change, and itself is also affected by climate
change. In fact available evidence suggests that the relationship between tourism and the
environment and/or climate change is bi–directional, with tourism affecting the environment
and/or climate change, and the environment and/or climate change affecting tourism.
According to UNWTO (2007), the tourism sector accounts for an estimated 5% of
anthropogenic carbon gases (CO2) emissions globally. However, scholars such as Scott et al
(2010) argues that tourism’s overall contribution to climate change, if measured as radiative
forcing of all greenhouse gases (GHG), is in the order of 5.2% to 12.5%2. Of the 5%
(UNWTO 2007 estimates) aviation accounts for 40% of tourism’s CO2 emissions, car
transport for 32% and accommodation for 21%. The remaining 7% arises from activities for
tourists (4%) and other forms of transport (3%), including in particular cruise ships (Table 2).
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Table 2: Distribution of emissions from tourism by sub-sector
Sub – sectors
2005
CO2 (Mt)
Air transport
515
Car transport
420
Other transport
45
Accommodation
275
Activities
48
1,304
TOTAL
Total World (IPCC 2007b)
26,400
Tourism contribution
5%
Source: UNEP and UNWTO (2007).
Percentage
40%
32%
3%
21%
4%
100%
The evidence presented in Table 2 suggests that the tourism sector has a key role to play in
confronting the challenges of climate change. At the same time, there is now a clear
understanding that the industry can be part of the solution to climate change, by reducing its
GHG emissions as well as by helping the communities where tourism represents a major
economic source to prepare for and adapt to the changing climate (Amelung et al, 2007).
The interactions between tourism and the environment and/or climate change are not only bi–
directional, but also complex. As Simpson et al (2008) puts it, “…the interactions resemble
those “complication watches” that are so cherished by fortunate aficionados; they constitute a
complex web of relationships, consisting as they do, like climate change itself, of phenomena
that are part natural, and also partly the result of human behaviours”. The present study is
interested in the impact of tourism on climate change or environment and not the reverse.
Thus, given the bi-directional negative effect between tourism and climate change, this study
posits that, all countries, and especially those in the southern Africa region should eliminate
the negative impacts of tourism on climate change before climate change negatively eliminate
tourism in SADC countries.
Whilst there are scattered figures with little scholastic research which indicates the impacts of
tourism on economic activities in the SADC, analysis of the impact of the activities from the
tourism sector on both climate change and the environment at regional level is still scanty, if
not non-existence. As such, this study intends to close this gap and provide more evidence of
the impact of tourism activities on climate change and environment. This study investigates
the extent to which tourism affect the environment and/or climate change and how best the
sector can be developed to ensure that it will have minimum impact on the environment (or
climate change). Specific aims of the study are to (i) investigate the extent to which tourism
negatively affect climate change and/or environment, and (ii) analyses and suggest possible
actions which the stakeholders in the tourism sector can implement so as to minimize the
sector’s negative effects on climate change.
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Models of tourism as a system
In an effort to demarcate the various possible roles for each of the stakeholders in the tourism
sector when it comes to implementation of mitigation measures, it is important at this
juncture to note that tourism should be considered as a system. This implies that tourism
needs to be understood not in the narrow sense of an industry or even a conglomerate of
different business sectors but as a system. This system is integrated not only into the private
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sector as businesses but as a service industry linked with most other sectors of the economy;
including the community at both the broad and local levels; government through policy,
planning, infrastructure (e.g. transport and communications) and regulatory requirements;
with the biophysical environment which in many countries is a major resource for tourism;
and the international arena. It is necessary to explore tourism’s multiplicity of backward and
forward linkages that extend from the highly localized to the wider milieu embracing
regional, national and international levels, in areas such as the economic, the social, the
cultural, the political/ governmental, and the environmental. As Gunn and Var (2002, p.34)
note: “Every part of tourism is related to every other part”, adding that often some of the parts
are invisible to others within the system.
Sofield and Mactaggart (2005) argue that “Tourism is in effect thousands of individual
components with a huge range of relationships that differ both quantitatively and qualitatively
and each individual component affects others in direct and indirect ways”. Thus, defining a
sustainable tourism development approach should be done taking into accounting at least the
following seven structural components constituting the tourism system. Table 3 presents the
various stakeholders involved in the tourism sector.
Table 3: A Synthesis of models of tourism as a system
Component
Main characteristics
The population of a visitor generating region will possess two key characteristics:
1 Visitor
(i) income levels high enough to allow for discretionary expenditure on nongenerating
essential items such as travel; and (ii) a propensity for recreational travel as an
region
acceptable, desired form of behaviour.
(Demand)
The transit region supports these modes of travel by a host of transport-specific
2 Transit
(Supply)
facilities such as airports, railway stations, road networks, ports, passenger
terminals, fuel depots, engineering and repair facilities, and with a range of
ancillary services and facilities such as restaurants, banks, accommodation,
communications, retail shops, duty free outlets, bookshops, and bars. Johannesburg
Airport exemplifies the transit region with its complex system of facilities and
services that extend well beyond simply refuelling aircraft.
The “Frontline Industries Sector” (Pearce, Morrison & Rutledge, 1998) consists of
3 Destination
those businesses that operate directly with visitors. These are categorized into five
(Supply)
‘A’ as follows:
 Accommodation - hotels, motels, resorts, backpacker hostels, B&B,
caravan parks, etc.
 Amenities - restaurants, sports facilities, theatres, casinos, etc.
 Attractions - natural and cultural, cities, landscapes, theme parks,
museums, events and festivals, etc.
 Access - travel agencies, tour operators, coaches, taxis, hire cars, cable
cars, etc.
 Activities - tour operators, ski fields business companies, yacht charters,
bicycle hire, kayaking adventure companies, abseiling, trekking companies,
etc.
This sector brings into the system the thousands of ‘invisible’ operations that
4 Support
provide goods and services to those operations that interface directly with
services
travellers, but do not deal directly with visitors themselves. The frontline operators
sector
depend on inputs from a very wide range of suppliers of goods and services.
Examples of support services includes: banks, insurance, fuel depots, suitcases
manufacturers, etc
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Governments play a crucial part in the tourism system through a range of functions
that include: regulatory controls; provision of national services for visitation;
infrastructure; ownership of major resources; national issues and interests, etc
6 Environment The environment includes air, land and water. Landscape features constitute major
tourist attractions in their own right, and also provide the habitats and ecosystems
(bio-geofor the living marine and terrestrial organisms which underpin other attractions.
physical
Degradation of the natural environment constitutes one of the gravest risks to
region)
sustainability in tourism; a fact acknowledged by the tourism industry which has, in
the last decade in particular, begun to take increasing responsibility for ensuring
that its activities have minimal environmental impacts.
Communities are considered as the ‘hosts’ in tourism’s binary division of residents
7 Community
and visitors. In the context of tourism issues of concern will be social effects and
impacts, cultural effects and impacts, community infrastructure, cultural
landscapes, and identity of community place and space. Community-based culture
is often a ‘product’ or ‘commodity’ for consumption by visitors, and socio-cultural
impacts of tourism may create major problems for communities.
Source: Author compilation
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3
Government
sector
Negative impacts of tourism on environment and climate change
Potential negative impacts from tourism on the environment and climate change occur when
the level of visitor use is greater than the environment’s ability to cope with this use within
the acceptable limits of change. Uncontrolled conventional tourism poses potential threats to
many natural areas around the world. It can put enormous pressure on an area and lead to
impacts such as soil erosion, increased pollution, discharges into the sea, natural habitat loss,
increased pressure on endangered species and heightened vulnerability to forest fires. It often
puts a strain on water resources, and it can force local populations to compete for the use of
critical resources (Amelung et al, 2007 and UNWTO/UNEP, 2008).
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) defines climate
change as a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that
alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate
variability observed over comparable time periods, (UNFCC, Article 1). On the other hand,
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as referring
to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human
activity. IPCC Working Group I, AR4, 2007). This study uses UNFCC definition in its
analysis.
In short, tourism’s relationship with both the environment and climate is complex - many
tourism activities can have adverse environmental and climatic conditions effects. Many of
these impacts are linked with the construction of general infrastructure such as roads and
airports, and of tourism facilities, including resorts, hotels, restaurants, shops, golf courses
and marinas; as well as the direct tourists’ activities such as hiking, golfing and garbage.
Thus, the negative impacts of tourism development can gradually destroy the environmental
resources on which it depends.
The negative impacts of tourism in the SADC vary from country to country. For instance, in
the case of Mauritius, Seychelles, Madagascar and Tanzania where tourism is heavily
dependent on natural resources, that is to say, the physical environment, the traditional
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marketing approach of putting emphasis on the 3s, that is “sand, sea and sun" has created a
mindset that led to the concentration of tourist facilities in coastal areas. This has resulted in
some negative impacts on tourist areas, especially beaches in the region.
3.1
Tourism’s pollution impacts
Transport related to the tourism sector, as already presented in Table 2 is one of the most
important aspects of this sector. The increasing number of tourists into the SADC region over
the years has meant that transport by air, road and rail has been rising steadily. One
consequence of this is that tourism is responsible for pollution. Tourism can cause the same
forms of pollution as any other industry: air emissions, noise, solid waste and littering,
releases of sewage, oil and chemicals, even architectural/visual pollution.
Air transport emissions, as well as those from the production of electricity, another important
tourist need causes air pollution which is in turn linked to acid rain, chemical pollution and
global warming. They contribute to severe air pollution, not only in cities but in natural
environments as well. Some of these impacts are directly related to tourism. For example, in
very hot or cold conditions, tour buses often leave their motors running while the tourists go
out on excursions so that the bus is at a comfortable temperature when they return.
Noise pollution from airplanes, cars, and buses, as well as recreational vehicles such as jet
skis, is an ever-growing problem of modern life. This is true for busy airports like South
Africa’s O.R. Tambo (Formerly Johannesburg) International Airport. In addition to causing
annoyance, stress, and even hearing loss for humans, it causes distress to wildlife, especially
in sensitive areas. This may not seem like a big deal, but loud noises can scare animals out of
the area and possibly even disrupt the local ecosystem1. In game reserves such as Chobe
(Botswana), Hwange National Park (Zimbabwe), Kruger National Park (Mozambique, South
Africa and Zimbabwe) balloon safaris have scared off wildebeest, antelope and topi and their
migration and mating patterns have been negatively impacted as a result. Moreover, safari
jeeps have crept closer and closer to wildlife, often going off designated roads.
In areas with high concentrations of tourist activities and appealing natural attractions, waste
disposal is a serious problem and improper disposal can be a major despoiler of the natural
environment - rivers, scenic areas, and roadsides. For instance, UNEP (1999) claims that on
average, passengers on a cruise ship each account for 3.5 kilograms of garbage daily
compared with the 0.8 kilograms each generated by the less well-endowed folk on shore2.
Tourist destinations in the mountains often end up with a great deal of unwanted waste.
Tourists on expeditions leave behind garbage, oxygen cylinders and camping equipment. In
the less developed or remote areas this is even worse as there are few disposal facilities.
Generally, garbage is a serious problem in areas with high concentrations of tourist activities
and natural attractions. It can have a major negative impact on all areas of the natural
environment - rivers, mountains, beaches, and many more. Littering can degrade the physical
appearance of the environment, making it no longer appealing to tourists, as well as causing
the deaths of many native animals. People typically use disposable items when they pack for
a trip, with the attitude that after all, it’s a holiday and who wants to be bothered with
washing dishes or saving scraps for the compost? These two quotations from tourists on the
1
2
http://www.helium.com/items/1471116-the-effects-of-tourism-on-the-environment
Our Planet, UNEP magazine for environmentally sustainable development, volume 10, no. 3, 1999
8
evidence of garbage caused by tourists in Kilimanjaro (Tanzania) and Table Mountain (South
Africa) provides a testimony to this negative impact:
Kilimanjaro experience
“I climbed Kilimanjaro… and was sad to see a lot of garbage at the summit…3”
Table Mountain experience
“Before that time we had a walk around …, but the garbage that we saw there.
Unbelievable. I never saw that before in a public place. People seemed to go on
picnics on the grounds and left everything behind. There was no cleaning crew or
somebody who cared. This piece of property was for the waste. There was a nice
collection of plants and trees and good for a relaxing walk, but what struck the eye,
yes that garbage4”
Building of tourism facilities such as hotels, lodges and recreation facilities often leads to
increased sewage pollution. Wastewater has polluted seas and lakes surrounding tourist
attractions, damaging the flora and fauna. Sewage runoff causes serious damage to coral reefs
because it stimulates the growth of algae, which cover the filter-feeding corals, hindering
their ability to survive. Changes in salinity and siltation can have wide-ranging impacts on
coastal environments. And sewage pollution is threating the health of humans and animals in
most tourist towns in the SADC countries.
3.2
Tourism’s physical damage impacts
Activities from the tourism sector bring about a number of physical impacts. Damage on
flora, for instance, tromping carelessly through the forest, smashing down delicate flowers
and grasses or burning deadfall are some of the damages done to plant life by tourism
activities. Tromping is common in most SADC tourist resort attraction areas. The impacts on
the fauna have also been prevalent in the region. Tourism activities have impacted on animal
life in most tourism areas in the region. Wildlife in tourism areas such as Kariba (Zimbabwe),
Kilimanjaro (Tanzania), among others, are often seen scavenging through the garbage. In
some instances, elephants have eaten batteries and have been killed as a result of the acid.
Monkeys and smaller animals are particularly keen to eat the rubbish and often become ill
and die. The animals become ruined and search through rubbish instead of hunting naturally
for their prey.
Furthermore, large amounts of trampling on soil cause loss of organic matter, and also
accelerate erosion in such areas. In fact, the fact that trampling involves tourists using the
same trail over and over again trample the vegetation and soil, eventually causing damage
that can lead to loss of biodiversity and other impacts. Such damage can be even more
extensive when visitors frequently stray off established trails. In beaches resort areas in
countries like Mozambique, Mauritius, Namibia, Seychelles and South Africa, etc, there is a
possibility that erosion may grow so bad (in the next 20 years) that sand might be brought in
to keep the beach attractive and viable.
3
4
http://traveler.nationalgeographic.com/2009/11/destinations-rated/africa-text/5
http://members.virtualtourist.com/m/tt/3803f/#ixzz1wznvWgqd
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The impacts of tourism activities in SADC on water have also been common and they can be
sub-divided into three categories. The first relates to the effect on water quality. Bushwalkers
can damage small streams by walking through them too many times; causing them to be
muddy which in turn makes it difficult for small fish to feed. Also, less experienced
bushwalkers sometimes like to pursue activities such as washing their hair in small creeks
and streams, sending chemicals in shampoo and conditioner downstream and further
damaging the environment (Glycerin High School, 2003)5. The second impact concerns
overuse of water, especially fresh water. The tourism industry generally overuses water
resources for hotels, swimming pools, golf courses and personal use of water by tourists. This
can result in water shortages and degradation of water supplies, as well as generating a
greater volume of waste water. In dryer countries like Botswana and some parts of Zimbabwe
(Bulawayo), the issue of water scarcity is of particular concern. Because of the hot climate
and the tendency of tourists to consume more water when on holiday than they do at home,
the amount used can run up to 440 liters a day. The increasing water demand for golf course
maintenance is the third concern. This activity can also deplete fresh water resources. In
recent years golf tourism has increased in popularity and the number of golf courses has
grown rapidly in the SADC region. Golf courses require an enormous amount of water every
day and, as with other causes of excessive extraction of water, this can result in water
scarcity. If the water comes from wells, overpumping can cause saline intrusion into
groundwater. Golf resorts are more and more often situated in or near protected areas or areas
where resources are limited, exacerbating their impacts.
The impacts of hotel buildings on the environment warrant mentioning. Tourism industry
often involves construction of hotel and lodges. Generally, 5-Star hotels have a negative
impact on the environment as many of them are built in the middle of the savannah which
was never meant to house these buildings. There is insufficient sewage or garbage facilities
and disposal. The same is true when these lodges are created near or on the banks of a lake
or a river. The sewage water flows into lake water or sea, polluting its marine ecosystem.
3.3
Other impacts
Overcrowding by tourists on popular national parks and reserves such as Kruger National
Park (Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe); and Mount Meru, and Kilimanjaro (both in
Tanzania), among other SADC attractions, has damaged the savannah landscape and has
disturbed the wildlife. This causes massive soil erosion and also scares wildlife. This has had
a particularly detrimental impact on the lion population in countries such as Zimbabwe and
South Africa.
Tourism can create great pressure on local resources like energy, food, and other raw
materials that may already be in short supply. Greater extraction and transport of these
resources exacerbates the physical impacts associated with their exploitation. Given that
some tourists’ places in the SADC region are seasonal, some regional destinations may have
as much as ten times more inhabitants in the high season when compared to the low season.
A high demand is placed upon these resources to meet the high expectations tourists often
have (proper heating, hot water, etc.).
Loss of biodiversity is an imminent threat given that SADC countries are heavily endowed
with rich biodiversity and most countries want that diversity to remain intact. Activities from
5
Glycerin High School (2003). A short essay on the Impacts of Tourism on the Environment.
10
this sector can also cause loss of biodiversity when land and resources are strained by
excessive use, and when impacts on vegetation, wildlife, mountain, marine and coastal
environments and water resources exceed the carrying capacity. This loss of biodiversity in
fact means loss of tourism potential6.
4
Measures to mitigate negative impacts of tourism
The preceding section shows clearly that tourism activities in SADC countries contribute
negatively to both the environment and climate change. As pointed in the introductory section
all regional countries should eliminate the negative impacts of tourism on climate change
before climate change negatively eliminate tourism in these countries. Thus, tourism should
be developed to ensure minimum negative impacts on climate in SADC region. To this end,
this section proposes some of the actions that can be taken by various stakeholders in the
tourism sector in the region with the aim of ensuring that growth of tourism will be proenvironment.
4.1
Sectoral actions
The various actions that each stakeholder in the tourism system can consider implementing
are presented in this sub-section. Whilst these actions may not be exhaustive and some of
them may look far reaching, they are however important for policy making.
Transportation, as indicated in Table 2, is by far the most important sector contributing to
emissions of greenhouse gases from tourism, and within the transport sector, aviation is most
relevant. For the majority of trips involving air travel, it has been estimated that the journey
to the destination will account for 60% to 90% of the trip’s overall contribution to climate
change (Gössling et al. 2005). As such, any strategy aimed at reducing tourism’s contribution
to climate change need to take into account transport, and in particular aviation. Figure 1
shows that average emissions per kilometre travelled by one person (passenger kilometre,
pkm) vary considerably. The general rule is that train and coach are vastly more energyefficient than transport by aircraft or car.
GHG emissions (Kg CO2-e/pkm)
Figure 1: Carbon dioxide emissions for various transport modes
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
Source: UNWTO-UNEP-WMO (2008)
6
http://www.gdrc.org/uem/eco-tour/envi/one.html
11
Recommended specific actions for various tourism stakeholders
Ideally, airlines should consider a number of actions in their endeavour to improve
environmental performance. First, there is need for airlines operating in SADC to ensure that
the average fleet age of airlines is short as much as possible (e.g., 15 years instead of older
than 25 years). Replacing old aircraft technology with new technology, as for instance used in
the new A380 and B787, can reduce specific emissions per passenger kilometre by up to 2030% (Simpson et al, 2008). Second, airlines should strive to have high load (passenger)
factors (e.g., above 75%) as that will reduce the specific energy use per traveller. Airlines
should thus seek to reduce the number of flights with low load factors, for example by
cooperating with other airlines flying on the same routes at similar times. Third, given the
fact that the less an aircraft weighs the less fuel it needs, airlines should thus also seek to limit
non-passenger weight, such as the free weight each passenger can carry along, possibly to
20kg (or 30kg) including hand baggage and tax free purchases. Fourth, tour operators should
seek to sell direct flights without stop-overs. Pricing systems that allow for cheaper flights
with a detour and/or non-direct flight should be avoided. Lastly, airlines should extend their
economic scope by become financially involved in surface-bound transport systems with
lower environmental impacts like rail or coach systems to profit from and contribute to their
development.
Tourist car owners have also a role to play in this mitigation process. First, they should
promote use of low-emission cars (<120g CO2/km), and this can be done, for instance by
charging comparably low prices or pointing out low additional costs for fuel. Businesses can
replace their car fleet by low emission cars, also equipping their employees with ‘carbon
smart’, rather than large cars. Second, the use of sports utility vehicles (SUV) should be
avoided as much as possible. The third mitigation action is that of replacing old cars,
whereby old cars should be regularly replaced by newer, more environmentally friendly car
models to stimulate innovation.
Tour operators play an important role in ensuring development of sustainable tourism with
minimum negative impacts on climate as they bundle packages including journey,
accommodation and eventually activities that are purchased by tourists. Tour operators can
therefore influence emissions to a considerable extent, for instance by offering energyefficient transport or hotels that engage in pro-environmental action. Thus, tour operators can
play an environmental friendly role by re-thinking the choice of destinations. This can be
easily done by replacing more distant destinations with closer ones where this is feasible.
Secondly, tour operators can as much as possible avoid promoting long-haul destinations
given that long-haul destinations visited by tourists are a major contributor to emissions. Tour
operators should thus seek to avoid promoting destinations that are particularly distant.
Lastly, tour operators can extend their role by supporting low-carbon holiday options and
carbon labelling. That is, if all packages and journeys are also carbon-labelled, i.e. indicating
the emissions caused by the consumption of the respective package/journey; such action will
support informed decision-making towards low-carbon tourism.
The tourists (customers) themselves have also import roles to play. First, they can contribute
to the environment positively by travelling less often and staying longer, thus departing from
the current trend whey they travel more frequently (with the aim of covering longer
distances) and stay over shorter periods. Second, tourists can try as much as possible to
minimise travel by air given that any air travel avoided will be a major factor in reducing
individual emissions. Third, tourists should favour tour operators engaging in pro12
environmental management (for instance providing carbon labelling or certified packages),
and those that try to provide community benefits, particularly when operating in poorly
developed destinations within the SADC region. Lastly, given that there are now many
destinations that seek to be environmentally friendly or to become certified with a variety of
labels, from slow food to slow tourism, tourists should as much as possible give preference to
such destinations.
Governments play a crucial part in the tourism system through a range of functions that
include: regulatory controls; provision of national services for visitors; infrastructure;
ownership of major resources; national issues and interests. Thus, the SADC governments
have to, as much as, possible come up with policies and regulations which limits the negative
impacts of tourism activities in their respective countries. When it comes to regulations
governments are better placed to do that role given their enforcement ability. It is important
to note that some regulations will require minimum costs to all involved stakeholders. A good
example of such regulations is one existing in Rwanda where it is an offense for any
individual whether tourist or not to throw litter on any place except designated garbage bins
or refuge places. In Rwanda, if a person is caught littering, he/she will pay a fine. Thus, in
this simple, but very important regulation, Rwandan cities especially Kigali is one of the
cleanest cities in Africa. In this Rwandese case, there are no extra costs incurred by most
tourism stakeholders.
Table 5 summaries some of the actions that SADC tourism stakeholders should take so as to
ensure that tourism activities are environmentally friendly.
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Table 5: Summary of potential mitigation actions
Action/
Air transport
Car Transport
Train/coach
Actor
transport
Minimise air transport; Avoid car transport; Use train & coach
Tourists
Choose
Use energy efficient
pro-environmental
cars <120gCO2/km)
airline; Offset emissions
Develop packages
based on train/coach
transport and other
carbon-smart
products
marketing Promote
public Cooperate
with
Destination Restructure
(eco-efficiency);
transport systems;
National
railways
Managers
consider
domestic Eventually small cars Systems and coach
and
tourism; increase length
Operators to offer
Planners
of stay; focus on
Attractive
transport
revenue, not growth.
solutions
Source: Simpson et al (2008, p 101)
Tour
operators
Cooperate with pro- Promote the use of
environmental airline;
small,
Offer carbon offsetting
environmentally
friendly cars
Destination
Accommodation
Stay
longer; Choose
Favour
closer environmentally
destinations
Certified hotel
Offer destinations Cooperate with
close by; Provide certified
carbon labelling
hotels
Involve all actors
to engage in
action to become
sustainable
destination
Activities
Avoid energy intense
activity, for Instance
such
involving
transport
(helicopter flights, tc.)
Offer activities that do
not involve transports,
particularly flights
Promote
use
of Develop activities
environmental
that are low-carbon
management systems
& eco-certifications.
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4.2
Contribution of tourism sector towards mitigation
Over and above the sectoral actions that can be taken by various tourism stakeholders
towards mitigation of the negative impacts of tourism on the environment and climate
change, another possible way through the sector can support measures aimed at conserving
the environment and reducing its impacts on climate change is through measures indicated
below. Thus, governments in the SADC region should, one way or the other encourages the
tourism sector to consider doing some of these actions.
4.2.1 Financial contributions
Direct financial contributions: The tourism sector can contribute directly to the conservation
of sensitive areas and habitat. Revenue from park-entrance fees and similar sources can be
allocated specifically to pay for the protection and management of environmentally sensitive
areas. Special fees for park operations or conservation activities can be collected from tourists
or tour operators.
Contributions to government revenues: Governments can also collect money in more farreaching and indirect ways that are not linked to specific parks or conservation areas. Money
collected in the form of user fees, income taxes, taxes on sales or rental of recreation
equipment, and license fees for activities such as hunting and fishing can provide
governments with the funds needed to manage natural resources. Such funds can be used for
overall conservation programs and activities, such as park ranger salaries and park
maintenance.
4.2.2 Improved environmental management and planning
Sound environmental management of tourism facilities and especially hotels can increase the
benefits to natural areas. Nevertheless, this demand requires careful planning for controlled
development, based on analysis of the environmental resources of the area. Thus SADC
governments should encourage early planning in the tourism industry as that will minimize
chances of damaging and expensive mistakes, thus avoiding the gradual deterioration of
environmental assets significant to tourism.
Cleaner production techniques can be important tools for planning and operating tourism
facilities in a way that minimizes their environmental impacts. For example, green building
(using energy-efficient and non-polluting construction materials, sewage systems and energy
sources) is an increasingly important way for the tourism industry to decrease its impact on
the environment. And because waste treatment and disposal are often major, long-term
environmental problems in the tourism industry, pollution prevention and waste minimization
techniques are especially important for the tourism industry.
4.2.3 Environmental sensitization
Tourism sector has the potential to increase public appreciation of the environment and to
spread awareness of environmental problems when it brings people into closer contact with
nature and the environment. Sensitization will improve awareness of the value of nature and
15
lead to environmentally conscious behavior and activities from tourists, thus contribution
towards the preservation of the environment and reduced impacts on climate change.
The long run sustainability of the tourism industry in SADC requires the sector to incorporate
the principles and practices of sustainable consumption. In this instance, sustainable
consumption will include such things as building consumer demand for products that have
been made using cleaner production techniques, and for services - including tourism services
- that are provided in a way that minimizes environmental impacts. The tourism industry can
play a key role in providing environmental information and raising awareness among tourists
of the environmental consequences of their actions. Tourists and tourism-related businesses
consume an enormous quantity of goods and services; moving them toward using those that
are produced and provided in an environmentally sustainable way, from cradle to grave,
could have an enormous positive impact on the planet's environment.
4.2.4 Protection and preservation
Tourism can significantly contribute to environmental protection, conservation and
restoration of biological diversity and sustainable use of natural resources. Given their appeal,
pristine sites and natural areas are identified as valuable and the need to keep the attraction
alive can lead to creation of national parks and wildlife parks.
Box 2: Gorilla protection case study from East Africa’s Great Lakes region
In the Great Lakes region of Africa, mountain gorillas, one of the world's most endangered
great apes, play a critical ecological, economic and political role. Their habitat lies on the
borders of northwestern Rwanda, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and southwestern
Uganda. Despite 10 years of political crisis and civil war in the region, the need for revenue
from ape-related tourism has led all sides in the conflict to cooperate in protecting the apes
and their habitat.
Establishment of a gorilla tracking permit, which costs US$ 250 plus park fees, means that
just three habituated gorilla groups of about 38 individuals in total can generate over US$ 3
million in revenue per year, making each individual worth nearly US$90,000 a year to
Uganda. Tourism funds have contributed to development at the local, national and regional
level. The presence of such a valuable tourism revenue source in the fragile afromontane
forests ensures that these critical habitats are protected, thus fulfilling their valuable
ecological function including local climate regulation, water catchment and natural resources
for local communities.
Source: UNEP Great Apes Survival Project and Discovery Initiatives
4.2.5 Alternative employment
Tourism can provide an alternative to development scenarios that may have greater
environmental impacts. If this is carefully crafted and linked with other backward and
forward linkages sectors, the alternative employment can offer an opportunity for some less
privileged citizens of the SADC region a good employment opportunity. Box 2 provides a
short case study of the potential employment opportunities from the tourism sector.
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Box 2: Case study of alternative employment rom tourism sector
The Eco-escuela de Español, a Spanish language school created in 1996 as part of a
Conservation International project in the Guatemalan village of San Andres, is an example.
The community-owned school, located in the Maya Biosphere Reserve, combines individual
language courses with home stay opportunities and community-led eco-tours. It receives
around 1,800 tourists yearly, mostly from the US and Europe, and employs almost 100
residents, of whom around 60% were previously engaged in mostly illegal timber extraction,
hunting and milpas, or slash-and-burn agriculture. Careful monitoring in 2000 has shown
that, among the families benefiting from the business, the majority has significantly reduced
hunting practices, and the number and extension of "slash-and-burn" agricultural plots.
Furthermore, as most families in the village benefit directly or indirectly from the school,
community-managed private reserves have been established, and social pressure against
hunting has increased.
4.2.6 Regulatory measures
Regulatory measures help offset negative impacts; for instance, controls on the number of
tourist activities and movement of visitors within protected areas can limit impacts on the
ecosystem and help maintain the integrity and vitality of the site. Such limits can also reduce
the negative impacts on resources.
Limits should be established after an in-depth analysis of the maximum sustainable visitor
capacity. This strategy is being used in the Galapagos Islands, where the number of ships
allowed to cruise this remote archipelago is limited, and only designated islands can be
visited, ensuring visitors have little impact on the sensitive environment and animal habitats.
5
Conclusion and policy recommendations
The study investigated the extent to which tourism negatively affect the environment and/or
climate change in the SADC region and also provided possible actions which the
stakeholders in the tourism sector can implement so as to minimize the sector’s negative
effects on climate change. The study found that activities of the tourism sector have (and
continue to) negatively impact on the region’s environment. The negative impacts includes
pollution related, physical damage and land/water degradation. The study recommends that
all stakeholders in the tourism sector including tourists, tour operators, hotels, airlines,
governments, among others, should work together in their respective areas so that the region
can be able to mitigate or eliminate the potential negative effects of tourism activities on the
environment and/or climate change.
17
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http://unfccc.int/2860.php
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