Download aDVANCED LITERACY SKILLS

Self Review to Start
This booklet will be useful for reference in preparation for English
exams. In terms of writing effectively these are the core skills you
need to be able to demonstrate in writing:
•
Create imaginative, interesting and increasingly sophisticated texts
for a range of purposes (for English Language you will be assessed on
writing to describe/ narrate and viewpoint/ persuasive writing, for
English Literature you need to be able to structure an analytical
essay effectively in a short space of time);
•
Structure and organise you writing using paragraphs successfully for
fluency and cohesion;
•
Vary sentences for effect and impact on the reader;
•
Write with technical accuracy and use a range of punctuation;
•
Use apt and sophisticated vocabulary;
•
Use correct spelling of most words.
No doubt some areas you will find easier than others. Spend a few
minutes reflecting on your strengths and weaknesses in writing.
There may be particular types of writing you feel more confident
with perhaps, like creative writing. Handwriting may also be an area
which you are conscious of and this may slow you down and make you
more reluctant to write.
My Writing Strengths:
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My Writing Weaknesses:
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In terms of reading, this booklet also offers some support for the A0s 1
and 2 in particular, and gives you some reminders regarding key
reading skills.
This booklet will be of use in other lessons where writing and
reading are important, particularly the Humanities subjects.
Section 1. Review of Grammatical Terminology.
Verbs...
Action Words!
You should know a verb is the
action word in a sentence.
I play football every day.
Play is the verb.
Auxiliary Verbs
.Some verbs aren’t just single words. They
need a helping verb (auxiliary verb) as well.
e.g. We are sailing. It was raining. We could
sink.
Underline the auxiliary verbs in the
sentences below:
1. The spaceship had arrived late.
2. My mum is driving to Edinburgh
3. I am staying right here.
Think of some sentences which including 3 of
the following auxiliary verbs; has/ have, do/
did, will, would.
Words like: would, could, should, might are
known as ‘modal verbs.’ (check you write
‘could have, would have etc – not could ‘of’).
Some other terms linked to verbs:
Verb Tenses:
We also need to make sure we use the
correct tense and stay in that tense
in our writing.
Past: we were racing them
Present: We are racing them
Future: We will be racing them.
The infinitive form of a verb is the verb in
its basic form. The version of the verb which
will appear in the dictionary. The infinitive
form of a verb is usually preceded
by to (e.g., to run, to dance, to think).
Most verbs follow this pattern
Singular
Plural
Simple Past
1/ he/ she/it
walked
We/ you/
they walked
Perfect
He/ she/ it
has walked
We/ you/
they have
walked
Common Irregular Verbs
Perfect
Simple
Past
Perfect
ate
Have/ has
eaten
sang
Have/ has
sung
did
Have/ has
done
saw
Have/ has
seen
Have/ has
spoke
Have/ has
Present participle: the form of a verb, ending drove
driven
spoken
in -ing which is used in forming continuous
tenses, e.g. in I'm thinking,
got
have./ has
taught
Have/ has
Active and Passive verbs: Active describes a
got
taught
sentence where the subject performs the action
lay
Have/ has
went
Have/ has
stated by the verb. In passive sentences, the
lain
gone
subject is acted upon by the verb.
Sue changed the flat tire. (active)
Check:: You can identify and comment on
The flat tire was changed by Sue. (passive)
We are going to watch a movie tonight. (active) verbs in descriptive texts;
A movie is going to be watched by us tonight.
You use the correct form and interesting
(passive)
choices in your own writing .
Nouns are: Words which
name people, animals,
places and things.
Common Nouns are generic
•
Circle the words which are
common nouns below:
chair walked rice jumped
basket television flower boat
am behaving plastic horse
The words you have circled are
common nouns.
Proper Nouns
Name a particular place, time, or
person. E.g. Cairo, Sunday,
Jeremy. They always start
with a CAPITAL letter.
Pronouns
Take the place of proper nouns
you, we, our, etc ( consider the
effect of possessive
pronouns)
•
Consider how proper nouns
and pronouns are used in
texts you read and the
effect on the reader.
Noun Phrases
A noun phrase is a combination of adjectives
and a noun, normally preceded by ‘a, the or
some.’
Adjectives modify the noun phrase. Consider
the effect of the following:
a. The
sunlit
garden
a. The
dappled
waves
a. A black starry
night
b. The
moonlit
garden
b. The
crashing
waves
b. A black
stormy night
See if you can identify noun
phrases and comment on effects
in fiction texts. How do they
create mood and atmosphere?
Collective Nouns: This is the name we give to a group of nouns to
refer to them as one entity. Most of them come from the poetry and
imagination of early to late Medieval English times e.g. - an eloquence
of lawyers. They can group people (a gang of thieves), animals (a
swarm of bees) and things (a wad of notes).
Abstract Nouns
Some nouns identify things which you can’t actually see, hear, smell touch or taste. They
are abstract qualities such as happiness or excitement. Task: Identify the abstract nouns
in this story:
As the plane reached 4,000 metres Anton was filled with dread. The door creaked open
and fear turned his limbs to jelly. ‘This is no time for cowardice,’ Anton told himself and
leapt out. As he hurtled towards the airfield, he was surprised to find he was having fun.
He tugged the parachute chord and suddenly there was peace and quiet.
Now identify any other nouns you can see. Put a P for proper and a C for common.
What about the verbs? What is the effect of these?
Adjectives
These describe the noun. They might be linked to colour, shape, size,
texture etc.
•
Underline the adjectives in the following sentences:
1. The black cat reclined comfortably on the silk cushion.
2. The great oak tree towered above the small boy, who picked up the
golden acorns lying at it’s knarled roots.
Superlative and Comparative Adjectives
•
Comparative adjectives compare two nouns. E.g. The Volvo is a better
car than the Fiat.
•
Superlative adjectives say something is the BEST. The Aston Martin
was the best car because it provided the smoothest ride, had the
greatest acceleration and looked the most sophisticated of all.
•
These are often used in persuasive writing for hyperbolic effect.
Adjectival Phrases – a group of words that describe a noun.
Sometimes it can be more effective to use a group of words to do the job
of an adjective. A group of words used in this way is known as an
adjectival phrase.
‘The sunlit garden’ could become ‘the garden was bathed in sunlight’
‘the starry night’ could become ‘the night sky was filled with stars.’
Make the following into adjectival phrases:
He was a tall man
It was a cloudless night
He was in a side street.
Adverbials and adverbial phrases
Adverbs give us a sense of time, place or manner. Like adjectival phrases,
an adverbial phrase is when two or more words do the job of an adverb.
The baby slept soundly (adverb of manner)
The baby slept in peace (adverbial phrase of manner)
Make the following into adverbial phases:
The stars shone brightly.
The boy acted foolishly.
In Wales it rains constantly.
When the adverbial contains another noun it becomes an adverbial
clause e.g. ‘the baby cried like a lamb bleating.’
Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases
These tell you about the relationship between one thing and another, the ‘position.’
e.g. You went around the block. He jumped over the cat. In the drawer is a
knife.
Underline the preposition in these sentences:
1. Nick sat on the table.
2. Susan ran beside Alfie.
3. The bird flew above their heads.
Now change the word order around so each
sentence starts with the preposition. Sometimes it is a good idea to start sentences
with a preposition to add variety.
Think of 3 more prepositions.
Prepositional phrases often help you answer the questions of where, when, how, what,
which and whose in a text.
Consider these lines from Wordsworth’s poem ‘Daffodils’ and the effect of the
prepositional phrases:
‘That floats on high o’er vales and hills’
‘Beside the lake, beneath the trees.’
Connectives:
Consider how connectives are used for structure and development in texts. You may focus
on connectives when you write about STRUCTURE. You need to use a range of appropriate
connectives in your own writing.
Spelling Matters …
You must be able to: Spell basic and regular words
Spell complex and irregular words
Root words
These are words that have nothing added at the beginning or end. They can
be built upon or modified. New words can be built by adding beginnings
(prefixes) and endings (suffixes).
For example ‘use’ is a root word. This can be added to, to make the words
useless, usually, usable, misuse.
Task: Add 3 variations for each of the following root words; clear, manage,
beauty, faith.
Suffixes
A suffix is the group of letters you can add to the end of a root word. E.g. walking, helpful.
Probably the most common suffixes are ‘ed’ and ‘ing.’
Adding suffixes can change the spelling of the root word depending on how it ends. E.g.
Marry becomes married, they changes to an i when we add the suffix. Add suffixes to these
other words ending in y – happy, carry.
The suffixes of these words are spelt differently but sound the same.
Station
mansion musician
Think of other words which have these suffixes:
Attention Tension Television Fraction Optician Extension Indonesian Action
Prefixes:
These are added to the beginning of words. Prefixes have meanings. Match these
prefixes with their meanings:
Mis
under
Sub
wrong
Pre
not
Un
before
Challenge: Think about the prefixes in words from other subject areas. Making
connections between words will help you with understanding and spelling.
Remember: root words don’t change when you add a prefix so sometimes this
results in a double letter e.g. misspell, granddad.
antiagainst
antifreeze
deopposite
defrost
dis-*
not, opposite of
disagree
en-, emcause to encode
embrace
forebefore
forecast
in-, im-, il-, ir-*
not
injustice impossible
interbetween
interact
midmiddle
midway
miswrongly
misfire
nonnot
nonsense
overover
overlook
prebefore
prefix
re-*
again
return
semihalf
semicircle s
ubunder
submarine
superabove
superstar t
ransacross
transport
un-*
not
unfriendly
underunder
undersea
*Most frequent. The four most frequent prefixes account for 97 percent of prefixed words in
printed school English.
-able, -ible
can be done
comfortable
–al, -ial
having characteristics of
personal
-ed*
past-tense verbs
hopped
-en
made of
wooden
-er
comparative
higher
-er,
one who
worker, actor
-est
superlative
biggest
-ful
full of
careful
-ic
having characteristics of
linguistic
-ing*
verb form
running present
ion, -tion,-ation,
act, process
elimination
-ity -ty
state of
infinity
-ive, -ative, -itive
adjective form of noun
plaintive
less
without
fearless
-ly*
having of full of
quickly
-ment
action or process
enjoyment
-ness
state of, condition of
kindness
-ous, -eous, -ious
possessing qualities of
joyous
-s, -es*
more than one
books, boxes
-y
characterised by
lucky
*Most frequent. The four most frequent suffixes account for 97 percent of suffixed words in
printed school English.
Doubling Rules - a bit tricky to remember!
For most short one or two syllable words you double the last consonant
when you add a suffix e.g. Run =running, begin= beginning
If the word ends with more than one consonant you don’t double the
last letter e.g. pumped, singing.
For most longer words ending in l you double the l e.g. Travelling,
cancelled.
If you have a word ending in a consonant and a suffix starting with a
consonant you don’t need to double the last letter e.g. enrolment,
commitment.
Test yourself on other words and check whether you are doubling when
you need to.
Note:it is acceptable to spell the words focusing and targeting with a
single or double e.g. focussing, targetting.
Plurals
•
The most common way to show a plural is to add an s but it isn’t
always that simple ...
If a word ends in a hissing sound (s, sh, ch or x) add es.e.g. Glasses,
foxes, wishes, witches
If a word ends in f or fe you usually change these letters to ves e.g.
Loaf = loaves, wife = wives
But watch out for the exceptions: roofs, chiefs, dwarfs, beliefs
If a word ends in y look at the letter before the y. If it is a vowel
just add an s. Toy = toys. If it is a consonant take off the y and
add ies e.g. Fairy = fairies.
Silent Letters
These are tricky words because you can’t hear the silent letter. You need to
learn them! Here are some common ones. Look out for key words with silent
letters in other subject areas e.g. environment, parliament
Autumn biscuit
tongue
salmon
column
half calm almond
Wednesday climb , mortgage knock
Gnome
comb debt tomb
foreign rhythm knew rhyme
Short
definition:
It means ‘without a doubt’.
Word with the same prefix/suffix?
Highlight the hard part
Degrade
creatively
Adverb
Is there a root word?
How many syllables?
Finite
4
Words within the word?
Fin
Nit
finite
What is the word class?
Is there a suffix?
Challenge: what does it mean?
Is there a prefix? Challenge:
what does it mean?
‘De’
‘ly’
Can mean: removal, negation,
Means ‘having’ or ‘full of’.
descent or reversal.
Put it into a sentence
I definitely want to learn how to drive a car one day.
Short
definition:
Word with the same prefix/suffix?
Highlight the hard part
Is there a root word?
How many syllables?
Words within the word?
What is the word class?
Is there a suffix?
Challenge: what does it mean?
Put it into a sentence
Is there a prefix? Challenge:
what does it mean?
Homophone Hotspots
Look through this list with a partner and check you are
confident with using every word correctly in a sentence.
Affect – the verb e.g. Some people believe computer games affect
young people’s brains negatively.
Effect – usually a noun e.g. The new law goes into effect in January.
Break – to damage something or take a break.
Brake – reduce speed e.g. in a car.
Sent – e.g. away on a journey.
Scent – a lovely smell.
Threw – he threw a ball.
Through – he went through the door.
Loose – e.g. The chains had worked loose.
Lose – I would rather win than lose.
There – the place.
Their – belonging to them.
They’re – they are.
Witch – these feature in Macbeth.
Which – which one would you like?
Practise – the verb e.g. I must practise the piano.
Practice – the noun e,g, The doctor’s practice was the other side of
town.
Aloud – he spoke out loud.
Allowed – he was given permission.
Weather – it is raining.
Whether –whether or not?
Its – belonging to it – its kennel was made of wood.
It’s – it is e.g. It’s dark tonight.
Father – a dad.
Farther – away. Use farther to discuss physical distances, as in He
went farther down the road.
Further
should be used for figurative distance or to discuss degree or
:
extent, as in I wanted to discuss it further, but we didn't have time.
•
HOMONYMS are words that sound alike but have different meanings.
Homophones are a type of homonym that also sound alike and have
different meanings, but have different spellings. HOMOGRAPHS are
words that are spelled the same but have different meanings. Can you
think of other examples?
How effective are you at proof reading?
The following paragraph includes 10 incorrect spellings. Find them
and rewrite them correctly.
We where hoping for good whether for Sports Day.
Unfortunately on Friday morning it was poring with rain.
Luckily, by ten o’clock it was clear and sunny. I was very exited
when I got to the stadium but I had a long weight for my race,
the 200 meters. Their were eight of us in the final. I was in
the inside lane, witch I don’t usually like but I ran well round
the bend and was second comming into the straight. As I
crossed the line I was neck and neck with Jo. It wasn’t until
the teacher congratulated me that I new I had definately won.
Task: Proof read 3 paragraphs of your own
writing carefully and then do this for a
writing partner. What mistakes can you
find?
Spelling strategies and personal targets
You may be able to improve your spelling through:
1. Practising spellings using the look-cover-write-check method.
Use a highlighter or different colour pen to make you focus
on where you are making a mistake.
2. Using mnemonics (memory aids e.g. Necessary = one coat and
two socks).
3. Sounding out words and breaking into sections. There’s a rat
in ‘separate.’
4. Check if you are in the habit of spelling any high frequency
words incorrectly with your teacher. It may be that you
often get homophones confused or you need to practise
when to double consonants.
5. Display key words for your subjects in your bedroom at home
or write on a notes page on your phone. It is important you
get these right in exams.
Test yourself:
Are you confident with the following?
friend, believe, disappoint, necessary, responsible, quietly,
because, accommodation, beginning, library, useful
Identify the correct spelling:
1. We had no/know idea where/ wear we were going.
2. Its/It’s Tuesday tomorrow.
3. Hurry up or you’ll miss football practice/ practise.
Set yourself a spelling target below.
Target:
Some common mistakes LOOK COVER WRITE CHECK
Disappear
Disappoint
Embarrass
Existence
Fahrenheit
Foreign
Glamorous
Government
Humorous
Idiosyncrasy
Immediately
Interrupt
Independent
Knowledge
Liaison
Necessary
Noticeable
Occurred
Persistent
Politician
Preferred
Propaganda
Publicly
Received
Referred
Resistance
Separate
Successful
Tendency
Tomorrow
Truly
Unfortunately
Weird
Section 3. Sentence Structure and Variety.
In your own writing you need to add variety and appeal through varying
sentences:
1. Writing confidently in a range of sentences. There are three main types:
simple, compound and complex.
a. Simple sentences only have one clause:
Tom was always late (good to use if you want your writing to be
straightforward and clear. They can also add impact after longer
sentences.
Fragments (e.g. one word sentences e.g. ‘Silence!’ can also be used for
dramatic effect.
b. Compound sentences combine clauses with a conjunction (and/ or/ but).
Avoid using these words too often ,as it makes writing dull and
repetitive, use a more interesting connective where possible.
Tom borrowed some money but he forgot to pay it back. (note you don’t use a
comma with and/ but)
Tom borrowed some money, unfortunately, he forgot to pay it back.
c. Complex sentences include relative (subordinate) clauses to add detail and
variety .
‘Tom borrowed some money, as he had fallen heavily into debt, following
a disastrous night in a casino.
2. You can also add variety by using questions, exclamations and commands in
viewpoint writing. Be wary of overusing exclamation marks, however, as
this can make you writing seem simplistic.
3. Begin your sentences in different ways:
e.g. In descriptive writing tart the sentence with a verb, adverb or
preposition .
4. Expand details in the sentence by including noun phrases (e.g. Instead of:
She was given a puppy/ She was given a puppy with soft brown eyes and
huge paws. Adverbial phrases e.g. In the meantime, for better for
worse also add detail. Or include embedded clauses e.g. Koala bears,
although they look cuddly, can be extremely fierce.
5. Putting a ‘group of three’ in a sentence is another good effect, particularly
in persuasive writing.
Review your extended writing in different subjects and check you are
consciously varying sentences for effect.
Unpacking the sentence structure of difficult texts.
•
•
•
•
•
•
You need to be confident with commenting on sentence structure and the
effect writers’ are trying to create for the reading sections in the English
Language Papers. In particular, for English Paper 1 Q 3 with the focus on
structure.
Many 19th century texts use more complex, extended sentences so you need
to be able to unpack complex sentences. Identify the main clause, consider
where this comes in the sentence, consider what is the extra information
given in the sentence and the effect of the order. Also consider the effect
of punctuation and the pauses it creates as it takes us through the ‘thought
journey’ of a sentence.
Practise highlighting the main clause in challenging texts and consider what
the subordinate clause(s)/ phases add.
Consider whether the structure of the sentence reflects the attitudes of
the writer/ viewpoint to the subject.
Consider how and why short, simple sentences are used – do they create an
abrupt tone for example?
Consider if repetition or threads of ideas/ words are used for effect to
reinforce a message or idea.
Punctuation linked to complex sentences
Punctuation Mark
Definition
Effect
Comma
To separate the main clause from
the subordinate clauses
Take a micro pause
Semicolon
To join together two main clauses
which have a link, instead of a
conjunction
Leave a longer pause – the parts
could have been separate
sentences – why have they been
joined?
Colon
Used to introduce an explanation,
description or list related to what
has come before
Stop and look ahead – what is
introduced and why?
Pair of commas, dashes and
parenthesis ()
Used to add an explanation or
afterthought in a sentence
Pause for an ‘aside’ effect –
consider parenthesis which give it
less emphasis and dashes which
give it more emphasis.
Annotate sentence types and the effect in your prose text –
Jekyll and Hyde.
Structural Effects in Texts
Look at the following two
sentences from a novel by
Jon McGregor, one of which
is a minor sentence (or
‘fragment’ – lacking a key
element that makes a full
sentence e.g. subject or
verb), the other a complex
sentence.
So listen.
He traverses streets of dirty,
straggling houses, with now
and then an unexpected
court composed of
buildings, as illproportioned and deformed
as the half-naked children
that wallow in the kennels.
Consider:
Which sentence gives you more
detailed description?
Which one forces you to stop?
Which one has the slowest pace?
How does it do this?
Which one creates the most
drama and tension?
Which one creates a visual
image?
Now look at a longer extract from the same
novel and annotate for sentence effects. Look
for sentence types, patterns, unusual
structure, repetition, contrast, the order of
ideas and use of punctuation. Also consider
paragraphing organisation and effect.
So listen.
Listen and there is more to hear.
The rattle of a dustbin lid knocked to the
floor.
The scrawl and scratch of two hackle-raised
cats.
The sudden thunder crash of bottles emptied
into crates.
The slam-slam of car doors, the changing of
gears, the hobbled clip-clop of a slow walk
home. The rippled roll of shutters pulled
down on late night cafes, a crackled voice
crying street names for taxis, a loud scream
that lingers and cracks into laughter, a bang
that might just be an old car backfiring, a
callbox calling for an answer, a treeful of
birds tricked into morning, a whistle and a
shout and a broken glass, a blare of soft
music and a blam of hard beats, a barking
and yelling and singing and crying and it all
swells up all the rumbles and crashes and
bangings and slams, all the noise and the
rush and the non-stop wonder of the song of
the city you can hear if you listen the song
and it stops
in some rare and sacred dead time,
sandwiched between the late sleepers and
early risers, there is a miracle of silence,
Everything has stopped.
At this point look just at structure not
language effects.
Paragraphing and Planning
Paragraphs are needed to structure and organise your writing.
•
In simplistic terms you start a new paragraph when you talk about a new
point, character, place or time but you should now be asking how can you use
paragraphs to make your writing interesting, original and fluent?
•
It is important to plan your writing in order to get paragraphs in the right
order. The order depends on the purpose of your writing – e.g chronological
for a story, logical for an explanation. Your extended writing pieces for
GCSE are descriptive for Paper 1 and viewpoint for Paper 2.
•
Beginnings and ending are always important. The first paragraph must grab
the reader’s interest and clearly establish the form and purpose of writing.
The last paragraph must give a definite ending – perhaps referring back to
the beginning, ending with a question or a short sentence for impact.
Remember to:
•
Consider using topic sentences to start each paragraph in viewpoint writing.
Then build on this topic sentence by adding reasons, examples and
explanations. Remember your persuasive techniques for variety and
engagement.
•
Use connectives to signpost your writing; e.g. Although, however,
furthermore, on reflection...
•
Consider using minor sentences in a paragraph on their own for dramatic
impact in descriptive writing. Repeat structures for effect. Mirror ideas or
key words from your first paragraph in your last paragraph.
•
Plan using a mind map to build ideas. Brainstorm first then decide on the
sequence. Or you may prefer to plan through a series of bullet points.
Introduction
Para 1
Level descriptors for organisation and
paragraphing:
Band 4: well constructed text shaping, wide range of
discourse markers used for cohesion.
Band 3: clearly organised paragraphs, links made between
sentences and discourse markers used.
Set yourself a target
linked to planning/
paragraphing:
........................................
........................................
........................................
........................................
Section 5. Improving Vocabulary and
Enriching Writing
A wide vocabulary helps your writing and makes it
more interesting and precise.
Adjectives and adverbs can improve descriptions:
E.g. He lay the axe on the ground
He lay the battered axe wearily on the ground.
Longer words can be more impressive – an atrocious
attack, an unacceptable request
Try to be precise in your use of nouns and verbs
E.g. The cat sat in the shed. x
The cat lounged in the summer house. (better)
Also consider using stylistic devices and figurative
language for effect.
Alliteration: e.g. The ridiculous rodent Roland rat
Similes: as dull as a grey Sunday
Metaphors : the sausages were put to the sword
without mercy
Personification: the silence sat uncomfortably in the
room
Onomatopoeia; with a crash and clap like thunder the
boy burst out of the cake with a whoop of joy.
Hyperbole (exaggeration) for effect. E.g. The
greatest experience of your life.
Build your own …
Vocabulary Bank e.g.
Epitome
Austere
Benevolent
Diligent
Cacophony
Fragility
Gregarious
Homogenous
Idiosyncratic
Imagery Bank
Icicles dripped like
translucent daggers.
The grass, a velvet
carpet.
Ivy wrapped its fingers
around the windows,
suffocating the view.
Choose words
appropriate to
your audience
and purpose:
E.g. Formal for a
discussion,
informal for a
teenage audience,
emotive for
persuasive
writing, technical
for information
writing.
Task:
1. Build up a
vocabulary bank
of more
sophisticated
words. Use them
3 times within a
week to embed
them into your
own vocabulary.
2. Build up a generic
bank of imagery
you could possibly
use in your
extended writing.
New Vocabulary
Word
Meaning
Imagery and language
Simile
Metaphor
Personification and pathetic
fallacy
Alliteration
Onomatopoeia
Other
Exemplar Descriptive Writing
Climbing Cryb Goch
Anxiously I tug on my thick woolly socks. The sparkling peak of Snowdon
looms like an iceberg above me. My skin tingles the air is so cold. Boots
next, numb fingers fumble with the laces. Other walkers are getting ready
too, chattering animatedly to one another, their voices seem amplified in
the breathless, chilly air. Everyone is eagerly anticipating their day, but I'm
not so sure.
We set off along the Pyg track, our boots crunching through the snow, Cryb
Goch looms above, an intimidating sight. A shiver of fear runs down my spine
and the hair on the back of my neck prickles. Everyone else wants to go this
way, but I'd rather take an easier route. Someone fell off last week!
A nerve-jangling scramble and Cryb Goch lies before me, a spiny white
lizard's back stretching into the distance. Was it a trick of the light or did
I see it twitch, preparing to send me tumbling? A butterfly of panic
flutters in my stomach and I struggle to quell it. Slowly I set off on my
crawl while my companions trip like mountain goats along the craggy ridge.
How do they do it? The next hour is a blur of scraped knees, glimpses of
dizzying drops and mumbled prayers.
Ah! The top! Thank God! My prayers have been answered! I deserve a cup of
tea. Is it just me, or does lukewarm tea poured from a flask you have lugged
all the way up a mountain taste the best? I break off a big chunk of milk
chocolate - the rich smell fills my nostrils. Mmmmm! Now, how do we get
down?
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Identify and annotate for: the descriptive techniques used,
sentence/ punctuation variety, structure.
Can you write the next paragraph
and describe the journey down?
Key Reading skills
Scanning and skimming Skills
In order to read efficiently in an exam situation, in other subjects as well as
English, you need these skills. Scanning is when you look over a text to
quickly find specific information linked to a question. Scan for relevant
material and highlight so you don’t lose it! Skimming is when you get the
general idea of a text by locating the key ideas and not reading every word.
Look for the topic sentences at the start of paragraphs. Practise these
reading skills with non fiction texts. Remember you will need to locate and
analyse specific information in other subjects such as Geography and
History.
Using textual support and achieving depth of analysis.
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You are used to using the PEE sequence to make a point, use evidence and explore the
effect. For further variety and sophistication you could:
Embed quotations within your answer
Use a quotation as a starting point to present an idea.
Use close textual reference instead of direct quotation.
Embedding quotations mean your writing will be more fluent. E.g. Macbeth immediately
feels the consequences of Duncan’s murder as he reflects he, ‘shall sleep no more.’ This
communicates in a simple but powerful way how he has sacrificed his humanity and ability
to be at peace. He will suffer the torment of his conscience and this will be inescapable.
Starting with a quotation can add variety and be a powerful opening.
‘Out, out brief candle! Life’s but a walking shadow.’ Macbeth’s philosophical despair at
the end of the play reinforces the play’s message that, for a usurper, misery and
emptiness will characterise their existence. At the time of the play’s first performance,
with threats to King James’ position on the throne a present reality, this would have
been even more significant. Obviously the metaphor would have also carried more weight
with the brevity of candle’s light being part of everyday life.
With the change to closed text exams there is less expectation to use extensive
quotations in textual analysis and it is just as useful to give a textual reference by
referring to a precise detail or moment in a play , poem or novel.
Summarising and Synthesising skills
For Language Paper 2 you need to be able to summarise and synthesise,
drawing together ideas from two texts in a fluent way.
Look for key topic sentences at the start of each paragraph.
Highlighting key ideas in texts and using venn diagrams or numbering the
points may be useful for organising before you write.
Look for quotations you can ‘pair up’ from different texts that deal with
similar things.
Use linking words to make connections such as whereas, similarly, in
contrast.
Follow the sequence: point – quotation – inference -link
Some key terms – you need to know and use
Explicit – information that is openly stated.
Implicit - information that is not openly stated but implied. You have to ‘read between
the lines’ and make an inference.
Connotation – implied meaning. For example a heart has connotations of love and
sincerity.
Emotive language – words that evoke certain feelings or emotions such as pity or anger.
Diction and register – refer to the writer’s choice of words and vocabulary.
Semantic field – using a pattern of words or phases linked to a particular subject for
effect.
Rhetoric – the art of speaking and influencing. Rhetorical techniques are used to
persuade a reader e.g. rhetorical questions.
Hyperbole – another word for exaggeration.
Onomatopoeia – the use of words which sound like their meaning e.g. creaked and
clunked.
Alliteration – repeated consonant sounds, consider whether the effect creates a harsh
(d,k,g), soft (s,f) or explosive sound (p, b).
Sibilance – alliteration using the repeated s sound.
Assonance – repetition of repeated vowel sounds. Often creating a softer effect.
Similes – comparisons with like or as ‘’straight as a young larch tree’
Metaphors – a comparison written as if it were something else, ‘Beth was an angel.’
Personification – makes a thing, idea or feeling into a person.
Pathetic fallacy - description of nature and the weather to reflect the mood and
situation of a character.
Symbol – an object which represents a feeling or idea, e.g. a dove represents peace.
Stanza – group of lines in a poem
Discourse markers – connectives that signpost changes and links in writing.
Anecdotes - personal stories used to add interest.
Direct address – use of personal pronouns (you/ your)
Soliloquy – speech to the audience in a Shakespeare play.
Iambic pentameter – verse structure used by Shakespeare and often in sonnets.
Pentameter means there are 5 stressed syllables on each line. Iambic means refers
to the stress falling on the second syllable, This creates a sense of rhythm and
control, it is sometimes said it mirrors the rhythm of natural speech and is like a
heartbeat. Sometimes Shakespeare varies the rhythm to make a particular word or
idea stand out.
‘Oh she doth teach the torches to shine bright.’
Caesura - punctuation in the middle of a line of verse.
Enjambment – when a line ‘runs on’ to the next with no punctuation.
Oxymoron – putting opposite words together for effect e.g. bright smoke.
Juxtaposition – contrasting opposing ideas.
Protagonist – the main character in a story.
Colloquial – conversational and casual style.
Ambiguous – could be interpreted in more than one way.
Omniscient – all seeing narrative perspective.
Persona – the voice of a character in poem.
Dramatic monologue – a poem written in the first person.
Archaic – outdated.
Blank verse – poetry with a regular metre but no rhyme.
Free verse – poetry with no regular pattern of rhyme or metre.
Widening your vocabulary for literary analysis:
Verbs you could use for literary analysis
accentuates
evokes
ascertains
specifies
portrays
defines
juxtaposes
depicts
summarises
promotes
elicits
reveals
dramatises
advocates
enhances
infers
symbolises
foreshadow
s
laments
illustrates
differentiate
s
suggests
overstates
persuades
outlines
maintains
alludes
ridicules
satirizes
presents
Adjectives to describe an author’s viewpoint
idealistic
visionary
prophetic
optimistic
perceptive
original
cynical
unorthodox
opinionated
erudite
pessimistic
imaginative
Adjectives to describe style/ tone and diction
melodramatic
eloquent
obscure
colloquial
concise
bombastic
provincial
interrogative
verbose
naturalistic
euphemistic
abrupt
pragmatic
precise
pretentious
laconic
simple
metaphorical
figurative
emphatic
Words linked to structure/ viewpoint:
chronological in medias res flash back flash forward omniscient nostalgic impersonal reflective
Different words to describe imagery:
Bucolic pastoral auditory religious animal tactile chaotic war/ military domestic
Words to describe characters – can you link these
words to a character from a text you have studied?
repugnant
grotesque
loathsome
odious
repulsive
precocious
puerile
shrewd
cunning
notorious
immoral
deceitful
vile
unscrupulous
notorious
brusque
taciturn
obsequious
diabolic
fiendlike
infamous
corrupt
depraved
recalcitrant
guileless
rational
observant
wise
innocent
principled
lively
handsome
vivacious
attractive
elegant
virtuous
angelic
amicable
genial
convivial
Words for viewpoint and argument
assert
allege
pathos
credibility
Counter
argument
assertion
refutation
precedent
accountability
antithesis
affirm
validity
epitome
rhetoric
ethos
challenge
justification
paradigm
adherent
testimonial
dispute
proponent
advocacy
proposal
anecdote
Notes Page