Download Lecture Biodiversity..

The scenario
A
B
The diversity in the wild species forms the ‘gene pool’ from which
cultivated crops and domestic animals are developed over thousands of
years
Biodiversity
• Degree of variations amongst all life forms from all sources
including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems
• Types of Biodiversity
 Genetic diversity
– variation of genes within species
– constitutes distinct population of the same species
 Species diversity
– variety of species within a region.
– can be measured as number of species in a region
 Ecosystem diversity
– Variety of ecosystems/ communities in various ecological
niches within an ecosystem.
– Examples for richest biodiversity.
Tropical Rain forests
Coral reefs
Genetic Diversity
 Chihuahuas, beagles, and rottweilers
are all dogs—but they're not the same
because of their different genes &
combinations of genes.
 Least visible & least studied
Chihuahua
Beagle
Rottweilers
High genetic variation
Least genetic variation
 Diversity of species
• Different kinds of organisms, relationships among species
• Species richness- Assessed in terms of number of species
an area contains
• Tropical forests vs plantations
Commercial Returns
Sustainable returns
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs)

 Diversity of ecosystems
• Different habitats, niches &
species interactions
Natural
•Forests, grasslands, deserts,
mountains, Aquatic (rivers, lakes,

seas)
Modified
•Artificial (grazing, farmland
•Overuse or misuse = loss of
productivity = degradation
Prairies
Rain Forest
Alpha diversity: The
diversity within a particular
area or ecosystem; usually
expressed by the number of
species (i.e., species richness)
in that ecosystem
Beta diversity: Comparison
of diversity between
ecosystems, usually measured
as the amount of species
change between the
ecosystems
Coral reeves
Mangroves
Biogeographic classification of India
Biogeographic zone- A large distinctive zone of similar
ecology, biome, community and species.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Trans-Himalayan region
Himalayan ranges & valleys
Terai
Gangetic & Brahmaputra plains
Thar desert
Semi-arid grasslands
North-Eastern states
Western Ghats
Andaman & Nicobar islands
Western & Eastern coastal belt
Biodiversity has Intrinsic Value
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Consumptive use value
Productive use value
Environmental value
Ethical & Moral value
Aesthetic value
Significance of biodiversity
• Consumptive value
– Maintenance of Global food supply
• Sources are Animals, fish, plants
– Food crops
• Only a very small portion of world's plants have
been utilized as food on global scale.
• 10- 50,000 are edible ones but only 150 are used as
human food
• Today, 90% of world’s food comes from 15 species
(Wheat, corn and rice forms 2/3rd)
• Danger of relying only on few food crops- Great
Irish Famine (potato monoculture) –Irish people
became dependent on this crop, when Potato blight
fungus caused complete failure of potato
starvation, ~ 1 million people died of starvation.
• Productive use value
– Bioprospecting–Exploration, extraction and screening of
biodiversity for commercially valuable resources
• Caffeine, menthol, penicillin, cocaine
– Biopiracy-theft or illegal seizure of genetic materials especially
plants and other biological materials by the patent process.
 e.g POD-NERS yellow beans from Mexico1994- President of US seed company POD-NERS bought yellow
beans in Mexico and took them back to US and produced stable
variety with yellow seeds
1999- Granted US patent for the same.
1999- Company was suing Mexican bean exporters for patent
infringement.
– Biopesticides-plants producing chemicals that deter herbivores.
• methyl carbamate insecticides (calabar Beans)
• Pyrethrin(chrysanthemum)-mosquito
coils,
head
lice
shampoos.
• bt toxin from Bacillus thuringenesis,
• neem bark
Productive use value
• Biotechnologist Bioprospection
• Pharmacist
 Raw material to develop
new drugs
• Industrialist
 New product
development
• Agri. Scientist  Use wild relatives to
develop better crops
Medicines / drugs from plants
• ~121 prescription drugs from plants
• Anticancer compounds (from):
– Vincristine, Vinblastine (Rosy Periwinkle), Colchicine
(autumn crocus), Indicine N-oxide (Heliotropium
indicum), Monocrotaline (Crotolaria), Taxol (Pacific
Yew)
• Analgesics (from):
– Cocaine (Cocoa), Codeine, Morphine (Opium)
Plant name
Botanical Name
Medicinal Use
Amla
Emblica officinalis
Vitamin C, Cough, Diabetes, cold, Laxative, hyper
acidity.
Aswagandha
Withania somnifera
Restorative Tonic, stress, nervous disorder,
aphrodasiac.
Brahmi
Bacopa monnieri
Nervous, Memory enhancer, mental disorder.
Long pepper
Peeper longum
Appetizer, enlarged spleen, Bronchitis, Cold,
antidote.
Sandal Wood Santalum album
Skin disorder, Burning, sensation, Jaundice, Cough.
Sarpa
Gandha
Rauwolfia
serpentina
Hyper tension, insomnia.
Tulsi
Ocimum sanctum
Cough, Cold, bronchitis,expectorand.
Pippermint
Mentha pipertia
Digestive, Pain killer
Henna
Lawsennia iermis
Burning, Steam, Anti Inflamatary.
Gritkumari
Aloe verra
Laxative, Wound healing, Skin burns & care,Ulcer.
Sada Bahar
Vinca rosea/
Leukemia, Hypotensiv, Antispasmodic , Antidot.
Neem
Azardirchata indica Sedative, analgesic, epilepsy, hypertensive.
Dalchini
Cinnamomum
zeylanicum
Bronchitis, Asthma, Cardiac, Disorder, Fever.
• Environmental value
Prey Predator relationships
– Protection of land and water resource
– Nutrient storage & cycling
– Pollution control
– Ecosystem stability
Food Chains & Food Web
Co-evolution of species
• Social / ethical / moral value
– Natural environment provides many of
inspirational, aesthetic, spiritual and
educational needs of people, of all cultures.
– Appreciation of biodiversity through cultural
and religious sentiments
– Sacred groves are gene banks for wild plants
patches of forests or natural vegetation –
from a few trees to forests of several acres
– that are usually dedicated to local folk
deities for religion purpose.
Sacred groves in southern eastern ghats, India: Are they better
managed than forest reserves?. PRASAD RAO et.al., Tropical
Ecology 52(1): 79-90, 2011
• Talakona – Tirumala
Hills, Chittor district,
AP
– The mean ± SD of
species richness in
the Sacred forest
(SF) sites was 51.2 ±
9.5 species per ha
whereas mean
species richness in
the surrounding
Reserve forest (RF)
sites was 37.8 ± 6.6
species per ha
• Aesthetic value
– Appreciation of inherent value & beauty
– Travel & Tourism – 5.6% GDP
– Employment, Exports
• Option value
– Keeping future possibilities open for their
use
– Which of our resources will be of greatest
use in future? Impossible to predict but
return to original wild types for
improvement of existing cultivars is
certain
Importance of Biodiversity
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Maintain the atmosphere
Soil formation & protection
Protection of water resources
Nutrient storage & cycling
Pollution breakdown
Climate stability
Biodiversity Hotspots
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– A biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of
biodiversity that is under threat from humans.
Concept originated by Norman Myers in 1988.
Two criteria to qualify as a biodiversity hotspot
– Must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 species of endemic
plants
– Has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat.
Around the world
– 25 areas qualify as Biodiversity hotspots
– 9 others possible hotspots
– These sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird,
mammal, reptile, and amphibian species, with a very high
share of endemic species-found only at particular
geographical location and nowhere else.
Global 200: ‘Ecoregions’ in the world that are said to be the
richest, rarest and most distinctive natural areas., an attempt
identify a set of ecoregions whose conservation would achieve this goal of
saving a broad diversity of the Earth’s ecosystems
• Megadiverse countries:
– 17 megadiverse countries
– Concept developed by Russell Mittermeier
– India, Australia, Congo, Madagascar, S. Africa, China,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Phillipines, Brazil,
Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, USA and Venezuela.
• India – A Mega-diversity nation
– Have relatively large proportion of hotspots
– Less than 10% of global surface, Supporting more than 70%
of the biological diversity
– Rich in endemic species that are present only in India and
found no where else in the world
• 18% of Indian plants, 62% of Amphibians, 50% lizards /
Reptiles
– Hotspots that are a part of Indian subcontinent: North-East
forests, Western Ghats, Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Biodiversity Hotspots
• Eco-regions that support largely intact natural
ecosystems
• Native species and communities associated with
these ecosystems are well represented
• High diversity of locally endemic species, (species
not found or are rarely found outside the hotspot)
• Few examples from the list of 25 identified
biodiversity hotspots of the world
• Caribbean, Brazil’s Atlantic Forest & Cerrado,
Central Chile, Madagascar, Indo –Burma (Eastern
Himalayas), Western Ghats, Philippines,
Mediterranean Basin
Threat to biodiversity
99.9% of all animals that once lived
on Earth are now extinct !!!
It is predicted that we are losing 1% of
existing species per decade i.e., 2 species
per every hour !!!!!
Indian Cheetah, lesser Indian Rhino, Pink-headed duck, forest
Owlet and Himalayan Mountain Quail are reported to have
become extinct.
• Recognition of threat to individual species
in their wild habitat is based on
1. the past and present distribution
2. decline in the number of population in
course of time
3. abundance and quality of natural habitat
4. biological and potential value of the species
Categories of threat recognized:
• Endangered species
– Those which are in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if causal
factors (like few numbers, changing environmental or predation parameters)
continue operation. Eg. Nepenthes sp., Vanda sp., Cycas sp.
• Vulnerable category
– Those which are likely to move into endangered category in near future if causal
factors continue operation. Eg. Podophyllum sp., Taxus sp., Cheetah, Komodo
dragon
• Critically endangered/ Threatened:
• Faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the immediate future (e.g. Gharial)
• Rare organisms
– Those which are of small world population and at present are neither endangered
nor vulnerable but are at risk. Eg. Farsetia sp., Rauwolfia sp.
• Threatened
– Species which are in one of the three categories-endangered, vulnerable and
rare. Species are marked as threatened where it is known that they are
endangered, vulnerable or rare but it can’t be said as to which category they
exactly belong.
Protection of endangered & endemic species
• Endangered: A population of organisms which is at risk of becoming
extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changing
environmental or predation parameters.
– Vulnerable: faces a high risk of extinction unless the circumstances
threatening its survival and reproduction improve
• Endemic: An 'Endemic Species' is one that is only found in a
particular region and nowhere else in the world. Examples are Many
orchids, bamboo, Indian wild ass, Himalayan Tahr, Nilgiri Tahr
Important endangered Indian
endemic species
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The lion-tailed Macaque
The Asiatic Lion
The Red Panda
The black buck
The slender primate
Protection of endangered & endemic species
• Keystone species:
• Support a major part of the food web in an
ecosystem.
• A species which when removed from an ecosystem
leads to extinction of other dependant species.
Example is Ficus( Peepal, banyan): Many Insects,
birds & mammals live on ficus berries, Flowers lie
inside the berried which are pollinated by wasp, they
lay eggs inside berried on which larvae feed and
grow. The ficus trees bear berries throughout the
year, thus supplying nutritious food to several
animal species when other trees have no fruit.
HIPPO dilemma
Edward O. Wilson - Main threats to biodiversity
• Habitat loss
• Invasive species
• Pollution
• Population growth
• Over-consumption/ over-harvesting
HIPPO Dilemma
• Habitat loss - the destruction of habitats is the
number one cause of species extinction.
– Slash & burn cultivation
– Lopping off tree branches
HIPPO Dilemma
• Introduced species
– Non-native or exotic species that are not native
to a particular region
– Can threaten native species, which have no
natural defenses against them.
Congress Grass - Parthenium
Lantana
Water hyacinth
Environmental disaster due to Introduced species
A European Rabbit
Nile perch (Native to African lakes)
Introduced into Lake Victoria
Zebra Mussels encrusting vector
averaging current meter in Lake Michigan
HIPPO Dilemma
• Pollution – Due to more
resource consumption
by increasing population
– Oil spills
– Insecticides in soil – DDT
Nationwide ban in 1972
The Endangered Species Act in 1973
The Panamanian-registered MSC Chitra smashed
into
the
St.
Kitts-registered
MV-Khalijia-II
September 2010 near Mumbai's Jawahar Lal
Nehru port. The environment minister of
Maharashtra state told reporters “2 tons of oil was
pouring into the water every hour. The MSC Chitra
was carrying several thousand tons of oil products
such as diesel and lubricants. At least 250
containers from the damaged vessel fell off and
port officials were trying to salvage them
• The oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of
birds, reducing its insulating ability, thus making the birds
more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much
less buoyant in the water
HIPPO Dilemma
• Population growth - 6 billion humans living
on Earth and increasing at a rate of about
222,000 people each day.
– Humans take up more and more space and deplete
more resources than any other species
– Environment changes
– Extinction of other species – Over harvesting of
fish, poaching
It is likely that more than 1.3 billion people live in areas that conservationists
consider the richest in non-human species and the most threatened by human
activities. While these areas comprise about 12 percent of the planet's land surface,
they hold nearly 20 percent of its human population. The population in these biodiversity
hotspots is growing at a collective rate of 1.8 percent annually, compared to the world's
population's annual growth rate of 1.3 percent.
http://stage.populationaction.org/Publications/Reports/People_in_the_Balance/
Interactive/peopleinthebalance/_media/graphs/biodiversity-map.gif
HIPPO Dilemma
• Over-consumption
– Patterns of affluence and poverty
– Industrialized nations consume a disproportionate
amount of the Earth’s fossil fuels, forest, and other
natural resources.
– Less industrialized nations: People struggle for
few choices available & overuse the few resources
available to them
Excess consumerism also
leads to biodiversity loss
HIPPO Dilemma
Consumerism & Eco-consumerism
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Manufacture for one-time use
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Cost of manufacture (Raw material + Energy) +Waste +
Waste disposal + waste management
Multiply the cost over lifespan
What is the environmental cost of disposable items?
Consumer products can become psychologically obsolete
Depletion of non-renewable resources
Poisoning & degradation of ecosystem
20% of world population consumes 80% of resources
&
produces 80% of waste
HIPPO Dilemma
Consumerism & Eco-consumerism: 3 Rs
• Reduce - At source, lesser chance of
waste generation
• Reuse - in current form without any
energy to convert into new form
• Recycle - energy used to transform into
new usable product (Vermi-composting)
HIPPO Dilemma
• Reduce:
– Lessen the amount of items or resources that are
consumed
– Use only the amount that is needed
– Look for alternatives that will lessen our use
• Reuse:
– Extend the 'life' of an article
– Repurposing an item
• Recycle:
– Process old, used items so that the material can be
used to make new products
Case Study 1: Kailadevi Wildlife Sanctuary
• Established in 1983, it is attached to Ranthambhor National
Park, located in Sawai Madhopur district and serves as a
buffer area for wildlife
• Meena & Gujjar communities inhabited the area and
initiated pastoralism (branch of agriculture concerned with the
raising of livestock ) & subsistence agriculture (farming in
which the farmers focus on growing enough food to feed their
families )
• Migrant grazers called Rabaris entered with a herd of
1,50,000 sheep, further pressurizing the sancturay
• Exploitation of timber, fuelwood & mining
• The threat poised by the migrant grazers spurred the
formation of the “Baragaon ki Panchayat” in 1990
• Local community initiatives for conservation: Van Suraksha
Samiti
• Mining is now banned in the Sanctuary. The people not only
protect their forests but also use their resources judiciously.
Case Study 2: Kokkare Bellure, Karnataka
• The pelican, an endangered
species breeds in large numbers at
Kokkare Bellur
• one of the ten known breeding sites
in India
• In Dec, Spot-billed pelicans, painted
storks, ibis establish breeding
colonies on tamarind trees.
• Local people protected bird and
collected Bird droppings: Guanonatural fertilizer
Case Study 2: Kokkare Bellure, Karnataka
• Main factors for decline of pelican population
1 Habitat Destruction:
a) Lack of nesting space
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Conversion of land for arable crop, no breeding sites
Increase in human population, consequent pressure on
remaining trees for fuel and fodder (No legislative
protection can be provided)
Indiscriminate lopping of trees throughout the year
Baking of bricks (using firewood) for construction of
modern dwelling units
b) Disturbance to habitat:
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Increasing number of tourists leading to increased
predatorship by crows
Heavy transport vehicles knock off the lower branches of
trees with nests.
2. Threats at foraging (food supply) sites:
a) Reduction of food:
– Pollution of marshlands: Changeover to green
revolution methods & loss of fishing grounds
(feed for pelicans)
– Excess growth of aquatic vegetation
– Excess pesticides causing fish mortality
– Siltation of tanks
b) Hunting of pelicans
Illegal pet
wild life trade
• 10 billion US$ Annually
• 23 Metric tonnes of Ivory from
elephant tusk caught in a
single year
• Primates top grocers
• Others: Tortoises, exotic birds
Twin Orangutans
Protection of endangered & endemic species
Wildlife Protection Act
• Passed in 1972, notification of wildlife sanctuaries &
national parks - Amendment in 2002
• State’s wildlife management - Protection to ecosystems as
a whole
• Community Reserves, Wildlife advisory boards
• Posts designated for wildlife management
• Prohibits hunting of animals in Schedule I to IV of the Act,
plants under Schedule VI
• Restricts commercial use of resources by local people
Implementation problems
• Enforcement
• Poaching
• Lack of infrastructure
Poaching
• Specific threats to certain animals due to
huge economic benefits
– Skin & Hide: Snakes Crocodile, Tiger
– Ivory: Elephants
– Horns: Rhino
– Perfume: musk deer
– Corals: shells
• Medicinal plants: over harvesting
Protection of endangered & endemic species
Forest Conservation Act (1980, amendment in 1988)
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Reserved forests
Protected forests
Village forests
Control of deforestation/de-reserving of forest land
Revenue generation focus shifted to soil
conservation, water regimes, use for local inhabitants
Conservation of biodiversity
• In situ conservation
– Conserving a species in its own habitat
(national parks and wildlife sanctuaries)
– Protect the whole ecosystem, not individual
species
– Depends on feeding habits of animals such as
elephant
Conservation of biodiversity
• In situ conservation
– Wildlife sanctuaries (500) & national parks (89)
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Great Himalayan National Park: Snow leopard
Dachigam sanctuary: Kashmir stag
Bharatpur: water-birds, Siberian crane
Great & Little Rann of Kutch: Wild ass, Star tortoise
Gir sanctuary: Asiatic lion
Kanha National Park: Wild tigers, elephant
Desert National park: thar desert – Blackbuck, nilgai,
chinkara
– Ranthambore: Tigers
Conservation of biodiversity
• In situ conservation
– Bandipur, Nagarhole, Periyar, Silent Valley,
Eravikulam: Elephant
– Coastal ecosystems:
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Chilka lake (Orissa),
Point Calimere (Tamil Nadu),
Sunderbans,
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Case study 3: Conservation
• In situ conservation
– Project Tiger
• Initiated in 1973 by Govt of India in
support with WWF
• Initiated in 9 tiger reserves &
extended to 23
• Appr. 1400 tigers (from 268 in 1972)
– Project Crocodile
• Initiated in 1975
• Restocking of natural water bodies
from crocodile breeding centers for
Bank of America will
conservation
contribute $100 to
– Project Elephant
WWF for each
• Initiated in 1992
account opened &
• Implemented in 12 states
activated.
Case study 4: In situ Conservation
• Olive Ridley turtles
– Gahirmatha & two other sites in Orissa
– Breeding season: December-April
– Mass nesting
– Largest nesting site in world
– One out of 1000 eggs matures into adult
– Threats:
• Shrinking nesting sites,Trawler fishing
• Roads & other infrastructure development activities
Conservation efforts:
– Notified as sanctuary (Bhitarkanika)
– Prohibition of trawling
– Turtle excluder devices
– No fishing season: January-May
Conservation
Ex situ conservation
• Conserving a species outside its habitat
• Botanical gardens & Zoological parks
• Breeding as part of conservation in zoos
• Case studies
– Madras Crocodile Trust Bank: from 10 to
8000 crocodiles
• Re-introduction into habitat determines success
– Beej bachao Andolan
• Conservation of seeds of hundreds of local rice
varieties, rajma, pulses, millets, vegetables,
spices, herbs
Ex-situ conservation - Biotechnology
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Cryopreservation
Suspending life at sub zero temperatures –
- 1920C
Germplasm storage
Seeds
Apical meristems / callus
Microbes
DNA
Convention on Biodiversity (CBD)
Adopted in 1992 & aims for
1. Biodiversity conservation
2. Sustainable use of components
3. Fair & equitable sharing of benefits
arising from utilization of biological
resources
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
• Governs the movements of living modified
organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern
biotechnology from one country to another
• Appropriate treatment of LMOs that may
have adverse effects on conservation &
sustainable use of biodiversity
Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna & Flora
(CITES)
• Co-operation in restricting international trade
between export & import states
• 5,000 species of animals & 28,000 species of
plants are protected
• All import, export, re-export and introduction
from the sea of species covered by the
Convention has to be authorized through a
licensing system
Appendix I
• Species threatened with extinction
• Trade permitted only in exceptional
circumstances.
Appendix II
• Not necessarily threatened with extinction,
• Trade must be controlled in order to avoid
utilization incompatible with their survival
Appendix III
• Species protected in at least one country, which
has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in
controlling the trade
India signatory to…
• World heritage convention
• Biodiversity rich areas in India recognized
as – protected areas – “World Heritage
Sites”
Name
Place
Kaziranga national park
Keoladeo ghana national park
Assam
Rajasthan
Manas wild life sanctuary
Nanda devi national park
Sundarban national park
Assam
Uttar pradesh
West bengal
European Commission Environment - Campaign for
biodiversity biodiversity.eionet.europa.eu/