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Lecture S1 -- The World in 1500 Historical Methods The Problem of Evidence Primary: Documents written by witnesses to events and contemporaries Secondary: Analyses of events based on primary documents Tertiary: Summations of the state of knowledge based on study of many secondary works. Bias: Every source has inherent biases which must be overcome to try to create a more objective picture. The Problem of Objectivity Source Bias: All sources have biases to overcome Historian Bias: Historians have their own biases too. Is Objective History Possible? Historians continue to argue this question; few believe a totally pure objectivity is possible, as the Positivists strove for. The Problem of Causation Great Men?: Some historians see the actions of great individuals who bend history to their will Impersonal Forces: Others emphasize the impact of impersonal forces or unconscious collective action on history The Problem of Motives Deciphering Witness Statements: Part of this is the problem of determining if witnesses are telling the truth about their motives. Lack of Witness Statements: But often, actors don't clearly explain their actions. Actions Speak Louder Than Words: What people do reveals their motivations better than their own statements, frequently. Economic vs. Idealistic: Historians argue endlessly over whether economic self-interest or people's beliefs and ideas are more important in motivating people's actions. Themes Land Hunger and Agriculture The Ever Moving Frontier and Social Class Indian Relations Foreign Entanglements The Development of American Democracy The Sectionalization of America The Shadow of the Civil War Periodization Colonial America (1492-1783) Economy: Agriculture, some foreign trade Political: Democracy with a property requirement to vote, but over half of males own enough property to vote; a few women and blacks are able to. Religion: Only New England is very religious; less than a third of Americans are church goers. Slavery: Exists in all colonies, more common in the South Social: Elites ape European manners; each section is developing an elite in settled areas. Early Republic (1783-1828) Economy: Agriculture, growing foreign trade. Political: Increasingly, all white males vote; everyone else does not. Religion: Americans become more religious and develop revivalism methods. Slavery: Slavery dies out in the north and mid-atlantic, grows in importance in the South. Social: More of America becomes settled; more class differentiation, conscious rejection of European manners. Antebellum America (1828-1860) Economy: North becomes more industrial; South remains agricultural, based on cash crop slavery Political: Universal White Manhood Suffrage Religion: Increasing conflict between Protestant natives and Catholic immigrants; Churches split over slavery. Slavery: North becomes anti-slavery; the South comes to champion it Social: Rise of the Middle Class in the cities; Americans often take pride in social equality despite the increasing class differentiation; many Southerners develop an aristocratic ethos Civil War (1861-1865) and Reconstruction (1865-1877) Economy: North becomes more industrial; South remains agricultural, struggles with deep poverty after the war. Political: Universal White Manhood Suffrage; Blacks gain right to vote, though post-Reconstruction, many are denied this Religion: Increasing conflict between Protestant natives and Catholic immigrants; Churches split over slavery. Slavery: Slavery is abolished by the thirteenth Amendment Social: Veterans dominate society for the rest of the century. Europe and Africa in 1500 Rise of Nation States Rise of France Hundred Year’s War--This removes England from French soil and lays the seeds for absolutism French Absolutism--Rule by a monarch who can create law and levy taxes at will. Only custom and the fear of revolt limit his power. Absolutism, Taxes, and Military Power Armies need money Absolute monarchies raise money well They do this because they don’t need a legislature to approve their taxes. The army then defends their absolute power. France will dominate Europe by 1650 England on the Skids Defeat in the Hundred Year's War: England is expelled from Europe after 400 years of holding parts of France. England in Decline: International Impotence: Between 1460 and 1689, England is largely unable to exert military power beyond its own borders, except in the New World. Limited Monarchy, Taxes, and Military Power Armies need money Parliament must approve taxes But Parliament only votes very limited taxes So the army is pathetic And the king lacks the ability to seize absolute power. But Rising Trade: England is increasingly becoming a major trading nation and its navy defends it from conquest Apogee of Spanish Power Spain and International Empire Charles V: Rules Spain, the Netherlands, Austria, and Holy Roman Empire. Comes to rule Mexico and Peru. Absolute Monarchy + Wealth of the Americas Has benefits of Absolute Monarchy ALSO has vast mineral wealth of the Americas Spain is able to dominate Europe from 1500 to 1650 Most Catholic King Spain has just completed the Reconquista--the reconquest of Spain from Moslems (the Moors) Spain becomes the Champion of Catholicism in face of Protestant Reformation This ends up consuming all the wealth gained from the New World Golden Age of the Netherlands Cutting Edge of Capitalism The Dutch innovate the Commercial Capitalism of the 16th-18th centuries: The government backs international expansion to create cash crop producing colonies These cash crops are shipped to the Netherlands and processed The Dutch sell them at a large profit Dutch banks help to finance all this Taxes on commerce make the Dutch government wealthy too. Protestant Revolt: The Dutch also become one of the first Protestant nations, leading to revolt against Spain This leads to 80 years of war with Spain, sapping Spain Dutch finance enables the Dutch to field armies which can fight Spain on even terms. Holy Roman Empire In Decline Early Strength: In the Middle Ages, the HRE was very powerful Late Medieval Decline: Civil Wars over who would be Emperor enabled the nobles to gain increasing independence Fragmentation: By 1500, the major nobles were semi-independent, often able to defy the Emperor with things like hiding fugitives Reformation: This disorder made Germany the most natural place for the Reformation to begin, as nobles could protect the Protestant Reformers from the Catholic Emperor. The Reformation Before the Reformation: In the 15th century, the Clergy was powerful, rich, and sometimes corrupt. In cities, they made up 6-8% of the population. They had their own courts, they owned huge areas of land, and they dominated the rhythms of ordinary life through the yearly church calendar and church influence over birth, marriage, and death. Monasteries were large and wealthy (and often corrupt). Church services were held in Latin, though many priests were just barely literate. Those who were well educated led the Church, but were entangled in politics, government, and war. Many grumbled over the major problems of the Church-Problems of Renaissance Catholism Temporal Power: The papacy headed a significant state, thus leading to situations of the Papacy getting tangled up in political conflicts, which reduced its religious prestige. Rising Heresies: As more secular people became literate, they increasingly could read the Bible, and some people interpreted it differently than the Church. Monastic Corruption: Many of the monasteries were too rich and functioned as welfare programs for younger noble kids instead of being places of holiness. The Indulgences Issue: Desperate for money, the church was selling indulgences--pardons from time in purgatory--to raise money for projects, a complete abuse of the purpose of indulgences--to promote holy behavior. The German Seedbed: Germany was a fertile seedbed for the Reformation because it combined: A growing literate population, combined with the printing press, which made it easier for new ideas to spread and for translations of the bible to be produced. Political divisions which made it hard for central authorities to suppress heresy; German princes agreed that the Emperor needed to be kept weak, which made it hard for him to fight local princes who hid and supported reformers. Problems of clerical corruption and a low-point in the morale and behavior of the monastic orders. Acceptance of secular influence over the church; because local secular authorities controlled church appointments, they could change the content of religion without their populace necessarily turning on them. The result was that, unlike in previous centuries, heresies could not easily be stomped out. Martin Luther Origins: Luther was a German Augustinian monk, who came to feel he wasn't holy enough despite being a monk, and who came to criticize the Church, leading to him nailing the famous 95 Theses (a list of complaints about the Church) to the door of his local cathedral. His Protests: Luther attacked the sale of indulgences, the heavy focus on penances and other 'works' as part of the road to salvation, and the refusal to allow the Bible to be translated into secular languages. Protestant Theology: Luther emphasized the role of 'faith' over works, attacked celibacy of the priesthood and monasticism, and translated the bible into German. He emphasized that the Bible was the source of our holy knowledge, not tradition or reason. His Impact: Luther shattered the unity of the Western Church and opened the way for the creation of the several thousand Protestant denominations which exist today. Anglicanism The Quest for Heirs: Henry VIII split not over theology, but because the pope wouldn't give him a divorce like he wanted. The Split with the Church: Henry mostly kept Catholic theology, but he brought the Church under state authority; now Henry could appoint Archbishops who would give him the divorce he wanted so he could remarry. Impact: Anglicanism would become split between Puritans (who wanted to make it more Protestant) and High Churchmen (who wanted to keep things closer to 'Catholicism without the pope'). This would eventually lead to Civil War. The Wars of Religion (1500-1650) The Holy Roman Empire Self Destructs: Religion ignited war between the German Princes and the Habsburg dynasty of emperors; the end result was the destruction of Imperial authority. The Dutch Revolt: The Dutch turned Protestant and revolted against the Catholic Habsburg Kings of Spain. Habsburgs Bankrupt Spain: Spain blew all its gains from the New World on wars against Protestants and against the rising Moslem Turks. England and France Torn by Dissension: England and France tore themselves apart in Religious Civil Warfare also. Rise of International Trade and Exploration The Silk Road and the Spice Trade The Silk Road: From Roman times onward, traders crossed central Asia, hauling silk, spices, and porcelain from China and India and Indonesia to Europe. The Rise of Islam and the Silk and Spice Routes: The rise of Islam put potentially hostile states in the middle of the road. Prices roses and trade was sometimes cut off. Moslems also cut off trade routes across the Sahara to sub-Saharan Africa. The Fall of Constantinople: The Fall of Constantinople put even more of the route into the hands of Moslems and helped to prompt a search for sea routes (though this began before 1453). The Rise of Portuguese Exploration Prince Henry the Navigator (March 4, 1394–November 13, 1460): This Portuguese prince played a crucial role in the beginning of Portuguese explorations by providing funding and gathering experts to strengthen Portuguese shipping and navigation. Technical Innovations: New ships (the Caravel) and technologies (the compass and gunpowder) were key to the rise of Portuguese exploration. The Caravel combined European square rigging with the lateen rigging of the Arabs, creating a ship which would sail against the wind and as a result, could return up the African coast against prevailing winds. The Compass strengthened navigation and allowed you to go far from shore more safely. And gunpowder gave Europeans a military edge in foreign lands. The Rounding of Africa: In 1488, Bartholemew Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, enabling the Portuguese to now have a sea route to India, China, and Indonesia. The problem of the Indian Ocean: But they had to fight Moslem fleets in a series of wars to take control of the Indian Ocean. Africa in 1500 The Problems of Africa Climate and Disease: Africa's climate and diseases rendered large chunks of the continent unsuitable for urbanization or even sometimes for agriculture, making it harder for sophisticated societies to develop. Disease also acted as a barrier to foreign traders, who died in droves. Semi-Isolation: The Sahara desert and the difficulties of sailing on the west coast of Africa tended to cut it off from developments on its northern shore and in Europe and the Middle East, though Eastern Africa had a fair amount of oceanic trade around Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. Lack of Science: While many Africans had advanced artisan skills, the combination of literacy, universities, and Greco-Roman (and Arabic) philosophy which prompted Europeans to develop science were all less prominent or entirely lacking in Africa, in part because urban societies were fairly limited. African Societies Sub-Saharan Trade Route Empires: The southern ends of the trade routes across Africa tended to spawn cities and connected powerful states which grew rich off the trade. These states had little incentive to build sea ports or develop navies to go trade with the rest of the world. (East African states did trade with the Middle East, but the Arabs controlled the sea leg of the trade). Mali (1235 to 1645 AD): The Almoravids converted many in the Western Sahel in the 11th century. However, the collapse of Almoravid power in this area left a welter of small states for a time. In the mid-thirteenth century, one of the Ghana successor states, Mali, forged an empire under the leadership of the Keita ruling clan (especially Keita King Sundinaji (1230-1255 AD)). Mali stretched from the Atlantic coast (between the Senegal and Gambia rivers) to half-way along the Niger in the east, holding all of old Ghana and more besides. At its height, it was home to 20 million people. They now controlled the gold trading routes, exporting gold and importing salt and copper. They used war captives in the Niger river valley to grow lots of food. Rice, millet, beans, and yams were grown in large quantities. Metalworking and cotton weaving were the national craft specialties. The Malinke, speakers of Mande, were the main nation, living in cities of 10-15,000 surrounded by farmland. The Keita kings were moslems, who made the required pilgrimage to Mecca, especially in the 13th-14th century. Niani was the capital, located on a tributary of the Niger in the savannah on the edge of the forest, close to sources of gold, kola nuts, and palm oil. Mali was less a centralized bureaucracy and more the center of a vast sphere of influence which contained both subject kingdoms and centrally ruled provinces. The ruler was known as the Mansa, or "emperor". The greatest ruler was Mansa Musa (1312-37), whose pilgrimage to Mecca involved spending so much money, it triggered inflation all along his route. Musa was so generous that he ran out of money and had to take out a loan to be able to afford the journey home. Under his rule, the city of Timbuktu became known for its madrasas (Muslim religious schools), libraries, poets, and architects—a center for culture. The Mali Empire maintained a professional, full-time army in order to defend its borders. The entire nation was mobilized with each tribe obligated to provide a quota of fighting age men. The military was 90% footmen and 10% cavalry. An infantryman, regardless of weapon (bow, spear, etc.) was called a sofa. Sofas were organized into tribal units under the authority of an officer called the kelé-kun-tigui or "wartribe-master". The common sofa was armed with a large shield constructed out of wood or animal hide and a stabbing spear called a tamba. Bowmen formed a large portion of the sofas. Three bowmen supporting one spearman was the ratio in Kaabu and the Gambia by the mid 16th century. Equipped with two quivers and a shield, Mandinka bowmen used iron headed arrows with barbed tipped that were usually poisoned. They also used flaming arrows for siege warfare. Cavalry wore chainmail and fought with spears and lances. In the 15th century, strife over the throne eroded Mali's power and the rival state of Songhai arose. African Artisanry: Africa had many expert metalworkers capable of producing exquisitely beautiful art and access to lots of iron, gold, and silver. However, Africans would not progress, as Europeans would, to the mechanization of artisan work (IE, the Industrial Revolution.) African Trade: Africans exported slaves, gold, silver, ivory, and art, while importing cloth, metal tools, alcohol, and guns. African Slavery: Slavery was common in Africa; much of the work of farming and artisanry was done by slaves taken in war or condemned for crimes; slaves had some hope of eventual freedom, and it was like classical-era European slavery: Not on any basis or race or ethnicity. European Slave Trade in Africa: The Colonization of the Americas would lead to Europeans buying African slaves in huge numbers, which would have disruptive effects of African society. Pre-Columbian America and the Beginning of Colonization The Effects of Isolation Migration by the Land Bridge The Last Ice Age: The last ice age lowered ocean levels, allowing passage across the Bering Strait, over which Asian tribes moved into the Americas and began to populate it. This happened somewhere around 13,000 BC. Patterns of Migration: There seem to have been several waves of immigration, each pushing earlier migrants further south, leading them to push down finally to the southern tip of South America. Technological backwardness due to lack of contact Stone age arrival: The Native Americans arrived during the Stone Age, and thus had only Stone Age level technology to start with. Low levels of trade between regions: Only a few areas developed the cities which are crucial to the rise of large scale trade which would spread ideas quickly across large regions. Thus, things invented in one place would spread slowly at best. Contrast to Europe/Asia/Africa: By contrast, Europe and Asia had very good trade contact for over a thousand years and weaker contacts before; Africa had some contact, if not as much. An isolated pool of animals, plants, and diseases Lack of Draft Animals: Lack of Draft Animals made advanced agriculture and thus the rise of cities much more difficult and also hampered long-distance trade. Fewer indigenous diseases: The few indigenous diseases failed to build up the disease resistance the natives would need to survive contact with Europe. Cultural Impacts: Cities tended to be smaller or non-existant, nomads had to roam on foot, and in general, this left the Americans in a weaker position when the Europeans arrived. Dominant Cultures The Aztecs: They called themselves the Mexica. They came from the northwest into the Valley of Mexico early in the 13th century, eventually ending up by 1325 on an island in Lake Texcoco. There, they founded Tenochtitlan and gradually through alliances and wars built up an empire which controlled central Mexico. The Valley of Mexico: The highlands of central Mexico were home to a series of civilizations from about 1000 BC to the present. The Aztecs were heirs to several thousand years of urbanization and agricultural advance. The Rise of the Aztecs: The Aztecs arrived in the Valley of Mexico in the 1200s; driven to an island in the marshes of Lake Texcoco, they gradually built up a set of islands from dredging marsh muck and grew stronger, eventually conquering their neighbors in the 1400s. (Two neighbors allied with the Aztecs to form a triple alliance: Tenochtitlan (Aztecs), Texcoco, and Tlacopan). The Aztec Empire: The Aztecs had a tributary empire; most of their empire governed itself but paid tribute (payments of goods) to the Aztecs. For example, 7000 tons of Maize and 2 million cotton cloaks flowed into Tenochtitlan each year. Their subordinates largely hated them. Human Sacrifice: The Aztecs believed the sun would go out (due to the sun god Huitzilopochtli dying) if they didn't make frequent sacrifices to it of human hearts from defeated warriors. This dictated a state of frequent warfare to get sacrifices; in peace-time, the Aztecs would stage 'Flower Wars', mutually agreed on ritual battles between cities for each side to get captives to sacrifice. Various other human sacrifices (such as children to Tlaloc the Rain God) were also carried out; no other nation sacrificed so largely as the Aztecs. Tenochtitlan: Three great causeways linked the island city to the mainland, meeting at the ritual center. The ruler's palace and noble homes surrounded the ritual center; the rest was divided into wards (calpulli). The city was laid out on a grid of streets and canals. Aqueducts carried in fresh water. Aztec Society: Divided between nobles and commoners, with a sort of intermediate class of merchants and artisans. Dress codes regulated clothing. Laws were strict and punishments severe; nobles had more rights but were also punished harder. Commoners were assigned to a calpulli; each calpulli had its own temple. Each calpulli had its own tribute obligation of wealth and goods; those who fell behind could be enslaved. Aztec Economy: Traders and merchants (pochteca) were important figures in Aztec society. They organized guilds which set laws and customs for trade. The Aztecs used cacao beans for small purchases and fixed lengths of cotton cloth as money for large purchases. Money was mainly used for purchases in the urban markets and by merchants who traded between cities. In Aztec marketplaces, a small rabbit was worth 30 beans, a turkey egg cost 3 beans, and a tamal cost a single bean. For larger purchases, standardized lengths of cotton cloth called quachtli were used. There were different grades of quachtli, ranging in value from 65 to 300 cacao beans. One source stated that 20 quachtli could support a commoner for one year in Tenochtitlan. A man could also sell his own daughter as a sexual slave or future religious sacrifice, generally for around 500 to 700 beans. A small gold statue (approximately 0.62 kg / 1.37 lb) cost 250 beans. Women in Aztec Society: They could hold property and inherit. They could trade in the marketplace and they did craftwork. Girls and boys were educated together in the 'song houses' and women could hold low level priestly positions. However, women were kept out of war, which kept them out of the high leadership roles; they were expected to pump out babies. Death in childbirth or battle guaranteed one a position in the afterlife. Aztec Warfare: All young men were taught how to fight. Battles were simple mass combats by individual warriors with little command, control, or strategy; the goal was to take captives for sacrifice, so obsidian chipped clubs were used. Aztec Technology: The Aztecs had a mixture of high technology (better sanitation than Europe, highly skilled use of irrigation and aquaducts, expert stoneworking, expert gold and silvercrafting) and low technology (no metal armor, weapons made of obsidian, no use of the wheel, little ocean travel capacity). Though extremely complicated, the Aztec calendar was very sophisticated. Tenochtitlan was bigger and cleaner and generally nicer to live in than any European city but the Aztec military technology was designed to capture people for sacrifice, not to fight guns, metal weapons, and horses. The Incan Empire A Vast Empire: They controlled 2,600 miles of coastline at their height, plus connected highlands. One of the largest in the world. They called their land the Land of the Four Quarters, ruled from Cuzco. The Incas only began to build their empire in the 15th century, by their own tradition. (Some evidence shows this starts much earlier.) They imposed their native tongue Quecha and used a mix of conquest, intimidation and persuasion. Absolute Monarchy: The God Emperor of the Inca Empire (quechua: Inka Qhapaq) used the title of Sapa (the only one) and Apu (divinity). He held absolute power in order to enforce the maintenance of the irrigation networks on which his nation depended for survival. But this meant if the Emperor died, there was a huge leadership vacuum. Mountain Irrigation: Incan civilization revolved around the maintenance of terraced irrigation networks in the mountains. This required strong central control to force the continual maintenance of the network and to distribute its fruits. The Inca diet consisted primarily of potatoes and grains, supplemented by fish, vegetables, nuts, and maize (corn). Camelid (llama and alpaca) meat and cuyes (guinea pigs) were also eaten in large quantities. In addition, they hunted various wild animals for meat, skins and feathers. Primitive Socialism: The Inca leadership controlled all land and collected all farm produce, storing it in warehouses, then redistributed it according to need. These facilities also helped to feed the mita workers and other state employees and were used for massive public and religious ceremonies. Labor Taxation: They divided agricultural lands into categories, allowing some land to be kept by locals and other land dedicated to producing goods for the empire. In the mita system, local people worked for the state on a regular basis. Men also owed military service and labor on public work projects. Some entire groups were relocated to meet labor needs. State Employees: Some groups worked full time for the state. The mamakuna, Virgins of the Sun, were women who lived privileged but celibate regulated lives in urban areas; they wove cloth and brewed the ceremonial maize beer—chicha-- consumed at state religious festivals and were sometimes given as brides to reward men. Full time male employees of the state tended the royal Llama herds. Dress Codes: Cloth and Clothing conveyed information about people's rank and ethnicity. Incan Technology: The Incans, like the Aztecs, shone in some areas and were not very good at others. Architecture was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. They were stoneworkers of incredible skill, able to build mortarless buildings where the stones fit so well, you couldn't slide a knife between them. They carved mountainsides into terraces and were skilled at jewelrymaking, art, math, and textile production. The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful skull surgery, which involved cutting holes in the skull to release pressure from head wounds. Coca leaves were used to lessen hunger and pain, as they still are in the Andes. The Chasqui (messengers) chewed coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire. Their only system of writing, however, was a sort of knot code (Quipa), they knew little of bronze working and nothing of iron working, and like the Aztecs, they didn't have the wheel. They fought with cloth armor, wooden shields, and spears and bows of wood with bronze or stone heads. North America Forest Tribes: In the eastern forests, tribes lived in semi-permanent villages. They would burn down part of the forest and grow crops in the ashes for several years, hunting to add meat to their diet. They built movable villages out of hides and wood, and once the land grew infertile, they moved and burned another swathe of forest. This is called Slash and Burn agriculture. They were horticulturalists (use of hand tools for agriculture). Women worked the fields; men handled everything in the forest (including making things out of wood). Mound Builders: From 3000 BC to 1500 AD, various peoples along the Mississippi river, the Ohio River, and the Great Lakes built settlements and ceremonial sites along the shores of these waterways. From approximately 800 to 1500 A.D., the last of the major mound builder cultures—the Mississippian-- flourished along the Mississippi river. They built elaborate settlements on mounds and were ruled by local chieftans, supported by a wealthy noble class, growing corn to support themselves and engaging in elaborate artisan work and far flung trade. They had little to no metalworking, however. They also had a shared religion. Overpopulation, warfare, European diseases and the influx of horses (leading some to become nomads) led to the collapse of this civilization by somewhere between 1500 and 1600. Plains Tribes: Before Europeans came, the tribes of the western plains lived a difficult life as foot nomads, while the eastern plains tribes mixed hunting on foot with horticulture along the rivers. The coming of the horse enabled the plains nomads to become highly effective warriors, who could hunt much more efficiently and fought each other for control of the plains. Great Basin Tribes: Not organized enough for agriculture, they lived in family units and gathered and hunted for food, led by 'talkers'--wise men of reknown. In some cases they had to eat grasshoppers and other insects. Tribes such as the Shoshone and Paiutes Pacific Northwest: Here, people lived in substantial permanent villages supported by fishing. These peoples were the best sailors of North America. They created the Totem Poles, intended to record and show off the glories of their villages. Villages sometimes competed in contests of conspicious consumption known as potlaches, in order to show which village was better off. They built plank longhouses to live in on land. Arid Southwest: Only the maintenance of irrigation networks made life possible here. Life was town-based, and towns were built of adobe, or else sometimes carved out of the sides of buttes and other defensive locations. The Columbian Exchange Looking Westward: By the time of Spanish unification in 1488, the Portuguese had a strong lead in controlling the African route to Asia. So Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) proposed to Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castille that he could sail west in order to reach the Indies. Most people knew the world was round in 1488, contrary to later myths, but they didn't know how big it was. Ironically, Columbus underestimated the size of the Earth, leading him to think it was only 2-3,000 miles from Spain to China. If he'd known the truth, he'd have never dared to think he could survive going west. The Four Voyages of Columbus: In 1492, he set out with 3 ships to head to China; on October 12, 1492, he landed at San Salvador (Watling Island) in the Bahamas. He didn't find any urban civilization like China, but what he did find was enough to send him back 3 more times and to begin creating colonies. Columbus conducted four voyages and served as colonial governor (but was removed in disgrace). His men brought back natives, tobacco, gold, chile peppers (which he stuck the name pepper on, feeling them similar in taste to Indian Black Pepper), and many other goods. Unfortunately, they also brought back syphillis, introduced diseases which began slaughtering Caribbean natives, and because he thought he'd reached India, created the misterming of American natives as 'Indians'. America: Shortly after Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci (1451-1512) and Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) explored the coast of South America and began mapping it. Amerigo named the new world after himself and the name stuck. Magellan would go on to attempt to circumnavigate the entire world, only to die in what is now the Phillipines. The Conquistadores: Petty nobles and children of large familes who sought to gain noble status by carving out lands for Spain in the Americas. The Fall of Mexico: Hernan Cortez was appointed to open trade with the Aztecs. Instead, he mounted a conquest of Mexico (1519 to 1521), allying himself with tribes hostile to the Aztecs and eventually defeating them through his superior military technology and the outbreak of a plague. This was an incredible victory. The Fall of the Incas: After a failed try, Francisco Pizarro reached the Inca empire in the aftermath of a civil war, captured its ruler by a surprise attack, killed him, and brought down the empire, though it took years to suppress all resistance. The consolidation of Incan authority made it easy for the empire to collapse with its leader gone. (Especially as the Spanish set up a puppet Emperor to help in their conquest) The Limits of Spanish Expansion: Spanish conquest could only be easily sustained in places like Mexico and Peru where you could wipe out the warriors at the top and get the Indian peasantry to then serve you. It also required mineral wealth to sustain long-term rule. Many conquistadors got lost and died of disease and battle. The Ravages of Disease Thresholds of Disease: As civilization grows larger, diseases can spread more easily without wiping everyone out and killing themselves. Some diseases can't spread easily outside climates adapted to them. (Malaria needs mosquitos to spread, for example.) How Plagues Spread: Plagues spread by human contact, animal vectors and along trade routes. This had limited the spread of disease in the Americas due to low trade levels; the result was that the Americas had few wide spread disases and that they were vulnerable to ones that Europeans, Asians, and Africans had adapted to centuries ago. Demographic Catastrophe: The Spanish brought dozens of deadly diseases to America, and over the next two centuries they fanned out across the continent. 30-50% of the population of North America was wiped out. In Mexico, 95% of the population died in the first century of Spanish rule. Exchange of Animals and Plants Food Exchanges The Potato: It became a staple of European diets. Corn: It became a staple of European diets. Beans and Squash: Also imported to Europe from the Americas. The Yam: Brought from Africa to America Wheat and Spices: Brought to the Americas from Europe and Asia (America had spices of its own also) Alcohol: Often disruptive to American Indian societies. The Impact of the Horse and Cattle End of the lack of draft animals: Agriculture became more efficient and longer distance travel was possible. Changes for the Plains Indians: They now became highly effective hunters and warriors thanks to horses.