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Scientific Method • Bacon (1561-1626) and Descartes (1596-1650) – were not scientists but did invent new habits of scientific thought • scientific method as habits of disciplined creativity, careful observations, logical thinking & analysis of observations • way of seeking trends & drawing generalizations • Convinced governments of England & France to form academies of science that still exist today • Scientific way of thinking based on assumptions & methods that are reliable, objective & testable Making observations until capable of drawing generalizations and making predictions – anatomy is a product of inductive method • Proof in science can not go past “proved beyond reasonable doubt” – reliable methods of observation – tested and confirmed repeatedly – not falsified by any credible observation • In science, all truth is tentative Inductive Method Hypothetico-Deductive Method • Physiological knowledge gained by this method • Ask a question and formulate a hypothesis -- an educated possible answer • Good hypothesis – consistent with what is already known – capable of being tested and falsified with certain evidence • If nothing could prove it wrong, it is not a scientific belief • Hypotheses are written as IfThen predictions – modified and rewritten after testing Experimental Design • Sufficient sample size to prevent chance event • Control group and treatment group receive the same treatment except for the variable being tested • Prevention of psychosomatic effects – use of placebo in control group • Experimenter bias – prevented with double-blind study • Statistical testing to be sure the difference between groups was not random, but was due to variable being tested Peer Review • Critical evaluation by other experts in the field – prior to funding – verification and repeatability of results • Ensures honesty, objectivity & quality in science Health Minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang of South Africa, known for putting vegetable remedies ahead of anti-retrovirals, endorses Dr Matthias Rath's vitamin treatments. Dr. Rath and his cure for AIDS: Mega Doses of Vitamin C • A doctor who worked with Nobel Prize winner Linus Pauling • has taken the advocacy of vitamins into all-out war on the pharmaceutical companies • Buys ad space in the NY Times, and fills them with editorials masked as facts • Without getting confirmation of his studies is taking his cure to the people of Africa • Problems: Too much Vitamin C can lead to Diarrhea which can kill an AIDS patient. Facts, Laws and Theories • Scientific fact is information that can be independently verified by any trained person – iron deficiency leads to anemia • Law of nature is a description of the way matter and energy behave – resulting from inductive reasoning & repeated observations – written as verbal statements or mathematical formulae • Theory is a summary of conclusions drawn from observable facts – it provides explanations and predictions – sliding filament theory of muscle contraction Logic is the anatomy of thought -John Locke • Conditional arguments: the basis of hypothesis forming. Two parts • Part 1: If p then q – P = antecedent – Q = Consequent • Part 2 allows us to draw conclusions – If P happens then Q happens (Modus Ponens – If Q did not happen, P did not happen (Modus Tollens) There is a claim that lycopene, the reddish substance in tomatoes and peppers, is of value in protecting people from Alzheimer Disease. How would you, as a scientist, go about substantiating or refuting this suggestion?