Download The Rmaniration of Hellenistlc Agora Forre in Southera Asia Minor

University of Alberta
The Rmaniration of Hellenistlc Agora Forre
in Southera Asia Minor
Tracy Elgasa Satin
A thesis aubmitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studiee and
Research in p a r t i a l fulfillient of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Arts.
Classical Archaeology
Department of History and Claseica
Edmnton, Alberta
Spring 1997
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Abstract
The process of Romanization in Southern Asia Minox,
specifically in the coabined province of Lycia-Pamphylia,
began to bring about changes in public architecture and its
function within
society,
These
changes were
generally
concentrated in the area of the t o m ' civic-centre' , or agora.
In order to fully understand these changes, the Hellenistic
asorae in the western cities of Miletus, Priene, Magnesia and
Pergamon will be examined.
These cities provide the best
examples of Helfenistic t o m planning, from which the later
Roman aaorae evolved.
The Lycian-Pamphylian cities of Phaselis, Perge, Aspendus
and Side al1 flourished during the Roman period. These cities
became wealthier and they began to be adorned with new Roman
buildings, including newly developed ' civic-centres '
design of these Roman auorae was
.
The
influenced both by the
architectural trends found in the Hellenistic models and by
new Roman architectural ideas, which togetber helped to create
a public architecture that was unique to the province.
1 would like to thank my family and friends f o r al1 of
their support and love.
1 would also l i k e t o thank W.T.
Reynolds for a l 1 of the wonderful drawings. Thank you all.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Chaptet 1 -Topography of Southern Asia Minor
Topography and Foundation L e g e n d of Lycia
Topography and Foundation L e g e n d of Pamphylia
History and Romanization of tycia-Pamphylia
-
Chapter 2
Greek Agora Development i n the
Hellenistic Period in Western Asia Minor
Miletus
Priene
Magnesia
Pergamon
-
Chapter 3
Romanization of Hellenistic Agora
Fonns in the Province of Lycia-Pamphylia
Roman Developaients in Public Architecture
Phaselis
Perge
Aspendus
Side
Conclusion
Paestum
Figures
References Cited
References Consulted
Map of Roman Asia Minor
Northern
Southern
Agora a t
A g o r a at
Agora at Miletus
Agora at Miletus
Priene
Magnesia
Upper Agora a t Pergamon
Lower A g o r a a t Pergamon
Agora of Phaselis
Agora of Perge
Agora of A s p e n d u s
S t a t e Agora a t Side
Commercial Agora at Side
Forum at Paestum
Introduction
The Romanization of the province of Lycia-Pamphylia in
southern Asia Minos (fig.1) began to bring about subtle
changes in public architecture. ' This process of Romanization
occurred over several centuries and was dif ferent in each
region of the Empire and in each city.' In certain cases the
Romans would come in and plunder, destroying any evidence of
the prior population but this was not the case in Asia Minor,
In the c i t i e s of the Eastern provinces the transition from
Greek t o Roman domination was often peaceful, The people of
Asia Minor were able t o keep their identities as free
citizens, simply reporting business and everyday happenings t o
the local Roman governors, who would then in turn report to
the Emperor i f needed. Where this process of change through
Romanization is most evident is in the public buildings of the
individual cities, for it was these buildings t h a t represented
the city, the people who lived there and those who ruled over
it, Thetefore the Romanization of Southetn Asia Minor can be
clearly seen through its architectural development, with
changes in the f o m and function of public architecture.
When looking at Roman architectural development in A s i a
Minor it is imperative ta examine closely the form of the
building complexes and their function. What is meant by form
i s the actual building itself, Form is the basic building
'The land the G r e e k s tefezzed to as Asia encompassed the azea between the
Aegean Sea and the Caucasus Mountains, bordered on the north by the Black
sea and by the eastern Mediterranean on the south. Being so large, through
time it was divided into two separate regions and renamed larger or outer Asia
and small or inner Asfa, which the Romans later rehbelïed Asia Minor. This
area, now better known as Turkey,is ako often referred to as Anatolia. The
word 'Anatolia' denoting the Greek word meaning to raise over the horizon
referring to the sunrise and the East.
2~omanizam
is the process where -es
Me.
are made Roman in ail aspects of d t y
shape and how al1 its parts fit into the complex as a whole.
The function then refers to the how the building was used and
the activities that occurred within the complex. These two
aspects of architectural development must be looked at
In
together fat they are closely related to one another.
order for public architecture to be easily recognized by the
public its exterior and interior appearance must clearly state
w h a t the building is, therefore making a statement about how
the building was used. Yet to fully understand the process of
Romanization through public architectural form and in turn
function, one must also take into account the general location
of the areas being examined, background history, foundation
legends and socio-economic conditions which al1 played a large
role in the formation of an ancient society.
The best area to study this process is the 'civic-centre'
of any given city. It was within these areas that the townspeople gathered to conduct their daily business, both
commercial and administrative, and where their social and
religious events took place. By studying these centres a more
complete understanding of the societies in which they were
placed can then be formed.
Different political
With Romanization came change.
institutions replaced older established factions and in order
to complement this, changes occurred in al1 areas of the city.
One of the major transitions occurred with the modification of
public architecture, for not only did change happen within the
actual form of the buildings themselves but change also
occurred within the function of the buildings and how they
were used. Therefore the main focus of this thesis shall be
on the changes which occurred in the public architecture of
the Roman province of Lycia-Pamphylia, focusing on the agora,
the most public area of any given Greek city.
Here the
transformation from a specifically Greek form and furiction to
the Roman shall be looked at and illustrated by the
development of the aaorae of the Roman cities in the Greek
East
The m o s t public of al1 city complexes was the town
'civic-centret, In the Greek world these centres were called
The word agora is derived from the term acreiro,
amrae.
meaning ' 1 collect ' .3
This refers not only to a place of
assembly for the town officials but also for the common
people,
and i s a term often referring t o a market-place,
According to Homer the word 'agorar referred to an a~sembly.~
This definition remained valid until the end of the seventh
century B-CAlthough still denoting a place for the
assembly, after the seventh century B ,C, the word 'agora' was
frequently used in Greek prose t o demte the market or public
square. 5
In its initial state of development the agora w a s a place
where the townspeople gathered for social activities. The
agora evolved out of the Greek concept of 'community' but it
did not emerge specifically as a 'market placef or ' civiccentre', but as a communal place where the t o m s people could
congregate . Thus, the agora formed an essential part of Greek
life and its growth depended on the city's population, the
political situation and religious beliefs.'
In the Archaic and Classical periods of Greek history,
the agora was very simple in plan and did not contain many
monuments, Many early aaorae took the form of the traditional
semi-circular Greek theatre where t i e r s of seats could be put
"..
ïJ., Book 2.93:
.so the many nations of men Born ships and the
4~omer,
shelters dong the front of the deep sea beach marched in order by companies
by R Lattimore, 1967)
to the assembly, , (tr-ted
.
' ~ eLigt, 1993, pg. 40
in for audiences.'
Not only was this shape convenient for
public meetings and assemblies but also on certain days of the
week or at certain times of the day, either the entire area or
part of it could be converted into a market by setting up
temporaty booths .
These theatre auorae were popular yet in no means the
standard form.
One
of the best examples of an
Archaic/Classical agora can be found at Athens.
Here the
agora began to develop in the seventh century B.C. expanding
out ftom the city's council-house. To the north a modest
temple was built in honour of Apollo and beyond this a shrine
to Zeus.
Here we see the beginning of the agora as a
political and religious centre. To the south an irregular
shaped building surrounded by a colonnade was built. This
building according to Whycherly was the precursor to the
Tholos and probably served the same purpose as the
prvtaneion.'
Boundary Stones have been found which indicate
that during the sixth century the agora was developing some
type of f o m . Later in the sixth century an altar was built
dedicated to the twelve gods.
This altar served as a
milestone for the Attic road system, indicating the centre of
the city and al1 of Attica. Ta complete this period of agora
development another council-house was built and just north of
this a temple was built to honour the Mother of the Gods. The
Athenian agora now had a definite fotm and functioned as the
political and religious centre of the community which was
united in the fact that al1 the monuments were arranged in a
straight line following the north-south axis of the Street.
At this time the market activity was most probably
concentrated along the eastern side, where the market-hall of
I
' ~ h acrorae
e
at Leto and Dreros in Crete and the Athenian agora aU had steps
which functioned as seats for spectators to watch spectacles and listen to
speakers .
'whycherly, 1976, pg. 57
Attalus later stood*
Yet during the time of the Persian wars the agora was
destroyed and was in dire need of rebuilding. A p a r t for
repairing those buildings that could be saved a Tholos was
built at the agora's southern end. A Doric temple was then
erected to the west in the middle of the fifth century. This
temple was not located in the agora proper but was a dominant
feature none the less.
At the eastern edge of the agora
another Doric temple was built leaving the centre of the
agora free. A Doric stoa dedicated to Zeus was then built
along the northern edge of the west side, and finally towards
the end of the fifth century B - C e a new council-house was
built.
The Classical Athenian agora was now complete.
Religious, administrative and social activities were now
incorporated into one area
in the centre of the city,
although each aspect of the agora was separate they al1
functioned as one.
In the Hellenistic period, thanks to a general increase
in wealth, there was a growth in civic development, and as the
cities g r e w , the acrorae had to be modified to accommodate al1
the needs of the people who lived within a given territory.
Roads led to and from the agora to insure that there was
sufficient access to it, and adequate space was designated for
al1 its services. The area had to be fairly level and there
had to be a good water supply and sufficient drainage, for the
agora became a type of resort where the citizens could go to
relax as well as conduct their daily business. More buildings
were now associated with the agora. Often the council-house,
offices for magistrates and official records and the
prvtanerion were either located within the agora or close by
and stoae became standard 'general-purpose' buildings that
soon became the most common elements of the Hellenistic Greek
gWhycherly, 1976, pq. 58
agora.''
Another building that became increasingly important
to the agora was the temple, for the agora was no longer
simply the centre for social activity but soon became the
centre for religious activity as well. The agora was now a
true 'civic-centref, in the modern sense, where the people of
the community would gathered for political, religious, social
and commercial business. The city soon became dependent on
the agora for its livelihood and it was common for the
citizens to spend the second part of the day at the market."
If the market, or 'civic-centrev, was successful not only
would the t o m benefit, but its citizens and the surrounding
area would flourish as well,
To begin with, in chapter one, a brief siimmary of the
topography , foundation legends and history of the southern
provinces of Lycia and Pamphylia shall be discussed. This
then shall give a background for the study of the Romanization
of the public architecture in this area and how and why it was
effected by this lengthy process.
Prior to studylng the development of Roman
civiccentres1 in the province of Lycia-Pamphylia, it is necessary
to examine t h e formation of the ' civic-centre', the agora, in
the earlier Greek conmunities of Asia Minor,
Therefore
chapter two will then deal with the development of Greek agora
in the Hellenistic period, For this study examples shall be
taken from Western Asia Minor. Not only are the cities chosen
well documented, they also provide the best examples of
Hellenistic
'civic-centres' in Asia Minor,
for they
incorporate into them al1 the common architectural elements
that should be found in such public complexes. During the
fourth century B.C, Greek colonies were established along the
coast of Anatolia and many of the native cities were greatly
"WhyCnerly, 1976, pg. 52
"~lumner,1893, pg. 190
influenced bp these colonies,
Koine Greek became the
international language and Greek religion and political
institutions were adopted by many of the Local communities."
To better understand this process of Hellenization and how it
affected the communities of southern Asia Minor 1 will study
Hellenistic 'civic-centres' in the cities of Miletus, Priene,
Magnesia and Pergamon, since these metropoleis greatly
influenced the rest of Asia Minor- Al1 of these cities were
of high status, being wealthy commwiities that were well
respected in the various fields of art and architecture and it
w a s from these agora models that the rest of the country
looked to for inspiration in the building of their own ' civiccentres ' .
Chapter three will then return to the province of LyciaPamphylia and the main focus of the thesis shall be discussed.
M a n y of the busy centres of activity were located along the
main coastal routes of Italy, Greece and Asia Minor.
Beginning in the f irst century A.D. Roman influence was
dominant in many of the cities located in the western part of
the Roxnan Empire but in the eastern part of the Empire, such
as in the cities located along the Coast of Lycia-Pamphylia,
this influence was less pronounced. By looking at the cities
of Lycia-Pamphylia and how their ' civic-centres ' developed
from the Hellenistic to the Roman period, it should be
possible to determine the consequences of the process of
Romanization upon the older and more established Hellenistic
traditions of the East, Here the process of Romanization
shall be looked at and how it effected the public architecture
of the acrorae. To begin with Roman developments in public
architecture shall be discussed for although the Roman 'civiccentre', the forum, was essentially the same as Greek agora,
certain aspects of its form and function were different,
"Kofne was the offidal G r e e k language that was instituted by Alexander the
Great, in the fourth century B. Ce,to unite his empire.
complexes in the southern cities of
Phaselis, Perge, Aspendus and Side shall be looked at and how
the Hellenistic models were then modified to fit into the
After this the agora
Roman world,"
The conclusion will then focus on the changes that
occurred with the Romanization of Southem Asia Minor and how
these changes were not isolated within the Eastern provinces.
Here Paestum shall be used as a case study, for not only is
this city located in Italy it is also relatively close to
Rome, yet it was of Greek foundation and displayed many of the
same trends in public architecture as other Greek cities that
An
were influenced by Rome but not located in the west,
analysis of this type of architectural development through
Romanization will then afford a greater understanding of any
specific area and the prevailing socio-economic conditions.
1 will also attempt to establish a record of the historical
progression and the adaptations originating in the
amalgamation of Hellenistic and Roman formç and their
influences upon As ia Minor.
The conclusion then shall
siimmarize the changes that occurred with the Romanizatian of
the aqorae in Southern Asia Minor and how it effected the
Roman province of Lycia-Pamphylia.
By examining the Romanization of Greek cities through
architectural for- one can better understand how Greeks and
Romans interacted with each other and in turn, some hypotheses
''~ecause of the nature of the subject and the fact that during Roman
occupation Greek Hellcrnintic influences were stiU quite strong in Asia Minor,
what one would label as a Roman forum is often referred ta as a Roman agora.
In this area of the world G r e e k traditions, in aU aspects of Me, were very
strong and although Roman occupationand acculturation could not be avoided,
there was never any direct Greek assimilation into the Roman sodety . These
agora complexes were essentf;illy that of Greek tradition but thraugh the
process of Romanization took on Roman traits. The basic outllne plan was that
of the Greek agora yet the buildings were of Roman form and how they were
placed and functioned within the complex were of Roman design, References
to this terminolagy can be found in Bean, M a n s e l , Mc Danagh, Steele and
Vann ,
can be made with regard to d a i l y life, how c i t i e s functioned
and what the political, artistic and religious %nfluences w e r e
upon them. Selected t o m in Asia M i m r then can provide good
examples of Greek-Roman interaction and of the process of
Romanization w h i c h occurred in the province of LyciaPamphylia .
T o ~ o u r a ~ hof
v Southeni Asia Minor
The southern coast of Asia Minor can be dioided into four
well-def ined and naturally varying geographical regions ( fig ,
1): to the east are the fertile plains of Cilicia, known as
Smooth Cilicia.
To the west is Rough Cilicia. This area
encompasses the Taurus mountain range with its deep river
valleys and enormous gorges. The expansive plain of Pamphylia
lies further to the west where the mountains recede. Here the
land is crossed by numerous streams and four major tivers: the
Catarrhactes, the Cestas, the Eurymedon and the Melas. Since
Pamphylia is surrounded by mountains and is off the main eastwest land routes, it tended to play a compatatively modest
role in the overall historp of t h e area, but is no less
important than any other southern province. "
Lycia, the
fourth region, is located ta the west of Pamphylia.
The southern coast of Asia Minor has a number of
excellent anchorages and sheltered harbours which increased
the wealth of those cities along the southern coast and linked
Anatolia to the major maritime trade routes. In antiquity,
according to a study done on Roman roads in Asia Minor by W.
M. Ramsay, many of the commercial trade routes tended to run
east-west.15 But for the purpose of trading directly with the
West, seaports located along the Black Sea and the
Mediterranean were used. The major anchorages used in the
south were Telmessus in Lycia, and Side and Antalya in
Pamphylia. At these ports, the main roads convergea and in
turn they soon became pivota1 areas for the coastal traffic
"~ean,1968, pg. 21
"~amsay,1962, pg. 58
which eventually found its way to Rome, l6
Despite the
importance of these ports the southern coast remained
physically isolated since the roads leading to and from the
various cities were f e w . The area had been dominated by the
Persians, the Selucides, the Ptolemies, Rhodes and the Romans,
over a long chronology and thus each culture left its mark on
the society.
T o ~ o a r a ~ hand
v Foundation Lecrend of Lycia
T h e l i n e which separates Lycia
from the rest of A s i a
Minor, as defined by G,E. Bean, has generally been accepted to
be the route which connects Koycegiz to Antalya. l7 (fig. 1)
The province can be divided into two main sectors, the first
The
being the mountains and the second the maritime portion."
two most fertile regions in Lycia lie in t h e lower valleys of
the Esen and Alakir rivers,
Because of trade and m a r k e t
activity between the interior of the province and the coast
lands Lycia was provided with enough resources ta sustain
itself and earn the Homeric appellation of a 'rich land1, not
a land lacking in goods .Ig
As to who exactly the Lycians were and where they came
from is disputed. According to Herodotus the Lycians, also
known as the Termilae, were not indigenous to the southern
l6ibid.
I7Bean, 1978, pg. 19
"~hese
mountains ranqes were known to the ancient Greek geographers as the
19Homer, il, book XVL 437, 514, 673, 683: le... and these two presently laid
him down within the rich countryside of Lykia " (translated by R Lattimore ,
1967)
-
.
Asia Minor but had o r i q i n a l l y corne from ~ r e t e . "
According to legend these people w e r e brought to A s i a Minor
under the lead of King M i n o s r brother Sarpedon. E a r l i e r i n
time Homer k n e w that the Lgcians, allies of the Trojans,
fought under Sarpedon and ~laucus."
According to the various foundation legends t h i s r a c e of
people w e n t by numerous narnes.
At first they were called
'Milyae' then ' Solymi ' then ' Termilaen but with the arrivai of
the Greek colony led by Lycus they were f i n a l l y renamed
'Lycian~~.'~ In Greek legend, then, the Lycians were a
significant population and w e r e c l e a r l y distinguished as
a l l i e s of King P r i a m of ~ r o y . ' ~The Lycians had a reputation
for being true to t h e i r o r i g i n s and their land. When Ionian
and Dorian colonists f i r s t began to expand their territory and
colonize the southern part of the country, between the 12th
and 11th centuries B.CI, these colonists succeeded in
capturing Caria and the Pamphylians managed t o occupy part of
Pisidia y e t neither could acquire the area known as Lycia. As
coast of
20~erodotus,
Hist. ,1.173, M . 9 2 : "This people came nom Crete, and were
once called Termilae; they got the name which they now bear from Lycus, the
son of Pandion, an Athenian, ln(translated by G Rawîinson, 1930)
.
" ~ o m e i , il,11.876. O t h e r s who have referred to the Lydans as Termilae,
according to the accounts of Stephanos of Byzantium (Steph. Byz.
Ethnicorum, pg. 6l7f. ) are the poet Hecataeus, the Lycian historian
Alexander and the f3fth century Carian poet Panyasis who wrote that
Temtües, who lived by the Xanthus river, fathered four sons; Tlws,
Xanthus, Pinarus and Cragus who then fathered the L y d a n race.
"Although this has generaUy been accepted as the most plausible ïineage of
the Lycian people, Strabo makes a clear distincUon between the ' S o l y W and
the 'Lyciansr themselves, Strabo believed that a people called the Cauconians,
who originaüy lived in the Arcadian part of the Peloponnese, fled to the
Lycian coast because they could no longer endure the oppressive ruie of
Lepreus , a local tyrant . (Strabo, Geo. , W. 63 : " And the geographer
further says that the Cauconians in the Peloponnesus,the Archadian portion,
could not endure ta be ruled by the house of Lepreus - For Lepreus was a bad
m a n - and so they sailed away from there to Lycia. " ) (translated b y H.L
Jones, 1967)
"carnet, 1971, section XI, pg. 241
well, in the second period of Greek immigration, the so called
' A g e of Colonizationr, no colonies w e r e founded in this part
of the country.''
T h e Lpcians preserved their culture, language and script
until the coming of Alexander the Great in the fourth century
B.C.
For although many of the Lycian city names known to us
now are of Greek origin, a i s w a s not the case prior to
Alexander, It is a known fact that Xanthus was originally
A r n a in Lycian and according to Pliny the Lycian name for
Antiphellus was Habesos
W h e n Alexander made it law that
Greek was to be the language to unite his empire the original
Lycian language began to fade. In the fourth century B . C , one
of the first signs of Hellenization are the Lycian Princes
adopting Greek names and the use of both Greek and Lycian
languages in inscriptions. By the third century B.C. almost
al1 the native Lycian traditions were replaced by Greek
practices and the Lycian language was no longer found on
."
inscriptions.2 6
The tycians were among the last peoples in Asia Minor to
be incorporated into the Roman Empire.
They managed to
maintain their freedom throughout the Republican period, the
first century B . C . , and the first years o f the Empire, the
first century A . D . ' ~
Referring to the Republican period,
Strabo writes that since the Lycians lived under such a good
2 4 ~ htime
e frame for this has generally been agreed to be between 900-500
B.C.
...
"~itny,Nat, V. XXVIII. 100: "
The City-state of Andria, M m , the toms
of Aperiae and Antiphdos formerly calkd Habesas.
(translated by H.
Rackham, 1967)
2 ' ~ a n e t t i 1974,
,
pg. U t
.."
govemment, they remainad free under the ~ o m a n s . But
~ ~ midway
through the first century A.D. after the Roman Empire was
established in the region the Lycian congress lost al1
political power and was merely limited to voting honors ta the
Emperor
G o E. Bean has calculated the population of Lycia in
antiquity to be approximately 200,000 for the entire ares."
ûnly a small part of the population lived in the mountain
areas while the main bulk o f the inhabitants tended to live in
the more fertile and productive areas along the coast or in
the Xanthus Valley. The most important ancient cities located
in this coastal region were Telmessus, Pinara, Xanthus, Patara
and Phaselis.
.
To~ocrra~hv
and Foundation Lecrend of Pamnhvlia
Pamphylia lies to the south-east of Lycia. Here, after
the 'sacred promontory' of Lycia, the southern coast of Asia
Minor bends inward towards Anemurium in Cilicia forming t h e
30
gulf of the Mare Pam~hvlium,
The land area covers
approximately 2,200 square miles and in ancient times t h e
wealth of the Pamphylian economy came primarily from maritime
the inhabitants prospered
from
endeavours,
although
agricultural activity as well.
Pamphylia is separated from the rest of Anatolia,
according to Strabo, by the pass of Climax, just beyond
.
"~trabo,Geo., W . 3 . 3 : ",.ïnearliertimes theywoulddeliberateaboutwar
and peace and aiiiiinces, but now they naturally do not do so, since these
mdtters necessariïy lie in the power of the Romans, except, perhaps when the
Romans should give them permission or it should be for their bene£it.. and
since they ïived under such a gmd government, they remained ever free
un- the Romans, thus retaining th& ancestralusage. " (translated by H L
Jones, 1967)
.
..
2 g ~ e a n1978,
,
pg. 19
' O ~ h i sgulf is better known as the Gulf of Antalya.
Phaselis in Lycia and the fortress of Coracesium located in
~ilicia? In antiquity there were a total of s i x major cities
in the area.
Tbese cities were Antalya, Perge, Sillyum,
Aspendus, Side and Termessus. A l 1 are located along the coast
and form an arc with its centre approximately ten miles from
the shoreeJ2
The Pamphylian plateau and the sea are both dominated and
protected by the Taurus mountains which form a natural
barrier, yet the area is more accessible than Lycia. The area
is divided into three more or less equal parts by the Cestrus
and the Eurymedon rivers and transverse streams which flow
d o m from the mountains to the gulf.
Similar to Lycia, the faundation legend of the
colonization of Pamphylia also played a role in Greek history
and mythology, According to Kerodotus, after the fal1 of Troy
a group of immigrants led by Calchas and Amphilochus
established themselves along the southern coast of Asia Minor
and founded cities in this areaa3" One cannot deny the fact
that Greek communities from both the mainland and the Aegean
established themselves in the region but there is no concrete
evidence that they wete the first peoples to settle there and
that they constituted the main bulk of the p~pulation.~' For
although Pamphylia is one of the few provinces which has a
Greek name, the word meaning ' land of al1 races', it in no way
emphasized the fact that the majority of the population was
Greek. Pamphylia was a land occupied by a 'mixed multitude'
of settlers, as its name states, consisting of both Greeks and
''~ccordingto Seabo the coast line s p a ~ e approximately
d
640 stadia. (Geo,
XIV.4.2)
33~erodotus,
H i s t .,M.9l(v) :"This nation is descended fmm those whom on
the return from Troy were dispersed with Amphilochus and Calciys."
(translated by G Rawlinson, 1936)
.
agie, 1950, pg. 261
indigenous people. l5 By the fourth century B. C . the indigenous
Pamphylian population bad been thoroughly Hellenized and the
cities of Perge, Sillyum and Aspendus claimed to be descents
of the two legendary Argive seers, Calchas and Mopsus.
Although claiming Greek descent in the fourth century B .C
it
is more probable that the original population were the Solymi
who came from ~ i l i c i a . ~ ~
.,
Historv and Romanization of Lvcia-Pamnhylia
During the Roman Republic, the first century B. C , the
various parts of Asia Minor suffered diverse fortunes, Lycia
was controlled by Brutus first and then, after 42 B.C.
by
Antony. Under Antony the City of Xanthus, which had destroyed
itself when threatened by Brutus ' forces, was restored to it ' s
Pamphylia was given to Amyntas who then
importance,
controlled al1 of Asia Minor. ûnly in 25 B.C. did Pamphylia
In general, al1 local
become once again part of Cilicia.
administrators and in particular provincial governors were
approved by the Emperor,
ft was Roman Imperia1 policy to
leave the provincial cities alone allowing them to control
their own affairs and develop their economies in peaceO3'
This brief period of self-government came ta an end in 43
A.D. when the Emperor Claudius could no longer tolerate the
quarrelling and bickering between the cities of Lycia. Dia
Cassius reported that duringthis time there was a revolt l e d
by the Lycians which ended with the killing of some Roman
l
- - -
-
-
-
--
-
-
"-id-
36~ramer,
1971, section W, pg. 274
3 7 ~ e a n1968,
,
pg. 34
citi~ens.~' As a result of this Claudius deprived the Lycians
of their freedom and joined the province ta Pamphylia. This
was not the only reason w h y Claudius joined the two provinces.
By detaching Pamphylia from the enormous province of Galatia
the Emperor made it easier ta control and govern both areas,
The n e w province of Lycia-Pamphylia was now to b e governed as
a- single unit under one govetnor, a leaatus Auausti pro
praetore. '' Yet these two provinces, although joined, w e r e so
different that each maintained their own identities, Each of
the cities m a n a g e d to have their own council and magistrates
who conducted affairs independent of each other.
The
Pamphylian cities in turn did not become part of the Lycian
federation, but formed an organization of their own which was
modeled after that of the ~ycians."
During the Roman Empire both the provinces of Lycia and
Pamphylia were constantly being united and then separated."
A f t e r A-D. 74 the province consisted of three distinct regions
each with their own separate geological configuration,
population and governments, althaugh governed by one Roman
official. The Federalmagistrates, the generals, the admirals
and the commanders of the cavalry al1 disappeared but the
federal assembly and council continued to convene, federal
off icers to be elected and collect tribute, the federal courts
"~ioCassius, Rom. Hist., LX. 17. 3: "He reduced the Lydans to servitude
because they had revolted and Lciain same Romans, and he incorporated them
into the prefecture of Pamphylia.w (transïated by E. Cary, 1989)
3 g ~ hgovernor
e
put in charge was Q. Veranius.
'O~he Pamphylian federatlon conferred the usual honors and created
Parnphyïiarchs and other officiah. (Magie, 1950, pg. 576)
.
"~n
A. D 54 Nen, restored Lycian freedom, making it a single prowince once
again, but in A. Do 57 the province was subject to Roman rule, being under
the watchful eye of a Roman govemar. Later that year this govemor was
accused of extortion and relieved of his duties aïiowing Lyda to be self
governed. In A,D - 6 9 Galba permitted Lyda to stand aïone, whiïe having one
governor rule o v e Pamphylia and Gaïatia. Vespasian, in A. D 74, then
deprived Lycia of its freedom for the last thne, uniting it wfth Pamphyïia.
to function as usuaL4' Vespasian created the province of
Lycia-Pamphylia t o establish one concise administrative unit
that could be controlled easily and efficiently, without much
intervention on the part of the Emperor or his agents.
Undes Trajan the boundary lines changed once again, the
province only included the territory that belonged ta Lycia
and Pamphylia- Hadrian during his visit to Syria stopped in
Southern Asia Minor for a brief period, There are numerous
building complexes that testify ta this for during this period
Still an
many structures were b u i l t i n his honour. 4 3
independent province, Lycia-Pamphylia, in A. D
135, was
bequeathed ta the Roman Senate of Bithynia, Finally during
the reforms of Diocletian, A.D. 284-305, many of the larger
Anatolian provinces were sepatated into two or more parts and
their boundaries re-adjusted- As the Roman era came to an end
the province of Lycia-Pamphylia was at last separated.
.
' ' ~ h eonly policy that the Romans enforced upon the province was to secure
the revenues Erom taxes and make aU elections and resolutions of the
individual dties subject to the approval of the governor-
"In the city of Patara Eladden built a horrea, in the cities of Olympus and
Phaselis temples were built in his honour and at Antalya a gate was erected.
Chanter 2
Greek Aaora Develo~mentin the Hellenistic Period in Western
Asia Minor
The focus of this chapter will be on the agora complex
and its central components. As stated earlier the agora was
the central focus of the community and was where the essence
of the city and its population was concentrated. The agora
was essential to civic development and not only did it form
the heart of the political and commercial aspect of the city
it also displayed the status and wealth of the community.
As stated in the introduction the agora evolved out of
necessity. The t o m s people needed a place to gather not only
for political purposes but for social, religious and
commercial reasons as well.
In order for a community to
prosper, homage needed to paid to the Gods, this then ensured
that the community would benefit from the buying and selling
of its goods.
Trade and commerce was one of the most
important activities that a city could be involved in. It
ensured that the community could sustain itself through
business and it brought foreigners to the city, for they as
well could participate in such commercial activity. Al1 of
these activities then would be intimately linked ta the
community therefore incorporating into it the administrative
and social aspect of the agora.
Prior to examining the central elements of the Roman
asorae located in the Lycian-Pamphylian cities of Phaselis,
Perge, Aspendus and Side a brief study of earlier Hellenistic
asorae will be necessary. For during the Hellenistic era the
agora complex was at its peak in terms of arrangement,
planning and function.
In order to fully understand the
influential components which were involved in the conceptual
architectural design and function of such building complexes
it is necessary to undetstand fully the essence of the agora
and the edifices which it housed.
Few examples of Hellenistic acrorae can be found in the
provinces of Lycia and Pamphylia and even fewer are documented
fullp, therefore it will be necessary to look elsewhere in
Asia Minor for well documented examples. Some of the best
models for such 'civic-centres' can be found i n the cities of
Miletus, Ptiene, Magnesia and Pergamon. Although not linked
directly to the southern provinces these four cities played a
major role in influencing the architecture of Asia Minor as a
whole. I t was from these pre-Roman centres that many of the
later agora models were derived and inspired the nature of
later Roman styles in the Greek East, influencing both
structural components and design.
The c i t y of Miletus, located along the western Coast of
Caria, was one of the most important artistic and commercial
centres of Asia ino or." The Ionians took control of the area
in the tenth century B.C. which had been originally inhabited
by Carians.
Ionian domination benefited the city and its
people ta a large extent.
M i l e t u s was not only known f o r its trading importance but
also for initiating a city plan, a concept that was soon
followed by the test of the ancient ~orld.'~ The father of
this new theory i n c i t y development was Hippodamos, a fifth
century B. C. architect ." Although Hippodamos lived during the
44~turzebecker,
1985, pg. 448
4SMetzger,1969, pg. 150
46~ippodamos
made a name for himself at Miïetus for he was not simply a Townplanner' but a philosopher, a poiitical sdentist and a close mend and
confidant of Perides. Many people have aedited him for aeating what has
been labelled the Hippodamian street system, but in reality he was not the
time of Persian rule, c- 450 B.C.,
his ideas were not fully
developed until the late Classical and early Hellenistic
period, when the 'city' first started to be developed
atchitecturally ."
The ruins of Miletus extend over a large area of the city
and a large 'Lw shaped portion of the peninsula, located
between the city ' s two harbours, was allotted for public use.
During the period between the fifth and first centuries B,C.
the city was built up and included religious, commercial and
administrative buildings. Amongst these were two aaorae, a
bouleuterion, a Delphinion, and a gymnasium.
At the time that the north agora was being built, at the
end of the fourth century B .Co, the townspeople made good use
of the harbour area, for it was this section of the city that
could provide the incoming merchants with the facilities
needed to buy, sel1 and trade products. (fig. 2)
This
harbour-front agora consisted of a long stoa which had
incorporated into it a series of small shops to the rear. A
square colonnaded court was then added ont0 the central part
of this cornplex in back of the row of shops. There then was
a short wing which turned north at the stoa's western end and
opposite this to the east was the enclosure wall of the shrine
to Apollo Delphinion,
ûverall this agora was quite simple in plan and underwent
very little alteration over the centuries. A small threesided, 'horseshoel shaped stoa was added ont0 the back of the
west wing at a later date. During the middle of the second
century B . C . another stoa was built which was "Lw shaped.
This stoa was joined ta the agora's south-east corner forming
first to employ it, This type of plan was already in esîstence in the Near East
in places such as Nineveh and Babylon. Hippodamos canonized this type of
city design w i t h snteets placed at right angles to form a type of grid.
Rhodes, Ephesus and F+iraeus also used this grid system.
"Whycherly, 1976, pg. 69
a large 'horseshoe' cornplex, A small temple was then probably
Opposite the temple the east
situated along its west side."
side of the agora was left open and a rectangular gymnasium
was built south of the colonnaded court of the shrine to
Apollo Delphinion, further to the east of the open court.
One of the earliest Milesian buildings that has been
faund was incorporated into the north agora complex.
It
occupied two house-blocks and was located to the west of the
processional way.49 This building was most likely used as a
prytaneion which originally stood on its
This type of agora complex is a perfect example of Ionian
agora planning. Here stoae are used in conjunction with the
street plan. Emphasis is placed on the right angles and how
they fit into the city proper, forming a structure that is not
only convenient for the intentions of the 'civic-centre' but
as well uses space as a medium ta denote its purpose as a
commerciaf and religious centre,
The most distidguishing feature of the third century B.C.
Milesian south agora complex is its use of a modified
'horseshoe' shaped stoa of Doric construction. (fig.3) Along
the east side of this agora a long single colomaded stoa was
built with three rows of rooms along its back side. Here
shops and storerooms were arranged back to back so that half
were entered from the east and the rest from the west towards
the agora courtyard. Two double colomaded "Lw shaped stoae
then faced this stoa on the west side, To the rear of the
south stoa shops were arranged so that some of them faced
inward and some outward in no particular systematic
"This temple would have used the colonnades of this stoa to fonn its
forecourt. (Wycherly, 1976, pg. 73)
''III antiquity the house or dty-block, often teferred to as an insula, was a
common unit for defining building measurements.
''The original structure was built during the late fifth or early fourth century
B. C and was later altered during the Hellcrnistic and Roman periods.
.
arrangement- The west stoa was not continuous and the agora
was most probably built in different stages, the south wing
being built around the middle of the second century B.C."
Later on duting the Roman period, the second century
A.D.,
bath auorae were modified and there was vigorous
building activity which reflected the tastes of the new mling
factions and the city's inhabitants. At this time the open
east side of the large ~horseshoelshaped stoa in the north
agora was built up. Al1 the large open spaces were enclosed
and there was an increase in architectural detail, a common
trend of the times. The south agora was converted into a
peristyle with a magnif icent gateway to the north-east. A
nm~haeum,built during the reign of Titus, was then placed in
its right band corner facing the council-house. Despite the
amaunt of t i m e required to complete the building of such
complexes the architects, during al1 stages of development,
managed to maintain a unity within and incorporate the design
of the auorae into the rectangular grid plan of the city,
Both auora had achieved a well-developed form, which was
elaborated upon without destroying the earlier constructions,
although during the Emperor Hadrianls reign, A.D. 117-138,
much of the spacial elements and the simplicity of the
structures were obscured by the general stylistic trends of
the Imperia1 era, Good use was made of the pre-arranged space
which incorporated al1 the elements that were required for the
peoplesl needs. The council-house was the city's political
centre, the northern harbour-f ront agora a centre for
international trade and the south agora complex concerned with
recreation and business not directly comected to overseas
exchange. ''
51Whycherly,1976, pg. 72
S'whycherly, 1976, pg. 74
Another important, tfiriving Ionian citywas Priene, This
city was first settled by Ionian Greeks. The original site
w a s laid out along the north-west shore of the gulf of Latmos
(the estuary of the Meander river) and was prabably furnished
with two harbours.
Yet nothing is left of the first
settlement because the ancient harbours have since then silted
up and buried the remains of the original city."
Wbat is left of the second city, which lay on the plcesent
site, dates to 350 BmC. This city was built on a shelf above
the estuary on Mount Mycale overlooking the plain. The new
city's orthogonal grid plan faced south along the mountain
ridges which gradually step d o m to the river. Unlike the
original settlement, al1 the buildings in the new city w e r e
adapted to fit into the Hippodamian street plan and the city
was divided into two distinct walled areas,''
The northern part of the city, situated on higher ground
behind the main section of t o m , consisted of an acropolis
hill-top.
This area had a purely protective and military
function- The teason for this w a s that access to the top of
the hiIl w a s too difficult for it to have any type of public
or religious role in the everyday life of its citizens. The
area to the south was where the main t o m was located- Here
the city rested on a land shelf between the acropolis hill-top
and the Meander. Between these two areas of the city there
was a steep cliff which gave access to a path that linked the
two areas together.
The layout of the faurth century B .Co agora, situated in
1 3 ~ honly
e evidence we have that has surpived from the original settlement is
a single coin.
"priene, although not the first city to make use of this plan, is one of the
oldest example of Hippodamian constmction that we have that dates to the
Heïïenistic period.
the lower t o m of Priene, ras smaller in scale and simpler
then the aaorae of Miletus but was equally distinctive in
f ~ r m . ~(fig.4)
'
Here, with the help of terracing walls laid
along the south side, the central part of the city was
levelled off , creating a flat area. This zone was the size of
two city blocks. The principal east-west street, whose point
of origin was the city's west gate, runs along the north side
of the agora. The street which then bardered its West edge
was diverted to pass to the back of the agora. Along the
areas to the east, west and south of the city blocks three
colonnades, placed on platforms, were built at right angles
forming a distinguished 'horsesber shaped stoa which framed
the agora's central open court.56 Since the main city street
was incorporated into the agora at its northern edge al1 the
shops were built behind the stoae. This arrangement was a bit
unusual for al1 the shops were located along the outside edges
of the insulae forcing the streets outward- These stoae were
unique because they were al1 Doric in style, which of course
was not typically seen in the Ionian cities of the Greek East.
ûpposed to the east and west stoae, the south stoa was
not built in the same fashion, for the land under it sloped
downwards. Beneath this stoa a basement was built and a r o w
of shops was placed along its east and west sides, leaving the
central portion free of commercial activity. At its centre a
large hall was created through the use of a double colonnade
The inner
which was divided in half by eight columris.
columnar spaces that faced the front were then protected by
thin marble shields half the height of the columns to shelter
the citizens assembling there from unpleasant weather. This
stoa, as well, had easy access to the street by means of a
" ~ h edates of each individual structure in the agora are not known for certain
but they were all b u t during the fourth and third centuries B C
..
S 6 ~ htype
i s of colonnaded portico is typical of market-places found in Ionian
cities
.
stairway which cut through the centre of the colonnade*
The central courtyard of the agora, as in most Greek
cities, contained na architectural elements and was ieft open
for festivals, public meetings and daily business. The only
architectural feature faund in this open space was an altar
dedicated to Hemes, the god of tradesmen and travellers, But
as time went by the area was built up and became crowded with
small monuments and statues.
No large structures were
permitted in the enclosed area of the agora and the stoae were
not allowed ta take away any of the glory that was emitted
from the two temples.
From the north-west the Temple of
Athena looked d o m upon the agora and, extending into a third
city-block, the Temple of Olympian Zeus stood in a courtyard
of its own to the back of the east stoa, separate £rom the
agora, Therefore al1 of the other monuments located in the
vicinity of the agora had to be built on a small scale. A row
of exedrae divided the agora into two sections, being placed
along the north street in front of the stoae, To the east of
the agora's altar there were two stone-paved rectangular
platforms, which were set apart sa that they could be covered
by a canopy during certain times of the year for various
It is believed that under this shelter
purposes .
distinguished members of the community sat during religious
ceremonies and other festivities and functions that were held
in the agora.57 On such occasions, to help support the awning
which protected the important members of society, wooden
pillars would have been placed upon the twelve stone bases
found in front of the two paved areas,
In back of the western stoa another row of isolated shops
was built. Here stone tables were found in situ indicating
that this area was designed ta b e t h e meat, produce and finery
-
"Akurgal, 1980, pg. 193
To the north of the agora the civic buildings stood,
s t i l l being incorporated into the ' civic-centre ' '' The fact
that these municipal buildings anà the agora were in such
close proximity suggests that there was a clear distinction
By
between the agora's commercial and officia1 functions.
market.''
.
keeping trade and politics separate the city could function in
a more organized fashion and could ensure that al1 the needs
of its c i t i z e n s were m e t .
In the latter half of the second century, c. 130 B. C.,
during the city ' s second phase of prosperity, a new north stoa
was built under the authority of King Ariarathes VI of
Cappadocia. This new 'Sacred S t o a ' , as it is referred to in
inscriptions, was essential to the community for it held
within its domain shrines, business offices and the City's
public record^.'^ This new stoa formed a facade along the
north side of the assembly hall and the east side of the
Prvtaneion. Once one reached the top o f the steps one faced
a promenade which was paved with marble and open to the sky.
Along its outside facade there were Doric columns, and Ionic
coliunris divided the inner hall and held its roof To the back
there were rooms which faced onta the main hall, Here various
inscriptions have been found carved into the walls. These
inscriptions were mainly concerned with the political and
.
this market meat, fish, fruit, vegetabïes, cezeais and dothing were a l l
sold
.
' ' ~ eknow that these buildings were C o ~ e ~ t e
toddvic organizations by the
officiai d e a e e s that are insaibed on th& walls.
" ~ h ereason it is widely believed that this stoa was esected b y King
Ariarathes VI, is that a section of the architrave reveals the first three letters
of his name. 0th- scholars such as Anthony -sis
believe the stoa to be
built c. 150 B. C ,during the reign of King Oropheznes. ( Kxiesis, 1965, pg.
84 1
.
public affairs of the cit~.~'
Anather interesting feature of this agora complex, as
noted by Kriesis, was the bending and extension of the eastern
stoa. This ~ 0 1 0 ~ a dcontinued
e
into the main street opposite
the 'Sacred Stoa' , and was m o s t probably built at the same
This continuation then formed a colonnaded street, a
popular feature of many important Greek and Roman cities.
The entire agora coinplex at Priene was developed over a
long period of time and was constantly being modified
throughout its construction- Tbere seems ta have been an
increase in formality, bath within the structures themselves
and in how they related to the complex as a whole. Al1 of its
features fit into the agora in a uniform pattern and
compliment each other, respecting their own space which was
dedicated to commerce and administration, and that of the
courtyard and the temples- Here there is no indication of the
decay or destruction which occurred at many centres at the end
of the Hellenistic period.
The agora was not altered in
anyway and no new important structures were built during the
Imperia1 period.
Macmes ia
The third example of an Ionian agora cornes from the city
of Magnesia on the Meander. The first Ionian settlement was
originally situated where the Lethaeus and Meander rivers met
However, in the fourth century the city was moved to its
present position and transformed into a new and improved
metropolis
"One of the more interesmg inscription found in this 'Sacred Stoa' relates
how the province of Asia Minor began to use the Julian calendar in 9 B -C.
This inscription was found in a room which, in Roman mes, was dedicated to
the worship of the goddess Rom and later of Augustus.
'%riesis,
1965, pg. 85
Magnesia's agora, which was completed in the third
century B,C., unlike Miletus and Priene, occupied a very large
area in the centre of tom.''
( fig. 5) 1ts ' horseshoe l shaped
plan was not quite as regular as the other Ionain aaorae
because its long sides converged slightly south. I t differed
as well in its overall. plan. Zt was farmed by using two long
sides and one short side, as apposed to the conventional plan
where one long side and two short sides formed the 'horseshoel
pattern. Although this agora did not follow the conventional
'Ionianlconstruction, al1 the standard 'Ionian' architectural
elements can be found. A series of rooms were built to the
back of the north and west stoae. These rooms consisted of
As well,
two shrines, sevexal shops and a fountain house.
found behind the western part of the detached south stoa,
stood what appears ta be the prytaneion. A small temple to
Zeus stood in the open court of the agora but was not
centrally placed. This temple, dedicated to Zeus Sosipolis,
dates ta the mid-second century B .C. and following the lead of
the city and its Ionian rulers was done in the Ionic style.
The double colonnades of this agora stood out, giving it
strict boundaries and the arrangement of its monuments
expressed a tendency to envelop the open space and protect its
patrons.
Little was added over the centuries; the only
addition made in the Roman period were columnar gates which
were built over the street on the south side.
As cities grew and matured so did the form and function
of the agora. With the arriva1 of Hippodamian planning and
the Hellenistic age the traditional mode1 of the 'civiccentre' had to be replaced by newer and more innovative
constructions, The 'Ionianl agora was a solution to this
problem for it fit into the city plan without destroying the
conventions of the agora or the city around it. This type of
agora construction was basically that of Classical Greece but
6 3 ~ hagora
e
at Magnesia occupied six city-blocks as opposed to two.
29
through the use and placement of the stoae a new sense of
openness within a defined space had been created.
The
examples taken from Miletus, Priene and Magaesia al1 display
This type of
what can be labelled true ' Ionian' auorae.
agora, which often developed in Hippodamian cities was
characteristic of the region but was not the set type of
design that vas strictly used throughout Asia linor."
The last example that shall be looked at in this study of
Hellenistic acrorae will be that of Pergamon, even though it
differs from the other cities discussed in that it is a royal
city. Still, Pergamon provides an example of a non-Ionian
Hellenistic agora.
The city of Perganmn was developed in
three stages and is consideted to have been one of the major
metropolitan centres of Asia Minor. It is situated on the
sumniit of a hi11 overlooking the fertile valley of Kaykos,
just south of the Mysia district, The first settlement was
built on the hill-top in the fourth millennium B . C . , as a
stronghold whose purpose was to protect the two river valleys
and their in habitant^.‘^ Latet on the city expanded downhill
and was enclosed by a fortification wall built by Attalos 1:
between 269 and 197 B.C. Finally the last phase of the city's
development was conducted under Eumenes II in the second
century BmCw New fortifications were built and the overall
area was much increased.
Pergamon was now a powerful
Hellenistic kingdom that influenced the rest of the Greek
world, It flourished in the areas of sculpture, architecture
and cultural traditions, and within its walls political and
military matters were conducted as well as commercial and
"Whycherly, 1976, pg. 78
"1t w u durlng this period of dty development that we fitst begin t o see the
growth of urban centres in Asia Minor.
industrial business, eventually making this city the capital
of the province of A s i a .
Al1 of the citytsmajor monuments were laid out with the
help of extensive terracing along the winding main roads of
B e r e there is evidence of a regulat street
the hill-~ide.~~
plan which in some points appears to have been broken up by
some of the natural featurres in the terrain. There seto
be no set pattern in the construction of the monuments, for
theit building mainly depended on the allotment of land area
and the extensions of the terracing walls.
Below the A l t a r of Zeus, at the southern most point of
the acropolis, stood the cityfs second century B.C. upper
agora, ( fig. 6) Flanked by Doric colonnades on its north-east
and south-west sides was the agorafs fl a t ititegular courtyard,
Built on the slopes of the bill, the outward facings of the
stoae stood three storeys high, while the i m e r facings were
single-storeyed, because of the configuration of the
land~cape."~ To the back and sides of these two stoae, on the
ground level, doors were placed while windows occupied the two
upper storeys. A s w e l l , rooms and storage spaces were built
on the first two floors. These two stoae were closed off from
the rest of the city but in order to insure e a s y access to the
main road which connected the upper city to the lower city the
south stoa was divided in two.
Along the W e s t s i d e of the agora courtyard an altar was
placed and, sometime during the middle of the second century,
a temple was built close by, This temple was most probably
dedicated to Zeus, Hermes, Apollo or Dionysus, both gods being
connected with commerce, wealth and luck. Although small in
66~erracing
was used to provide the d t y w i t h fht land, making ail the
amenitles easiïy accessible to the pubUc.
6 7 ~ hfacades
e
of the three-storeyed stoae were erected in the fonn of plain
walls while the single-storeyed units were colonnaded. This was a customary
practice at Pergamon which hdped define the architecturai arrangemerit of the
monuments and provided stylistic diversity
.
scale this prostyle Doric temple was heaoily decorated with
This
marble and had Ionic columnar flutes and bases.
emphasized the fact that during the Hellenistic period
Pergamon held its place as one of the most important centres
of cultural activity in the ancient world.
By using the
different architectural orders the architectç of Pergamon
stressed the importance of the city and laid strong artistic
foundations that the rest of the Hellenistic world could
follow.
One other building, marked by a semi-circular recess, has
been found situated in the north-west corner of the agora,
beside the temple. T h e function of this building is not clear
but in Roman times it was converted into an apsidal hall.
This was the only structure in the agora that was modified
during the Roman period; the rest of the buildings al1 date to
the Hellenistic age.
T h e lower agora, situated, as the name implies, in the
lower section of the city, was most probably constructed
during the reign of Eumenes II, 197-160 B.C, (fig, 7) This
agora was slightly irregular in plan, as was the 'upper
agora' , It was comprised of a simple enclosed rectangular
paved area.
Located to the left of the main street, it
basically consisted of one large market building that was
strictly used for commercial endeavours, Each of the doublestoreyed Doric stoae, which completely enveloped the area, had
two aisles with shops built at the rear and on both floors
four metopes were placed above every two columns. The south
c 0 1 0 ~ a d ewhich faced the public square, was two-storeyed, as
the north, east and west stoae, but in order to balance itself
on the side of the hi11 the back portion of this stoa was
triple-storeyed. The only problem with this agora is that it
was completely separated from the rest of the city. This made
it difficult for it to form an integral part of the citizensl
daily life for it created a barrier between the city, the
people and the market. Although far from the traditional form
of the Greek agora, this type of enclosed space became
increasingly popular in Roman times.
Al1 of these aaorae displap the same standard features.
The peristyle court and stoa both played a very important role
in city architecture during the fourth century B .C. and the
Hellenistic era. The taro were widely used in the construction
of houses and svmnasia and in the forecourts of public and
private buildings, and played the major architectural role in
the layout of the agora, soon becoming the one outstanding
feature of any Hellenistic agora- At first the stoa stood on
its own as an independent structure placed along the borders
of any given vicinity. Later on, it began to enclose def ined
areas, turning those spaces into large colonnaded courts. The
stoa then became a symbol of importance which helped separate
the agora from the rest of the city. Al1 the acrorae looked at
were enclosed by stoae, which ultimately gave the aaorae their
form. It was also within these buildings where al1 of the
shops and store-rooms were plaeed, making the agora the centre
for commercial business and hence relating to the main purpose
of the agora, as a market-place. As well shrines, altars and
temples were added giving these acrorae religious duties which
played a part in the everyday life of the city's patrons.
In the Hellenized East there was a common tendency to
give the agora clear geometric boundaries. 6a
In the later
Hellenistic and Roman periods thete was a tendency to allow
the agora to turn in upon itself, becoming one single unit.
Although the agora had now become a self-contained unit it was
always accessible O
the public because many held the
'horseshoe' construction, which left one side exposed. As
communities began to grow, the open spaces of the acrorae were
replaced y shops and storage-rooms, leaving no room for
official offices. The overall concept of the agora had begun
to change and was gradually replaced by the idea of individual
6a~ac~onald,
1986, pg. 51
buildings such as bouleuteria or separate stoae." Halls were
now created for the sole purpose of trade. The functions of
the agora were now split and the core of the community was no
longer concentrated in one area. The agora was then planned
as a separate feature of the city which was not directly
c o ~ e c t e dto city planning, for the agora's role as a vital
element of city life began to diminish and its intimate
comection with the varied activities of the community became
less important. 'O
-
-
69~ucker,
1959, pg. 36
"'Whycherly, 1976, pg. 82
Romanization of Hellenistic Acrora Forms in the Province of
tvcia-Pamphvlia
The Hellenistic period in the East began with the death
of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C., and came to an end in the
first century with the steady increase of Roman rule.
In
64/63 B . C . , there was a reorganization of the provincial
administrations and almost al1 of the Asian provinces were
incorporated into the Roman Empire. Rome ' s influence began to
weigh heavily on the native Hellenistic aspects of Anatolian
culture and the provinces of Asia Minor became increasingly
important to Rome. New commercial markets were opened and
products such as wool, textiles, ivory, precious metals and
marble were al1 sought by the Romans.
Returning to southern Asia Minor and the main focus of
discussion, the Romanization of the province of LyciaPamphylia, and in turn the change in form and function of the
agora, began with the Pax Romana. This reorganization of the
political and administrative attitudes brought wealth to the
southern Anatolianprovinces, allowingthe more remote regions
to corne into closer contact with the rest of the Roman world.
With the new Roman policies there was a pacification of the
mountain peoples which brought about a natural increase in
trade,
Along with Roman annexation came new social and
economic conditions and political reorganization, There was
an inctease in the number of roads, making the more difficult
areas more accessible, and fortresses and garrison armies were
established, allowing entrance to the more isolated parts of
the country and protecting bath citizens and Roman officials.
There were new developments in monetary economics and new
forms of exploitation of the provincial lands were employed.
Through a re-investment of thls newly acquired revenue city
officials now had the means to improve their t o m s and the
older more established cities began to flourish, For three
centuries the combined province of Lycia-Pamphylia managed t o
conduct its affairs peacefully under the Pax Romana. But at
the b e g i ~ i n gof the third century A, DI the situation changed
somewhat, and with the turbulence which was affecting the
Empire, Anatolia entered a period of stress, Yet despite al1
of the political and physical changes that occurred in Asia
minor during this period the only change that can be observed
within the realm of architecture is a smooth transition from
Hellenistic to R o m a n . There is no distinct break or drastic
architectural changes in this area between the building
activity of the Hellenistic period and Romanization of the
East, as can be observed in many Greek cities located in the
ancient world ,''
Roman architecture in general was often concerned with
grand building complexes, monumental streets, large porticoes
and the creation of Roman ' civic-centres l , In many cases
these structures, located in the more remote parts of the
Roman world, would imitate those of the larger well known
Roman cities, For as stated earlier in the introduction, the
Romanization of the Eastern provinces, and of Southern Asia
Minor in particular, can be seen most clearly through changes
in the form and function of public architecture, The overall
concept of the agora never changed but there were subtle
changes in its planning, layout, buildings and its overall
function in society The older, more established Hellenistic
models were modified to fit more into the R o m a n concept of a
'civic-centre1, Therefore, if people were t o travel within
the Empire, there would always be a feeling of familiarity
accompanying them.
Asia Minor adhefed to the new Roman
conventions in architectural forms and usage but in almost
every Eastern city there was always a sense of the old
.
"~etzger,1969, pg. 190
36
Hellenistic architectural traditions that could only be found
within its local architecture.
Roman Develonments in Public Architecture
Having the same definition in tenas of overall form and
function as the agora, the Roman forum cornplex was the central
focus of any Roxnan city. The word generally referring to a
'public square' or ' t o m square1 where the city market was
held." According to Ruoff-Vaananen, Livy implies that by the
end of the third century B.C. the concept of a forum had
become deeply embedded in the Roman body-politic. 73 For it was
where the local government met and was the religious centre of
the comunity. Many were quadrangular in plan though in most
cases the sides were not completely parallel, and were located
at the centre of the city where most of the local traffic
congregated .'7
According to the calculations of Vitruvius the size of
the forum should be in proportion with that of the
p~pulation.'~ Therefore the ideal ratio for the forums sides
was a 2:3 scale for its width and length. Yet this was not
always the case, for in most the ratio of the perimeter was
usually 1:2.
Different in plan from the well established
Hellenistic models these long, narrow fora then had gates
which closed off the entrances, allowing no wheeled traffic to
enter.
In addition ta this Vitruvius specified that the
central portion should remain free with the curia and
73~uoff-Vaandnen,
1978, pg. 24
75~itruvius,
De Architectura, V.1.2 :The dimensions of the forum ought to be
adjusted to the audience lest the space be ccamped for use,.
(translated
by F. Granger, 1983)
.."
municipal buildings a d j a ~ e n t . ' ~Symmetry also played a large
role in the forums construction, for the eye was to be led to
one focal point, the temple, Yet the overall building plan
for most was essentially Greek."
The basilica, a major Roman contribution to the
architectural development of the ancient world, was one of the
most distinctive features of the Roman 'civic-centre1, It
usually consisted of a long rectangular hall, the ceiling
resting on arches or wooden beams, and rows of pillars divided
it internally. Along both the sides were rooms used by city
officials for both administrative affairs and council
meetings, At one end there was usually a tribunal which the
magistrates used, and during the Republican era this was where
al1 the judicial trials took place. But the basilica was not
strictly an administrative centre, for it could also double as
a place of commerce, with the stoae framing places of
commercial business. ''
Another distinctive and important feature of these Roman
'civic-centres' was the Ca~itolium,a temple dedicated ta the
Capitoline Triad, Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, This then became
the central focus of the agora cornplex which in tum was the
central focus of the city, This was where the Gods and the
Emperor were worshipped and where al1 of the town's business
was conducted.
For with the Imperial age came Imperial
worship and new building forms had to be const~cted ta
accommodate this change in religious attitudes.
Roman innovations in building types and planning brought
about a complete change in the function of the 'civic-centre'
'6~itruviu~,
De Architectura, V.I.4: l'The site of the basilics ought to be
fixed adjoinïng the fora, in as warm a quarter as possible. , " (translated by
F. Granger, 1983)
.
77~1~mmer,
1956, pg. 251
78~omliason,
1992, pg. 27
and its civic-space."
NOW there was a stronger impact on the
religious function of the agora.
Arches, sanctuaries,
shrines, temples and statues w e r e now standard elements of the
agora and how they were placed within the cornplex affected the
spatial organization as a whole. T h e s e political and social
changes and attitudes then contributed in part t o a
reorganization of public space.'*
Provisions also had to be
made for Emperor imagery and cult within the stoae themselves,
for the main focus of the Romanization of public architectural
f o m in the East was ta accommodate and incorporate the
Emperor into the framewotk of the city."
In addition to these two building forms, during the
Imperia1 period, there was a tendency to emphasize
architecturally the structures within the 'civic-centre' and
to add a greater perception of axiallity. T h i s then Balanced
the architectural relationship between the Emperor and the
city and the Emperor and the god~.'~ Yet the main difference
between the Greek and Roman 'civic-centres1 was in their
concept of 'open space ' .O3 Whereas the agora was from its very
beginning an open area which through time acquired modest
buildings,
the Roman
'civic-centre'
from its onset
incorporated shops and official rooms, separated from the
community but accessible ta those who required its services.
Returning to Southern Asia Minor, the cities of Phaselis,
Perge, Aspendus and Side in Lycia-Pamphylia, provide the best
examples of Romanization through public architecture, for al1
display both Hellenistic planning and Roman building forms in
-
--
- -
-
-
--
'gPrice, 1984, pg. U 3
'Oprice, 1984, pg. 136
"Price, 1984, pg. 145
"Price, 1984, pg. 146
'%wens,
1991, pg. 154
the construction of their aaorae.
Taking the Hellenistic
models from the cities of the West, these new Roman auorae,
with the development of public architecture through
Romanization, incorporated into them Roman conventions and
monuments.
The first examples to be examined are the auorae at
Phaselis.
The city of Phaselis, located along the Lycian
coast, was founded by Dorian colonists who came from Rhodes in
690 B. C
Phaselis had the only good harbour along the eastern
coast of Lycia, apart from Ol~lmpus. For this teason, at the
beginning of the first centB.C. these two harbours were
attacked by the Cilician Pirates. The two cities did not
regain their previous status of wealthy comrmrnities until
after the campaigns of Servilius Vatia in 78 B X . For these
cities, struggling to achieve their former position in
Anatolian society, the process was a slow and demanding
affair. In A e D . 43, when Claudius joined Lycia to Pamphylia,
incorporating them into the Roman Empire, Phaselis, like most
other cities in Southern Asia Minor, was affluent and
possessed al1 of the typical Roman structures found in the
major c i t i e s of the ~mpire.'~
The city of Phaselis is divided into two general areas.
The south city, situated on the lower half of the peninsula,
houses the acropolis. The north city, where the people lived
and conducted their daily affaits, is then located above on
the plateau* To the north, eaat, and south are the city's
three barbours, which were essential ta the life of the city
and its trading reputation. The main Street separates the
"The major bibliographicai sources for Phaselis are: Bean 1968 and 1978,
Cramer 1971, and Mc Donagh 1989.
a5Struzebecker,1985, pg. 464
city into its two sections, This nom-south avenue ruas
across the city's nar-'rr' neck af land, s e t at sa abLique
angle, between the east and south harbours. Flanking a i s
street in its northern portion, alang its west side, are a row
of small shops and store-rooms."
Located to the west and
south of this main thoroughfare are the citp's four main
building networks, of which three are generally thought to be
aaorae
To the south-west of the main street is the city's
central agora complex, better known as the 'Agora of
Domitian', (fig. 8)
The agora gets its name from an
inscription which has been found over the third chamber,
bearing the Emperor's name."
This agora has a large open
courtyard and dates to c. A.D. 93, Unlike most Hellenistic
aqorae, its courtyard is bordered only along its south-east
and south-west sides by shops, An arch, which still stands
today, spans the area left open between the first two rooms to
the north, on the east side of the agora that borders the
street.
Incorporating both
HeIlenistic and Roman
characteristics, this agora is typical of a simple Anatolian
building complex dating to the Roman period,
The building complex to the north, situated between the
main market hall, which simply consisted of a row of shops or
workshopç, and the harbour, is the city's 'Rectangular Agora'
Since the cities of Asia Minor formed part of the Roman
Empire, within their walls can be fomd many edifices
dedicated to the Emperors.
Monuments such as this then
ensured that the memory of the Emperor would last forever.88
This agora has been dated to A.D. 131, for an inscription was
.
"~hereis some evidence that there was a similar row of shops flanktng the
eastern side of the Street as weU, but this is not certain.
" ~ h etwo insaipaons which label both the main aaorae of Phaselis can be
found in TAM II 1186 and 1194.
rice ce, 1984, pg. 161
found on the door lintel which states that this agora was
dedicated to Hadrian. Hadrian visited the city in A.D. 129
and this event, being an important one, was honoured by the
building of several edifices within the city walls
Not only
this agora, but also a ceremania1 gateway was built to honour
the Emperor and the commissioning of many statues, both public
and private, of the Emperor took place.
This 'Rectangular Agata' , now quite featureless, is
marked by a large ashlar wall . This agora most probably
Judging
served as the administrative centre of the city."
from its title the cornplex was obviously modeled after the
earlier Hellenistic archetypes found throughout Asia Minor.
There are statue bases on either side of its entrance which
bear commemorative inscriptions dedicated to some of the
cityfs main patrons.
This type of statua- was a common
feature of 'civic-centresf in both the East and West. During
Byzantine times, w h e n the city was an episcopal See, a small
three-aisled Christian basilica was built in the north-western
part of this agora. This type of basilica was typically Roman
but with the onset of Christianity became the standard Church
form.
Beyond this agora, opening onto the south harbour, is the
third Phaselitan 'civic-centre', which dates to the later
Imperia1 period or Byzantine times , Unfortunately not much is
known about this agora except that it was mainly constructed
out of material that had been taken ftom other buildings
situated in the area, making a complete assessment of the
earlier city structures quite difficult.
' g ~ a n e f 1974,
f l , pg. 397
''MC
Donagh, 1989, pg. 466
The city of Perge, although one of Pamphyliats major
cities, is smaller and less important than the other c e n t r e s
i n the province, because it lacks a port facility." The city,
originally founded by the Argives, lies on fairly flat land
except for its acrop~lis.~~The acropolis is irtegularly
shaped and was built on higher ground at the end of the major
boulevard that runs through the cityls centre.
Perge's main claim to fame was not directly linked to the
achievements of the city per se but was mostly gained through
some of its leading citizens such as the mathematician
and Varus, a second century A.D.
Apollonius, 250-220 B.C.,
philosopher. As well, Paul and Barnabus passed through the
city on their first ilg grimage.^'
The original Argive settlement was located on the hi11
above the existing ruins, but nothing is known of this city's
early hi~tory.'~ The first ref erence we have that mentions the
city of Perge is in the works of the geographer Pseudo-Scylax.
'=Themajor bibliographical sources for Perge are: Akurgal1985, Bean 1968,
Mc Donagh 1989, and Stede 1992,
92~ann,
1981, pg. 250
"The dtylsfoundatton legend is a bit obscure but it is generally beïieved to
have been founded by the Argives after the Trojan war. An inscription,
dating to the second century A.D., was found by the main gate and reads
'The founder Calchas of Argos, son of Thestor' and 'The founder Mopsus of
Delphi, son of Apollo'. Calchas is known thmughoughout mythology as the
legendary seer who advised Agamemnon to sacrifice Ithigenia in order to
appease &temis.
He is beiieved to have remained in Asïa Minor, after the
capture of Troy, continuing to practice divination until he was defeated by
Mopsus in a contest of prophecy.
g 4 ~ p o 1 1 ~created
n i ~ several mathematical treaties as well, of which only seven
survive. These theories were then later used by the astronomers Ptolemy of
Alexander and Kepler, who formulated several theories on the motion of the
planets
.
But the city did not really become important u r i t i l the arriva1
of Alexander the Great in 333 B.C.
Under Roman rule, like
most Pamphylian cities such as Aspendus and Side, Perge
prospered, and it was during this time that most of the city ' s
grand structures were built."
In the eastern part of the city, just beside the early
city gate, lies the agora. (fig. 9) Built over the original
line of the city's south wall, its construction dates to the
fourth centA. D , after the reconstruction and enlargement
of the city. The agora consists of a large square courtyard
surrounded by a stoa with shops behind. In the centre is a
circular temple, similar to the agora temple at Side. This
temple was roofed by a dome supported by 16 marble pillars and
was perhaps dedicated to Hermes, the patron deity of
merchants. This agora, like those that went before it, was
simple in plan and followed the Hellenistic tradition of
'civic-centret construction.
Although the agora displays
mainly Hellenistic traits, Roman influence can be detected
within the agora and the city at large.
.
One of the most important archaeological sites in
Pamphylia is the city of Aspendus.
It is one of the few
sites, apart from S ide, that have predominately Roman ruins .
The city w a s founded on the right bank of the Eurymedon river
on a hi11 and, as in the case of Perge, ancient geographers
g6~wens,
1989, pg. 26
"~he
major bibliographicaï sources for Aspendus are: Akurgal1985, Bean
1968, Cramer 1971, Maaeady and Thompson, eds. 1987, and Mc Donagh 1989.
go~rewster,
1993, pg. 25
."
attribute the founding of the city to the men of Argos
The
name of the City is Anatolian, not Greek, in originTherefore it is generally thought that the incoming Greek
colonists occupied an already existing settlement,
Aspendus was an important commercial centre which thrived
on the trade of salt, wheat, olive oïl and wool. Dominated by
the Persians and then Alexander the Great, it was finally
incorporated into the Roman province upon the death of Attalos
III in 133 B . C .
Under the Empire the city prospered and was
allowed to produce its own coinage. In the third century it
was granted the status of a neocorus, which allowed it to
build a temple dedicated to the worship of the Emperor, a
prestigious and well noted entitlement.
The cityls agora was built on the level surface of the
hill and is surrounded by buildings which al1 date to the
Roman peri~d.'~~
( fig. 10) Located along the east side of the
agora is a large basilica, This basilica dates to the third
century A - D . and was where al1 the cityls formal business
transactions would take place- Unfortunately today al1 that
remains of the basilica are its foundations but by looking at
these remains it is clear that the central nave was flanked by
two aisles, which were separated by rows of columns.
To the north, on higher ground, is a square bouleuterion.
Along its northern side there was an arched doorway and t o the
south two windows were placed above three arched doors which
al1 lead to the basilica.
The west and east walls were
strengthened by four exterior buttresses and at the centre of
each were large niches flanked by two smaller ones*
To the west side of the agora there was a long market
hall,
This building incorporated a tow of shops with a
' ' ~ h i s story could very weU be tnie for in ancient times the river was
navigable all the way up to the c i t y itself.
loO~any
of the principal public buiïdings date to the second and third
centuries A, D
gallery behind and a stoa in front. The shops were al1 twostoreyed, as indicated by holes meant for wooden carrying
beams that were found in the structurels dividing walls.
Nothing remains today of the stoa itself, but its position is
indicated by steps which lie c. 20 feet away from the front of
the shops,
A nvm~haeummarks the northern part of the agora. This
building has been labelled a 'fountain cornplex' due to the
facts that a dolphin head water-spout was found beside it and
that the structure bears a striking resemblance to the
nm~haeumat Side. All that remains o f this n m h a e u m is its
facade. The back wall is bare while the front is adorned with
two rows of five niches each, covered by semicircular domes.
The middle niche on the bottom row is larger than the others
and contains a door, while the others have small openings that
have been bricked up. There are pro jecting bases in front of
the facade which held the pairs of Corinthian columns which
supported the marble entablature.'O1
Water from the city s
aqueduct was diverted to the niches which then poured it into
a marble basin to the front of the facade,
At the eastern end of the agora, north of the nvm~haeum,
there is an unidentified building. This round structure is
believed to have been the cityls bouleuterion or covered
To its west side an altar was placed in front of
theatre ,'O2
the entrance.
Unlike most other cities of Greek origin, such as Perge
and Side, the agora at Aspendus had no temple at its centre,
a typical trait of Hellenistic planning.
Aspendus always
remained faithful t o its Anatolian traditions and to its
Y e t in the cityls third century
Hellenistic customs.
'''parts of this entablature remain imbedded in the wall above the niches The
rest of the marble decoratlon has disappeazed.
in many Roman citiss this building probably fundioned as both a
bouleuterion and a theatre,
monuments there is a change in style and tradition and the
elements of Roman building construction can be found.
The last example of a 'civic-centre' in Lycia-Pamphylia
to be examined is Side. Side is probably the b e s t preserved
site in the province and was one of the most important, for it
housed Pamphylia's sole port until the founding of Antalya in
the second century B.C.
The city lies on the banks between
the Melas (Uanavgat) and Eurymedon (Koptu suyu) tivers and
Although many of the
dates back to the seventh centuty B.C.
cityfs major monuments were built during the Hellenistic
period, the majority of buildings that now temain date to the
2nd and 3rd centuries AoDS i d e was founded by colonists who came from Aeolian
Cyme. Io'
It is generally accepted that these colonists w e r e
assimilated into the native Pamphylian society without any
problems 'O5 The wotd 'Side1 is related to the Anatolian word
for pomegranate. This fruit was often depicted on the coins
of the city dating from the 5th century B.C. to Imperia1
.
'03~he
major bibliographical sources for Side are: Akurgal1985, Bean 1968,
Cramer 1971, Jones 1971, Macready and Thompson, eds. 1987, Mc Donagh
1989, Mansel 1963, Steeîe 1992 and V ~ M1981.
'04we know this through reference made in Strabo and Arrian. Strabo,
If Then Side, a colony of the Cymaeans
" (translated b y H. L.
Jones, 1970). Arrian, 1. 26. 4: "Alexander now went towards Side, whose
inhabitants are Cymaeans f m m Aeoïian Cyme;
(translated by E.I.
X5V. 4.2:
Robson, 1967).
...
...
in his
~
EUstorv of Alexander and Indica (1.utvi. 4),States that these
colonists, upon setüing the land, forgot the& native Greek language and
began to speak a barbarian tangue. This language was the original dialect of
Side for it was only spoken within the dty, not in the sxurounding area.
There is probably some truth to this stoty but it is more probable that the new
settlers were not strong enough to impose the Greek language ont0 the native
inhabitants, and were therefore obliged to speak the local language. (Bean,
1
0
5
1968, pg. 79)
times ,'O6 T h e minting of coins was a privilege that was only
granted to the more powerful and influential cities. Yet Side
during the Hellenistic period was a centre for piracy, The
Cilician Pirates set up a slave market there, one which was
well known throughout the Mediterranean world. 'O' In fact part
of this market, the building w h e r e one could go and view the
potential slaves, can still be seen today. After the Roman
campaigns to rid Southern Asia Minos of piracy Side did
everything in their power to appease the new rulers, and
regain a good reputation, erasing any evidence of t h e i t
cooperation with Zenicetes, the leader of the Pirates.
The city reached its first peak of prosperity during the
second and first centuries B m C Since it had a close
relationship with Rome the city was favoured amongst the Roman
rulers. But this was not the city's most glorious height of
opulence,
T h e highest point of success in Side history
occurred in the second and third centuries A,D. It was during
this period that we first begin to see an expansion of utban
development, along with splendid structures erected i n the
city's centre. As well, m a n y of the inscriptions found date
to the Roman period, making the site and its structures e a s i l y
datab le.
Located along the city' s southern wall, south-east of the
theatre, was what has been labelled the 'state agora'. (fig.
This type of agora is most probably based on Aristotle's
1
idea that there should be built "an agora of the kind
customary in Thessaly which they cal1 a free agora, that is ,
lo6'side'is not the proper name for pontegranate in G r e e k , therefore it is
presumed to be that of the otigtnal Pamphylian language. In generl the
coins of Pamphyïia are closer in their type ta G r e e k coinage than the coins of
Lycia. It is from these coins, along w i t h the abundant silver coinage found
at Aspendus, that hïstorians and archaeolagists have been able to conclude.
that the larger Pamphylfan dues enjoyed a considerable amount of poliacal and
social fteedom.
lo7MiUe, 1967, pg. 219
one which has to be kept clear of al1 merchandise and into
which no artisan or farmer or any other such person may
intrude unless summoned by the magistrates. wloa Following the
function of the south agora at Miletus, this administrative
centre, which was devoted to recreation and business,
consisted of a large open area surrounded by Ionic colonnades
on al1 four sides, taking its architectural influences from
the earlier 'lonian acmraemof the western coast, To the
agora's east end there was an elaborately decorated three
roomed building, of which the centre room was roofed and the
walls covered with marble veneer. This room was adorned, on
two levels, with copies of well known Classical Greek statues
placed in semicircular domed niches or on platforms that
projected from the wall.lo9
Since this building was
embellished with ornamentation and statuary it is generally
believed that the room to the south may have been used as a
library at one time. "O
It is also believed that this building
was reserved for religious ceremonies which involved the
Emperot when he came to the city on official tours.'"
Situated in the city's centre was the main agora, a
square enclosure which was devoted mainly to commercial
endeavours Il2 (fig, 12)
This agora then corresponds to
Aristotle's idea that ''The agora for merchandise must be
different fmm the free agora, and in another place; it must
have a site convenient for the collection there of al1 the
.
'oaAristotle,Politics ,M.
XI.2
'Og~any
of the statues are now displayed in the city's mus-,
agora baths.
"'MC
Donagh, 1989, pg. 502
"'~reely, 1988, pg. 327
"'All that remains of the agora today are its foundatîons.
oriQindly the
goods sent from the seaport and from the co~ntry~."~One
entered this agora, from the street, through a monumental
gateway located directly in front of the agora b a t h s . This
agora, to complement the administrative nature of the 'state
agora', was not only used as the city's commercial centre but
as a social centre as well.
These aaorae were strongly
reflective of the Hellenistic tradition, for the City through
the function of its acrorae was able ta separate business from
pleasure, while still keeping the two close together.
Extending around this agora's perimeter was a series of four
covered stoae. On either side of the north-west portico's
entrance was a double row of small shops, the outer row of
which opened anta the street and the inner ont0 the agora.
Along the north-east portico there was a row of much larger
shops, and along the south-west, which was backed against the
wall of the stage-building, there were nine rooms of which
five opened into the theatre.
Sometime after the original construction, probably during
the second century A.D., a series of exedrae were built into
the corner shops. The exedrae situated in the west corner of
the agora were incorporated into the agorats latrine complex
whereas the other exedrae stood on their own. All of these
niches and their surrounding walls were then faced with marble
veneet, characteristic of important Roman structures. The
agora's semicircular latrine complex dates to the later half
of the second or the early third century A.D. Located in the
agora's western corner, backed against the stage-building, it
was of typical Roman design and the inside was faced with
marble. The latrine, lavishly decorated, originally contained
24 seats which rested above a water-channel.
Near the centre of the courtyard was a very peculiar
round building which can be dated to the second century A.D.
This structure originally consisted of a circular chamber
113AristotIe,Politics, M . X I . 2
enclosed by Corinthian columns raised on a podium."'
A flight
of s t e p s lead to the buildingts entsance and its roof was
built in the shape of a twelve sided pyramid. The inside of
the ceiling, which was in the shape of a dome, was decorated
with stone blocks which had inscribed upon them the twelve
signs of the zodiac. In 1812 Sir Francis Beaufort claimed
that he had seen three of these ceiling blocks. He stated
that they depicted, in proper order, Pisces, mies, Taurus,
Gemini and Cancer and then a swan and a nude male."'
This
structure has since been identified by Professor Mansel, the
region's chief archaeologist, as the Temple of Tyche, the
Goddess of Fortune, This conclusion is based on two factors.
The first is that representations of the zodiac are a cornman
motif found in temples dedicated to this goddess The second
factor is that a round temple with a pyramidal roof is
depicted on coins from Side, and is similar to other
structures found on coins from other cities which clearly
represent temples to Tyche. l X 6
Located to the east side of the agora cornplex are the
fifth century A.D. agora baths, perhaps the most dominant
Roman feature of the agora. "
'At either end of the main bath
building there were pools transversed by vaults that housed
ornamental statues. A large stone arch comected these areas
to the large central vaulted area. In addition to these rooms
there was also a large room containing 164 columns that was
covered by a dome. Due to its size, shape and position near
the heating unit, not to mention the hypocaust system beneath
the floor, this room has been identified as the sweating room
.
"'~oday aü that remains is the building's cella.
"5~nf~rtunately
aU of these blocks have been lost.
"'~ean,1968, pg. 91
117Mitchell,
1993, pg. 216
or sudatorium."'
Otiginally built in the second centA.D.,
this room was square but sometime during the third century it
was remodelled into a circular plan with four narrow doorways
located at the midpoints of the original square. Il9 In between
these doorways there w e r e apsidal niches placed in the
square's original corners.
The city of Side is a prime example of how Greek and
Roman aspects of life, culture and architecture mix together
to form a distinct feature of southern Anatollan society. For
with the creation of two separate auorae, going back to the
ideals of Aristotle, and the addition of Roman buildings there
is distinct evidence that during the communitylsmain peciod
of growth formal attempts were made to incorporate related
organizations within the framework of the city lZ0
During the Roman period, as in the Hellenistic era, the
main purpose of the 'cityl was to serve as a distinct
administrative centre, The city was to relieve the Imperia1
authorities of the responsibility of local administration.
Cities provided an accessible organization for financial
m a t t e r s and fuactioned as self-contained centres usually
without direct Imperial influence. For the Romans the ' civiccentre1 was the 'stage on which the drama of political life
" It was where the senate, the comitia and the
was playedl '
law courts met, politicians spoke, sacrifices w e r e offered and
commemorative statues were placed to honour the great men and
women of the community and of course the ruling powers.
.
.
"'~he Romans invented thissysteni of cenM-heating , the hypocaust systexn,
in c m 80 B ,CmThrough this invention it was possible to erect large bathing
complexes, which were typical s m m s found in Roman cities throughout
the Roman world.
llg~his
part of the building, origïnally a drRoman constructîon, was
eventualiy incorporated into the later bath cornplex.
'"stambaugh, 1988, pg. 106
As the earlier Hellenistic 'civic-centres', these Roman
aaorae were the centre of the cityfs social, political and
commercial life and were undoubtedly influenced by the
traditional market-places of ancient comninities lZz
Al1
d
consisted of rows of shops, temples and ~ 0 1 0 ~ a d eporticoes
which were al1 familiar to the acrorae in Greek cities dating
to the Hellenistic period, Following the Hellenistic models
of the earlier, well-known established communities, but not
complying entirely with the traditional conventions, the
Romans modified the Hellenistic acrorae and the result was a
distinct and characteristic style which adorned their
important and influential architecture, This was achieved
through the introduction of colomaded main streets and side
streets and the increased construction of monumental public
works which gave the utban centres of Anatolia new and
distinct characteristics,
The Romans took the Greek concept of the stoa and
expanded on it. They used the stoae to accentuate important
buildings and used them to help define certain areas, making
the planning of such structures more standardized. "' As well,
Roman architects liked to use coltrmns, niches and pediments.
In the high Imperia1 period, A,D. 50 to 250, the architects
focused on reworkinq earlier designs .IL'
Now the main focus
was to enclose the open space with circular forms instead of
the conventional rectangular or square const~ctions. In
addition ta this the Romans' prize architectural development
was their use of the arch and the arcade both as decorative
elements and as support systems,
The architects of Asia Minor went to extreme lengths to
carefully preserve the Hellenistic traditions that were
.
L22~oethi~,
1978, pg. 145
" 3 ~ w e n s ,1991, pg. 154
"'~rown, 1967, pg. 33
embedded in their regional heritage.
These Hellenistic
elements, which were retained in the Roman buildings projects
of Asia Minor, were the building fotms themselves, the details
of the workmanship and, of course, the structures u~ed.'~~
Yet, being aware that the Roman authorities were inevitably
responsible for the building pro jects themselves, the
Anatolian architects were always careful to follow the
fashions that were dictated by Rome.
As the Greek aaorae made a statement about the society in
which they were placed, so did the new Roman aaorae. They
exhibited a functional value and were symbolic of the city
itself. Depending on the wealth of any particular t o m the
agora was embellished accordingly. The wealthier a city was,
the more structures were located in its agora. Thus, it is
possible to assess the position of any of the communities in
Lycia-Pamphylia by examining the features, size, structures
and function of these ' civic-centres '
As the purpose of the
city was to protect its citizen$, it was the duty of the Roman
agora to protect both the religious, administrative and
commercial undettakings of the community.
Roman architecture, being the most progressive auring the
first four centuries A.D., inevitably had an impact on those
provinces which it had contact with.lt6 Yet in reality the
Roman infl~enceswere not emulated into the local architecture
of Asia Minor but were absorbed into regional techniques and
styles. This resulted, in m a n y cases, in an original blend of
Roman and Hellenistic building practices.
These then
transformed the urban terrain of Anatolia from the first
century A.D. onwards. Compared to Italy the Roman provinces
of Lycia-Pamphylia exhibited more variety in the form anà
function of civic buildings. This resulted in an original m i x
.
-
--
1 2 S ~ a ~1981,
n . p. 173
't6~ard-~erkins,
1981, pg. 276
of Hellenistic and Roman architectural elements which could
only be seen in this part of the Empire.
Conclusion
Asia Minor played a vital yet quiet role in the
historical development of the Greek East,
From the
Hellenistic period to Roman times indigenous Lycian,
Pamphylian, Greek and Roman cultures merged forming a unique
mix, creating a distinctive architecture that could have only
developed in such a region. Being such a mountainous country,
many of Asia Minorts thriving centres were located along the
coast, This allowed for a free flow of trade not only in
commercial enterprise but also in cultural exchange. Situated
at the cross-roads of the Near East and the Greek and Roman
world travellers and entrepreneurs who gathered in the cities
of Asia Minor were surrounded by familiar styles and
architectural trends, while at the same time being exposed to
others which perhaps had not been seen before,
The cities of Lycia-Pamphylia managed to retain their
sense of nationality and individuality throughout antiquity,
for they were never absorbed into major centres nor joined
together forming larger communities which in turn would
deprive them of their freedom.
Many of the small t o m s
remained separate, possessing their own administrative units
which normally comprised a consul and magistrates who would
congregate in the city's 'civic-centre'.127 Depending on the
political and historical situation these administrative,
cultural and political conglomerations would be located in the
crux of the city, in the agora. City life revolved around
these centres which were linked to the rest of the community
In addition to being the
by streets and passageways.
cultural, religious and social hub of. the community, they
stood as indicators of a city's independence, displaying al1
the most important features needed for the community to
127
Jones, 1971, pg. 109
56
function. ""
Within the realm of the ' civic-centre * the
political, economic, social, and religious attitudes of the
locale were expressed, making the agora of the Greek city the
most important aspect of the community, for the city would
express itself through its public architecture and
activities,IZg
Since many of Asia Minor's maritime communities were
founded by Gteek colonists, the cities of Anatolia, developed
and continued in the Greek tradition despite being under the
control of many different rulers, Unlike maay of the cities
located along the Western Coast, which were inclined to
emulate the cultural and artistic trends of the dominating
political situation, the cities located along the southern
shore preferred to build upon the local Hellenistic
traditions.
The provinces of Lycia and Pamphylia perpetually
functioned as independent units even when joined together
under Roman domination. Roman annexation brought wealth to
the country, cities prospered as never before and there was a
smooth transitional development which occurred within the
architecture of the new province, giving it a sense of local
pride which appealed to both those in command and those living
in the area.
Where these architectural styles and trends
tended to be concentrated in was within the t o m agora, for
this was where al1 the citizens would congtegate and where al1
daily business took place. Yet since these provinces were
removed from the main land area of Asia Minor the major
artistic and architectural influences upon them came from the
Ionian cities located along the Carian and Mysian coasts.
The cities of Miletus, Priene, Magnesia and Pergamon were
al1 cores of activity in antiquity and al1 prospered from
"'ûwens, 1991, pg. 3
12gûwens,1991, pg. 140
trade. Since the bulk of activity focused on the buying and
selling of goods of both local and foreign production the
'civic-centres1 had to accommodate al1 of the merchants as
well as the local population. From the fourth century B. C to
the second century B .C. Hellenism and Hellenistic fashions
were dominant throughout Anatolia. Many of the cities claimed
Greek descent and followed the trends set by mainland Greece.
Essential to the form and function of the Hellenistic
agora was a sense of openness.
In order to achieve this,
C O ~ O M ~ ~ ~porticoes,
S ,
and stoae were introduced. These
elements defined space, giving the agora its characteristic
foim, but did not intrude into it. Shops, storage rooms and
offices could be added without detracting from the main
purpose and function of the market centre.
The three-sided, or 'horseshoe' shaped stoa, was the most
common feature of the Hellenistic agora cornplex. This figure
allowed one section of the agora to be open, permitting easy
access to the rest of the community.
Inside the agora
courtyard temples and altars could be built without crowding
the central area. These types of ' fonianl agorae as well were
symmetrical in form, fitting well into the concept of
Hippodamian t o m planning, which was dominant throughout the
Hellenistic east.
Depending on the wealth and size of the community and its
status in Anatolian society, the 'civic-centref might have
been divided into two sections, leaving one half for officia1
business, and slightly further away but still in the vicinity,
one for commercial activity, such as at Priene.
In some
cases, as at Miletus, two separate aciorae were built to
accommodate al1 of the cityls needs without unnecessary
crowding, or as at Magnesia, the space allotted for the
agora's construction could have been unusually large. Al1 of
these aqorae are perfect examples of Zonian ' civic-centres '
using stoae to define space without detracting from it and
fitting into Hippodamian t o m planning which focused on right
.
angles.
Although this type of agora was extremely popular, other
centres chose to use their own characteristic modes,
emphasizing both an individualitp and an independence from the
cities around them.
This is seen in both the acrorae at
Pergamon, Both aaorae are of a slightly irregular shape, this
changed the form slightly to compliment the landscape but did
not altar its function. Here double and triple storeyed stoae
can be found as well as a mixing of the Greek architectural
Both 'civic-centres' were built for different
orders ,
purposes, as at Priene, for as the upper town was mainly
administrative so was its agora, whereas the lower t o m was
where the main population resided and in turn its agora was
focused on mercantile endeavours.
As time went by styles changed, as did the status of
certain cities- With the Roman domination and annexation of
the East, new systems and procedures were introduced- Yet
these new ways never took away or detracted from the
traditional Hellenistic beauty of the Anatolian terrain.
For three centuries Anatolia flourishedunder Roman rule,
which brought the more remote regions of the province into
closes contact with the Roman world.
As cities and t o m s
became wealthier they were embellished with magnificent
building projects, basilicas, imperial temples and baths were
added, which catered to Roman conventions, but in almost al1
cities architectural Hellenistic traces can be detected.
Roman architecture and planning in the eastern provinces
essentially originated from thewell establishedtraditions of
the East. As a result of the establishment of the Empire,
Rome took these concepts and added to them, improving the
value of city life for during this period there was easy
access to many of the Empire's as set^."^ These were then used
by many of the Asia Minor's leading citizens, its governors,
and even the Eniperorto improve the provincial cities, raising
their status to that appropriate to a Roman city. 131
These
new Roman aaorae tended to be mare self-contaiaed, unlike
their Hellenistic predecessors, The traditional 'horseshoe'
stoa was no longer employed, being replaced by Romanized
As well there was also an
rectangular enclosed spaces.
increase in e
number of administrative and religious
buildings located within the agora's central spaceBoth the ' Agora of Domitianf and the 'Rectangular Agora'
at Phaselis date ta the Imperial period, the first and second
Although primarily Hellenistic in form the
centuries A.D.
'Agora of Domitian' did not use the typical ' horseshoe' shaped
stoa pattern. This agora employed a rectangular shape and had
shops only along two sides.
The agora at Perge also followed Hellenistic traditions,
It was of square construction surrounded on al1 four sides by
shops. Yet placed at its centre was a circular temple, which
became the central focus as it is a prominent feature found in
almost al1 'civic-centres' of the Roman world.
Located within the agora complex at Aspendus are typical
Roman features there is a basilica, a bouleuterion, a market
hall, and a nynmheum, all typical structures found in Roman
asorae. Yet it lacks the most important central element, a
temple dedicated to the Imperial cult.
Finally, the city of Side, one of the most important and
best preserved cities in Pamphylia, being very wealthy, had
two auorae, a state agora and a commercial agora.
Incorporating two separate auorae into the city followed
Aristotle's idea that a proper Greek city was to separate
business from politics, creating a distinct place for each,
Here the administrative agora, tepresenting the state, was
more chatacteristically Hellenistic in form whereas the
commercial agora incorporated more Roman features into it: a
131ûwens,1991, pg. 140
60
temple, exeûrae, a latrine, a bathing complex and shopsThis type of Roxuanization through public architectural
forms did not only occur with the Roman annexation of the
Greek East.
Examples of this mixture of artistic and
technical ideas can be seen throughout the ancient world. As
examples of this can be found in the Roman province of LyciaPamphylia so can examples of this type of architectural
transformation be fouad within Italy itself.
Here the
community of Paestum shall be used as a case study to
illustrate how Romanization affected various cities in the
ancient world and how the function and form of public
architecture was influenced by this.
Paestum
In the province of Campania Greeks, Samnites and Romans
lived together. Although the situation was not as peaceful as
that of Asia Minor the visible remains display much the same
characteristics in the fusing of different architectura1
elements ta create a landscape that was representative of al1
those that lived in the area.
The ancient Greek community of Posidonia, better known by
its Roman name as Paestum, was founded by Dorian colonists in
the sixth century B.C.
It is located along the Italian coast
at the southern end of the Bay of Salerno, approximately 80 km
south of the modern city of Naples, In the fourth century the
Lucanians, an Italic people, began milita- campaigns against
the Greek cities of Italy, including Posidonia, creating much
strife within the community. Zn 273 B.C. a Latin colony was
placed at the site and the name was changed to Paestum. It
was during this period that the t o m plan was drastically
altered, yet many of the sacred places of Paestum were allowed
to remained intact. 132
'3Z~edley,1990, pg. 113
The forum at Paestum was positioned in the central part
of the city, a part that had not been built upon bef~re."~
( fig , 13 ) 1t was located between two major Greek sanctuaries,
the earlier Greek agora and the precinct of Hera, and was
Its
adorned with typically public Roman buildings.
rectangular Piazza followed the east-west agis of the city.
The fatum was constructed in two phases.
In the third
century, approximately 278 B X , , following the establishment
of the Roman community, the location, planning and preliminary
building of the forum took palace, At this time rows of shops
were aligned along three sides of the rectangular boundary as
in most Hellenistic market-places , al1 being two-raomed and of
similar dimensions. In the building of such a cornplex and in
the fact that shops, offices and storerooms w e r e the main
focus it is clear that the city was prosperous enough to be
able to afford ta build a new forum, replacing the fifth
century agora located just south of the Temple of Athena, and
t h a t the community was on good terms with its Roman leaders,
in most cases none of the original Greek buildings had to be
destroyed during its construction.13'
The second building
phase occurred under Augustus, in the f i r s t century B.C., with
the rebuilding of the surrounding portico. This portico w a s
modified, forming one of the Doric order which was mainly
built from earlier materials,
Located at the forum's northern edge was the comitium.
This building could be entered from its east and southern
sides. It was a rectangular building with seats arranged in
concentric circles aroundits centre. Itwas in this building
that the election of the magistrates took place, as well as
L 3 3 ~ l t h o ~this
g h 'civic-centre1 displays both Greek and Roman
features, because of its location within Italy, it is labelled
as a forum not a Roman agora-
-
In the second or third century an
"'~edley, 1990, pg. 115
early Greek temple was destroyed in the building of the
macellum and the basilica.
other political business.
Attached ta this was the cityls
curia, where the senate gathered for officia1 business and
meetings
Raised on a podium, with a frontal staircase leading to
its entrance, stood the Fatum Temple. This temple dates to
the second century B.C. and is of Italic type, being northsouth otiented. It is located along the forum's western edge
and was built over part of the comitium. In its second period
of construction Corinthian columns were built flanking three
sides of the pronaos and cella. It is in this building that
we see the most Roman influence. Not only is this temple
monumental but T t does not fallow typical Greek conventions,
the main difference being its orientation and its frontal
stairway. Greek temples were almost always east-west oriented
and had steps going al1 the way around them whereas the Romans
preferred a north-south orientation and the central focus
being the entrance with only one set of steps leading up to
the threshold, and, in this case, the altar.13'
Supporting the Doric frieze with its triglpphs and
metopes were Corinthian capitals which were accompanied by
female heads, large volutes and acanthus leaves, Here we see
the mixing again of Greek and Roman styles which was common
throughout the Greek East and a style that was characteristic
of Southern Italian atchitect~re.'~' This temple was most
probably dedicated to the Capitoline Triad, the Gods Jupiter,
Juno and Minerva, giving it the title of Ca~itolium. This is
a Iogical assumption since it was the officia1 forum temple
which dominated the area, and such temples are found in Roman
'civic-centres1 throughout the Roman world. Yet there was
only one cella, making the equal worship of the three gods
difficult. Pedley has suggested that the temple was not a
.
-
--
13'~edley, 1990, pg. 118
136ibid.
Caibitolium but one dedicated to the worship of Bona Mens, the
Goddess of moderation, wisdom, memory and good sense."'
Cutting into the central portion of the forum portico,
along the southern side, was the facade of the macellum, the
market for fish and other perishable items, and the basilica.
Both of these buildings were constructed over the remains of
a sixth century temple.
The macellum was a rectangular
building with four marble interior colonnades and a small
shrine that faced the entrante. It dates to the second or
third century A.D. and had access to the covered shops of the
portico.
Adjacent to the west was the basilica or curia, which
functioned as a place of business and as the law courts . This
building, alço dating to the second or third century A.D., was
most probably built above an earlier basilica, replacing the
earlier curia on the other side of the forum, located north of
the comitium. 138 Dominating the rectangular open space, which
was surrounded by covered corridors, was a Stone, apse-shaped
exedra, drawing one's attention towards the centre.
In the second or third centA.D. another building was
constructed along the west side of the forum, breaking once
again the r o w of shops with its facade. This sacred building
was dedicated to the divine protectors of the city, the city
Lares, giving it the name the Lararium. It was an oblong
building with three rectangular niches at the back and was
built upon square blocks of an earlier building which, as
13'pedley, 1990, pg. 118f. - Several fragments of inscriptions
have been found associating the cult of the Bona Mens with
Paestum. This c u l t was introduced to Italy after the battle
between the Carthaginians and the Romans at Lake Trasimeno in
217 B.C.
Pedley then goes on to suggest that the Ca~itolium
is perhaps located in the unexcavated area to the east end of
the forum. Yet Boethius refers to the temple a s the "Tempio
della Pacen giving no further explanation of the title
(Boethius, 1978, pg. 132).
"'pedley,
1990, pg. 119
Pedley suggests, served mich the same purpose."'
In the example of the forum at Paestum it is obvious that
These when
there were many influential factors at work.
brought together form the nucleus of Imperia1 architectural
development and allowed the Romanization of the Hellenistic
forms without detracting from the basic conventions of the
older lcivic-centtesl. The three elements that contributed to
this development w e r e , the older established market-places,
rectangular Hellenistic piazzas and the addition of Imperia1
temples with frontal orientations situated along the backwall
of the forum."0
In al1 of these cities traits from both types of 'civiccentres1, Greek and Roman, can be found. Whether they were
situated in the Greek cities of the Roman world, such as at
Paestum, or Roman cities of the Greek world, such as Phaselis,
Perge, Aspendus and Side in the Roman province of LyciaPamphylia, one had a feeling of familiarity without being
overpowered by one particular style characteristic of the
region or of those who dictated what was to be. This feeling
of comfort and recognition was mainly concentrated in those
areas that were most frequented by foreigners and by the main
population. In these tcivic-centres' both the major dominant
ruling factions of the ancient world came together in a
mixture of building fonns and purpases, creating a distinct
architectural statement that was emblematic of provinces
populated by different peoples but governed by local
authorities wanting ta emulate and represent Rome. The most
visible means of achieving that association is in the use of
-
The orientation and placement of
l'O~oethius,1978, pg. 145
the temple was the only contrasting feature between the Greek
and the Roman ' civic-centre ' Bath had d i f ferent orientations
(north-south as opposed to east-west) and as the Roman temples
dominated the backdrop of the enclosure the Greek temples
tended to be more detached.
.
Roman architectural forms and the way the civic space was
utilized in Roman aaorae throughout the Empire.
For these centres fortnied an architectural statement about
the city where they were placed and the people who lived in
the surrounding areas.
For they were practical and
incorporated into them w h a t was necessary for the city to
function. 14'
Market buildings, shops, official and
administrative buildings, temples, altars, gates, archways,
anâ statues were al1 added making the function of the aaorae
the main political, religious, social and economic focus of
the comwrnity.
The typical arrangement of a Hellenistic Greek agora was
a square shaped enclosure surrounded by a double-story of
columns that were built close together in order to protect
those that gathered in the area from the elements.
In
contrast the typical Roman forum was oblong and the spaces
between the columns w e r e wider in order to allow those
gathering within to view al1 the spectacles which took place
within the forum's central space.14* In bath cases the stoa
acted as a specific architectural boundary which gave these
enclosed spaces definite form
Roman builders, no matter where they were commissioned to
work, built upon the well established Hellenistic designs.
When creating the city 'civic-centresrold forms were used but
the focus was upon ftaming the agora through the use of gates
and cunted surfaces 14'
As well it was common to enclose the
temple ptecinct by having a basilica near by. This can be
seen throughout Italy and the Roman auorae in Southern Asia
Minor.
Al1 of the auorae that have been looked at are
emblematic of Romanization and are significant examples of
.
141~acDonald,
1986, pg. 63
"'Clarke,
1833, pg. 94
'43~town,1967, pg. 33
this Iengthy process.
The notable changes that occurred within these centres
can be seen within the framework of the agora complex as a
whole and within its individual features Roman architecture
was not based upon the buildings of Rome but almost always
included and built upon local architectural traditions, For
as Roman architecture was the mostprogressive architecture in
the first four centuries A.D. it was bound to influence the
local architectural traditions but due to the location,
economic situations and local traditions of the co~~~unities
located elsewhere in the Empire, direct imitation was
virtually impossible.14'
What the Romans did add, which played a large role in the
Romanization of public architecture of the East, was in the
addition and design of buildings such as the basilica and
baths and the use of the arch, which when combined together
with local architectural forms helped to emphasize
architecturally the Roman cities of the Empire improving the
calibre of city life. 14'
For changes within the form of the
Roman acrorae were intimately related to its function in
society. As the external complex changed sa did its interna1
components.
What started off as a commercial and administrative unit
that was easily accessible to the public, evolved into a
complex that was often rem6ved front the community with
religion as its main focus with the Emperor at its centre.
Al1 of these elements then combined to form an architectural
statement within the agora itself that displayed both Greek
and Roman traits and characteristics, which then in tuni
represented the cultural diversities of those who lived
amongst the mountain ranges, forests, river-sides and
.
14'ward-Perkins, 1981, pg. 276
1 4 5 ~ e n 1989,
s,
pg. 29
67
seashores of the Roman province o f Lycia-Pamphylia.
Fig 2
Northarn Agom at Miletus
L Martin 1951)
.
m
.
7
. . . . m .
.
*
.
.
.
*
.
*
.
D
*
,
.
( Martin, IW)
~
m . . . . . . .
m..
.
( von Garkan)
Uppsr Aqora
ai Per~arnon
Fig 7
Lower Agora a t Pergamon
Fi99
Agora o f Perse
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