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DRO 2 Natural environment
A healthy natural environment supports the region’s rich biodiversity, clean air and water; and
is sustainably managed to support economic development, outdoor lifestyles and community
needs.
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Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework
Population of selected species
Marine protected areas
Terrestrial protected areas
Extent of regional ecosystems
Invasive plants and animals
Freshwater, estuarine and marine water quality
Emissions to water
Air quality
Emissions to air from large industry
Greenhouse gas emissions
Climate change trends
Our future depends on sustaining healthy living systems where the environment, society and the economy are all in good
condition and all work together. While a rapidly growing population and changing climate are placing increasing pressure
on SEQ’s environmental assets, many positive actions have been taken to ensure that the total productive capacity and
ecosystem services of the region are sustained, both now and into the future. Nonetheless, some challenges remain.
Maintaining our precious biodiversity in SEQ is central to providing humans with many economic, social and physical
benefits. Preserving, rehabilitating and connecting our areas of remnant native vegetation—an essential habitat for many
species—will improve regional biodiversity and increase its resilience to climate change. Extending the protected areas
also plays a critical role in this agenda, for example the rezoning of the Moreton Bay Marine Park will further protect the
region’s marine area.
SEQ’s biodiversity is under threat. The Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework prioritises the state’s native
species to guide their conservation, management and recovery. In SEQ 86 species (including the red goshawk and the
eastern bristlebird) have been identified as priority species for management action. Implementing the Koala Plan will help
to protect the region’s declining koala population.
Clean air and water are two of the fundamental services provided by SEQ’s environmental assets. Monitoring data shows
that the region generally has good air quality. Maintaining clean air into the future presents a challenge for a region with a
rapidly growing population that has a correspondingly high rate of motor vehicle usage—the greatest source of air
pollution in the region.
The region’s water quality is also generally stable, although the pressures of a severe drought and increasing
urbanisation have seen declines in the ecological health of some catchments. Significant upgrades to waste-water
treatment plants have resulted in a marked reduction of nutrients being released into SEQ’s waterways.
Climate change represents a major risk to the state, affecting the sustainability of our environmental assets—detrimental
consequences are predicted for biodiversity and natural resources. The average temperature in the region has risen by
one degree since 1910, a trend that is linked to greenhouse gas emissions and is generally consistent with global
temperature rises. The challenge of reducing our greenhouse gas emissions and moving to a low-carbon society, as well
as responding to the effects already evident as a result of past emissions, is a key focus of state government policy.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
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Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework
Conservation status of species as determined using the Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework
Interpretation
Status assessment
Red
Where do we want to be?
The best outcome for this indicator would be to decrease the total number of species scored as threatened under Back on
Track (Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1) and have fewer species classified as ‘data deficient’.
Progress towards decreasing the total number of species scored as threatened may be measured by a positive change in
species status (e.g. from 4 ‘endangered’ to 2 ‘near threatened’). However, some species are not in decline, but are
threatened because they occur in a small number of locations or have a restricted area of occupancy. These species
should be considered separately when change in species status is analysed, as the status of these species is less likely
to change in the future compared to those species that are currently declining or being impacted by current threats.
While the number of species that have their ‘data deficient’ status removed is another indicator of improvement, it is likely
the total number classified this way may increase since much of our biodiversity remains undiscovered.
What is happening?
The status of 1685 species of marine, freshwater and terrestrial flora and fauna occurring in the SEQ Catchments Natural
Resource Management (NRM) region has been recently assessed as part of the Back on Track Species Prioritisation
Framework. This assessment identified 392 species (or 23%) threatened by extinction in the region (Table 2.1 and Figure
2.1). This assessment of status is more recent than, and therefore may differ from, the listed status of the same species
under the Nature Conservation Act 1992.
Of the 392 species, 86 have been identified as priority species for management action by the Back on Track Species
Prioritisation Framework (Table 2.2 and Figure 2.2). Priority species for conservation action are species ranked as
‘critical’ or ‘high’ by Back on Track. These species are considered as threatened but also have the greatest chance of
recovery. The Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework aims to allocate scarce resources where they will have the
best effect on threatened species conservation.
Why is it happening?
Our native plants and animals face many threats to their continuing survival. Identifying these threats is an essential
process in developing recovery actions for priority species. Twenty-seven major threats have been identified for priority
species in SEQ (Table 2.3 and Figure 2.3). These threats are directly impacting on, and contributing to the decline of,
priority species.
Maintaining biodiversity requires access to good knowledge and information. Information on some species is scare and
impedes conservation efforts. The Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework has identified 53 species as ‘data
deficient’ (Table 2.3 and Figure 2.3). These species could not be scored using Back on Track criteria as not enough
information is known about them. Research is required to remove the data-deficient status of these species and identify
any conservation actions that may be required to ensure their survival in SEQ.
What does it mean for sustainability?
Biodiversity, including the survival of a diverse range of native species, is important for all life and is the source of many
economic, social and physical benefits for society. The decline of native species in the region indicates that current
human activities are not sustainable for biodiversity.
Society’s response
Steps needed to achieve the best outcome for this indicator are:

prioritisation to ensure that resources are allocated strategically
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
reduction in the number of threats affecting priority species, or removing the threats completely.
To achieve a reduction in the number of species that are threatened, it is crucial that resources are targeted strategically.
Priority species for management action have been identified by the EPA using the Back on Track Species Prioritisation
Framework (Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1), enabling resources to be strategically targeted where they will achieve the best
outcomes for species recovery.
Data
Table 2.1: Species assessed by the Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework for SEQ
Taxonomic group
Back on Track Criteria 1a scores (no. species)
1 'Least concern' 2 'Near threatened' 3 'Vulnerable' 4 'Endangered'
Insects
198
3
3
5
Spiders
0
1
0
4
Fish (Freshwater and marine)
142
27
6
4
Frogs
33
4
7
1
Reptiles
129
11
5
4
Birds
456
17
21
10
Mammals
90
9
13
1
Plants
245
89
95
52
Total
1293
161
150
81
Species assessed by the Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework, found in the SEQ Catchments’ NRM region, and grouped by
Back on Track Criteria 1a scores. Species assessed by the Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework are scored by technical
experts using multiple criteria, including Criteria 1a. The Criteria 1a score for each species is determined by using the current
knowledge of the species to select the most suitable category under the Queensland Nature Conservation Act 1992 (NCA). This gives
a more accurate and up-to-date indication of how close the species is to extinction than the status of the species (if listed) under the
NCA. Criteria 1a scores equate to the following NCA categories: 1 = least concern, 2 = near threatened, 3 = vulnerable, 4 =
endangered. Figures represent number of species. (Part of the data in this table is displayed in Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: Species assessed by the Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework for SEQ
Species assessed by the Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework, found in the SEQ Catchments’ NRM region, and scored as
threatened for Criteria 1a. See caption of Table 2.1 for an explanation of Criteria 1a.
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Table 2.2: EPA rankings for priority species
Taxonomic group
Insects
Spiders
Fish (Freshwater and
marine)
Low
197
0
117
Back on Track rank (no. species)
Medium
3
0
35
High
4
1
5
Critical
2
4
4
Data deficient
3
0
18
Frogs
38
6
1
0
0
Reptiles
131
7
3
4
4
Birds
467
16
11
6
4
Mammals
93
10
5
3
2
Plants
377
49
23
10
22
Total
1420
126
53
33
53
Environmental Protection Agency ranks for species assessed by the Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework found in the SEQ
Catchments’ NRM region, and ordered by taxonomic group. Species ranked 'critical' and 'high' are priority species for management
action. Species ranked as 'data deficient' are priority species for research. EPA ranks are produced when EPA criteria weightings are
used to determine the final Back on Track score. Figures indicate the number of species in each rank. (Part of the data in this table is
displayed in Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2: EPA Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework priority and data deficient species found in the SEQ Catchments’
NRM region
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Table 2.3: Threats to ‘at risk’ species occurring in SEQ
Threat
Major threat
Boat strike
Minor threat
Total no. species
1
5
4
Cane toads
1
0
1
Cats
1
6
7
Clearing of vegetation
18
19
37
Coastal development
12
7
19
Collectors
2
10
12
Commercial fishing
1
0
1
Extractive industry
2
1
3
Fire regime
20
9
29
Fishing gear
2
1
3
Flow regime
8
4
12
Foxes
1
5
6
Gambusia
2
2
4
Grazing
2
8
10
Mist weed
4
0
4
Pigs
4
0
4
Plastic (synthetic) debris
2
1
3
Recreation
6
2
8
Recreational fishing
1
0
1
Road maintenance
1
4
5
Salinisation
1
0
1
Shark control program
3
0
3
Small population size
6
0
6
Urban development
12
4
16
Wash from boats
1
0
1
Water quality
3
1
4
Weeds
23
5
28
Threats to 'at risk' species occurring in the SEQ Catchments’ NRM region, as indicated by the number of EPA Back on Track priority
species affected by each threat. a) Number of priority Back on Track species for which the specified threat is a major threat. b) Number
of priority Back on Track species for which the specified threat is a minor threat. This table only includes species that are joint EPA and
SEQ Catchments’ NRM priorities, and does not include 15 species that are EPA priorities only, and also occur in the SEQ Catchments’
NRM region. (This data is also displayed in Figure 2.3).
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B o at strike
Cane to ads
Cats
Clearing o f vegetatio n
Co astal develo pment
Co llecto rs
Co mmercial fishing
Extractive industry
Fire regime
Fishing gear
Flo w regime
Fo xes
Gambusia
Grazing
M ist weed
P igs
P lastic (synthetic) debris
Recreatio n
Recreatio nal fishing
Ro ad maintenance
Salinisatio n
Shark co ntro l pro gram
Small po pulatio n size
Urban develo pment
Wash fro m bo ats
Major threat
Water quality
Minor threat
Weeds
0
5
10
15
20
No. species
25
30
35
40
Figure 2.3: Threats to ‘at risk’ species occurring in the SEQ Catchments’ NRM Region, as indicated by the number of EPA Back on
Track priority species affected by each threat
Indicator author
Paula Peeters, Threatened Species Unit, Environmental Protection Agency
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Population of selected species
Estimated populations of selected species: koala, red goshawk and eastern bristle bird
Interpretation
Biodiversity in SEQ is under pressure from habitat loss primarily due to increased urbanisation. Many species in the
region are declining in number and health. Estimated populations of selected species, including declining species, are an
important measure for assessing the conservation status of species. Data are presented for three significant species,
classified as either endangered or vulnerable: the red goshawk, the eastern bristle bird and the koala. These species are
not necessarily representative of the biodiversity of the region.
Threatened plant species are the subject of additional research but insufficient data exists to present their population
dynamics here. For example, in the Brisbane area, the plant species Zieria furfuracea subsp. gymnocarpa was
rediscovered in 1997 after having been considered extinct—it had not been recorded since the late 1800s. Recent
surveys have examined the threats to the known population, which include: inappropriate fire regimes, weed invasion,
clearing and road construction.
This indicator outlines the status of the three selected species, followed by a discussion of the factors influencing the
population trend and conservation measures implemented to protect the species. These protective measures are
designed to stabilise the declining populations and lead to eventual recovery. They aim to address threats associated with
increasing human population, development and poor land management. Steps taken to protect these species are also
likely to benefit other species in the region, as their habitat is shared by many other species.
Koala
Status assessment
Red
Where do we want to be?
Koalas are widely distributed throughout much of the state and generally occur at low but significant densities across their
range (White and Kunst 1990; Patterson 1996; Melzer et al. 2000; Gordon and Hrdina 2005). The highest density
populations generally occur in the south-east. The Koala Coast is recognised as one of the most significant natural koala
populations in Australia, due to the relatively large number of koalas and the area's close proximity to Brisbane. The
Koala Coast is located 20 km south-east of Brisbane and covers about 375 km². The region encompasses areas of three
local government authorities: the mainland portion of Redland Shire, the eastern portion of Logan City and the southeastern portion of Brisbane City.
What is happening?
The koala population in the Koala Coast in 2005 was estimated at 4611 animals. Based on the 1997 estimate of 6246
koalas (Dique et al. 2004), this represents a 26% decline in abundance of this regional population. The largest proportion
of the population persists in the bushland stratum, which experienced the smallest decline. The strata with the greatest
declines have been those associated with the urban zone. Between survey periods, the low-density remnant stratum
declined by 69% or 435 koalas, the high-density remnant stratum declined by 52% or 514 koalas, and the urban stratum
declined by 48% or 715 koalas.
Why is it important?
The urban footprint delineated in the SEQ Regional Plan encompassed 42% of the koala population in 1997. However, as
a consequence of the decline in the urban stratum, the urban footprint now supports only 33% of the koala population
(Figure 2.4). Redland Shire has experienced the greatest decline in koala abundance of the three local governments,
estimated at 27%. The loss of nearly 1200 koalas from the urban zone is the primary cause of the decline.
Society’s response
The koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) is listed as vulnerable in the South East Queensland bioregion. The state government
has committed $2.1 million over four years for the implementation of the Koala Plan to conserve koalas and their habitat
in Queensland. The Nature Conservation (Koala) Conservation Plan 2005 and Management Program 2005–2015 came
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into effect on 2 October 2006. This plan addresses the key threats facing koalas, sets out strategies to stop the decline of
koala numbers and sets in train the recovery of the species in Queensland
<www.epa.qld.gov.au/nature_conservation/wildlife/koala_plan>.
Data
Figure 2.4: Change in koala abundance on the Koala Coast area (a) on the urban footprint and the regional landscape and rural
production area (RL/RP); and (b) in each local government area
Indicator author
Sara Williams, Environmental Protection Agency
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Related indicators
Extent of regional ecosystems, Terrestrial protected areas
References
Gordon, G. & Hrdina, F. 2005, Koala and possum populations in Queensland during the harvest period, 1906–1936.
Australian Zoologist 33: 69–99.
Melzer, A.; Carrick, F.; Menkhorst, P.; Lunney, D.; & St John, B. 2000. Overview, critical assessment, and conservation
implications of koala distribution and abundance. Conservation Biology 14:619–28.
Patterson, R. 1996. The distribution of koalas in Queensland- 1986–1989 In: Koalas: Research for Management, G.
Gordon (ed), World Koala Research Incorporated, Brisbane, pp. 75–81.
White, N.A. & Kunst, N.D. 1990. Aspects of the ecology of the koala in south-eastern Queensland, In: Biology of the
Koala, A.K. Lee, K.A. Handasyde and G.D. Sanson (eds), Surrey Beatty and Sons, Sydney, pp. 109–16.
EPA 2007. Koala Coast koala survey report. Internal report, Queensland Government, Brisbane.
Dique, D.S.; Preece, H.J.; Thompson, J. & de Villiers D.L. 2004. Determining the distribution and abundance of a regional
koala population in SEQ for conservation management Wildlife Research 31:109–17.
Red goshawk
Status assessment
Amber
Where do we want to be?
The red goshawk population is stabilised and showing signs of recovery, with new pairs being found in unoccupied areas.
What is happening?
In south-eastern Queensland there are 10 or 11 known pairs of red goshawks (Table 2.4). The main cause for their
population decline is widespread clearance of native forests and woodlands. Other possible threats to the red goshawk
population include fragmentation of the habitat and changes in prey abundance, which is also affected by land clearing
and fire regimes.
Why is it important?
The red goshawk is listed as ‘vulnerable’ under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity
Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) and ‘endangered’ in Queensland (Nature Conservation Act 1992). This bird has been
identified as a priority species by the Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework.
What does it mean for sustainability?
Red goshawks occupy large territories that contain high biodiversities (Figure 2.5). Most of these areas have intact
forest—woodland with permanent water courses. By protecting red goshawk habitat, numerous other species benefit.
Society’s response
A number of publications describe the steps being taken to protect the red goshawk. These are listed below in the
reference section, and include a national recovery plan.
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Data
N
#
Sightings
Seq_bnd-agd.shp
Seqrem99-bvg.shp
10
11
12
14
15
16
Kroombit Tops
17
18
19
1a
1b
1c
1d
1e
20
21
2a
2b
3
4
5a
5b
6
7
8
9
Pinus
clear
dam
exper
hoop
mine
plant
regrowth
undef
water
W
E
#
S
#
#
#
##
#
###
#
#
#
##
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
Fraser Island and
adjacent mainland
#
#
#
Mt Walsh
Barambah Gorge
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
##
####
#
#
#
##
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
##
#
#
#
Lockyer Valley 1
Conondale Range
##
#
D'A guilar Range
#
#
#
##
#
## #
#
#
#
###
# ##
#
# #
#
# ##
#
#
#
######
# #
# #
Cooran
##
#
#
#
#
#
# # #
# #### ## #
### #
##
#
Widgee
#
#
##
#
#
#
#
####
#
#
#
##
#
# #
Lockyer Valley 2
#
#
#
#
###
# #
Border Range
Figure 2.5: The distribution of red goshawk pairs in SEQ
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Table 2.4: Pairs of red goshawks identified in the desktop analysis for SEQ
General Location
Number of pairs
Kroombit Tops
one pair
Barambah Gorge / Mt Walsh National Park
one pair
Western Lockyer 1
one pair
Western Lockyer 2
one pair
Border Range
one pair
D’Aguilar Range
one pair
Conondale Range
one possibly two pair(s)
Cooran
one pair
Widgee
one pair
Fraser Island
one pair
Total
10 pairs (possibly 11)
Indicator author
David Stewart, Environmental Protection Agency
References
Aumann, T. & Baker-Gabb, D. J. 1991. A Management Plan for the Red Goshawk. RAOU Report 75.
Czechura, G.V. 1985. The raptors of the Blackall-Conondale Range and adjoining lowlands, south-eastern Queensland.
Corella 9: 49–54.
Czechura, G.V. 1996. Status and Distribution of the Red Goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus in south-eastern Queensland.
A report to the Queensland Department of Environment, 30 March 1996.
Environmental Protection Agency, 2007. National recovery plan for the red goshawk Erythrotriorchis radiatus 2007–2011.
Report to the Department of the Environment and Water Resources, Canberra. Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service,
Brisbane.
Garnett, S. & G. Crowley 2000. Action Plan for Australian Birds 2000. Environment Australia, Canberra.
Marchant, S. & Higgins, P. J. (eds) 1993. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 2. Raptors to
Lapwings. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.
Eastern bristlebird
Status assessment
Red
Where do we want to be?
The eastern bristlebird population has stabilised.
What is happening?
The northern population of eastern bristlebirds began declining approximately 50 years ago but more recently this decline
showed signs of spiralling towards extinction. Information from annual surveys estimates that there are approximately 30
bristlebirds remaining in the northern population—about 15 individuals in Queensland and probably about the same
number over the border in northern NSW (Figure 2.6). Because of fragmentation of the landscape from poor fire regimes
in the past, bristlebirds are not able to recolonise the vacant habitats that now occur.
Why is it important?
The eastern bristlebird is listed as a priority species by the Back on Track Species Prioritisation Framework. This species
is an integral part of our biodiversity.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
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What does it mean for sustainability?
Protecting the habitat of eastern bristleblebirds also protects other threatened vertebrates including the Hastings River
mouse (Pseudomys oralis), brush-tailed rock-wallaby (Petrogale penicillata) long-nosed potoroo (Potorous tridactylus)
spotted-tailed quoll (Dasyurus maculatus), grey goshawk (Accipiter novaehollandiae), red-browed treecreeper
(Climacteris erythrops) and two skinks (Saproscincus rosei and Ophioscincus truncates).
Society’s response
In the 1990s, the EPA began monitoring the population of bristlebirds in Queensland and implementing management
strategies to slow or stop the decline in numbers. The EPA plans to trial release some birds bred in captivity back into the
wild.
Data
Figure 2.6: The past and present distribution of the eastern bristlebird (Dasyornis brachypterus monoides) in Queensland and northern
NSW
Indicator author
David Stewart, Environmental Protection Agency
References
Blakers, M.; Davies, S. & Reilly, P. 1984. The Atlas of Australian Birds. RAOU, Melbourne.
Chaffer, N. 1954. Eastern Bristle-bird. Emu 54:153–162.
Hartley, S. & J. Kikkawa 1994. The Population Management of the Eastern Bristlebird (Dasyornis brachypterus): Findings
on the Biology, Threats and Management of the Eastern Bristlebird in Queensland and Northern New South Wales.
Zoology Department, University of Queensland, St Lucia.
Holmes, G. 1997a. Eastern Bristlebird Interim National Recovery Plan 1998–2003. Department of Environment, Brisbane.
Holmes, G. 1997b. Conservation Status of Eastern Bristlebird in SEQ and North-east New South Wales. Department of
Environment, Brisbane, unpublished report.
Holmes, G. 1998. Eastern Bristlebird Recovery Plan 1998 - 2003. Report prepared for the Queensland Department of
Environment and Heritage and the Eastern Bristlebird National Recovery Team. Atherton, Queensland.
Lamb, D.; Turnbull, M. & Meyers, N. 1993. Eastern Bristlebird Habitat Assessment in Southern Queensland and Northern
New South Wales. Botany Department, University of Queensland, St Lucia.
Schodde, R. & I.J. Mason 1999. The directory of Australian Birds: Passerines. CSIRO, Melbourne.
Stewart, D. 2001. Recovery Plan for the northern population of the Eastern Bristlebird Dasyornis brachypterus monoides
2001-2005.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
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Marine protected areas
The extent of marine protected areas and type of protection
Interpretation
Status assessment
Amber
Where do we want to be?
A marine park that provides comprehensive, adequate and representative protection of marine biodiversity in a networked
system of green zones.
What is happening?
Moreton Bay Marine Park stretches 125 km from Caloundra to the Gold Coast, covering 3400 km2 of tidal waters.
Moreton Bay Marine Park is home to thousands of different animal and plant species including:

over 750 species of fish

over 120 species of coral

the highest diversity and abundance of whales and dolphins in Australia

the world’s largest population of dugong next to a major capital city

migrating humpback whales

small populations of endangered grey nurse sharks

six of the world’s seven species of sea turtle

special wetlands recognised under the international Ramsar Convention

crucial habitat for 35 species of migratory shorebirds.
This is a multi-use marine park with various levels of protection detailed in a zoning plan that regulates the range of
activities that may occur in particular zones. Moreton Bay Marine Park and the surrounding region also support major
industries that contribute significantly to the state and local economies.
The 1997 Moreton Bay Marine Park Zoning Plan is being reviewed with a new zoning plan to be announced in late 2008.
The new zoning plan aims to significantly extend the size and number of highly protected green zones and enhance their
connectivity. The 1997 zoning plan assigns only half a per cent of the Moreton Bay Marine Park to highly protected green
zones. This is the lowest level of protection provided to any of Queensland’s marine parks. Advice from independent
scientists and data gathered since 1997 indicates that this current level of protection is neither scientifically nor socially
adequate.
The level of protection in the 1997 zoning plan does not provide suitable protection for the marine park’s biodiversity
values because:

0.5% in green zones is well below international recommendations

the green zones are small, widely separated areas, largely confined to coral reefs and mangrove habitats

many significant habitats within Moreton Bay Marine Park are not protected in green zones.
Why is it important?
This indicator tracks the commitment by Queensland to sustaining marine biological diversity. The rezoning of Moreton
Bay Marine Park aims to enhance the number, size and connectivity of highly protected green zones, offering a higher
level of protection to the biodiversity in the marine park.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
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What does it mean for sustainability?
Protection of Moreton Bay is necessary to conserve its unique values and to ensure its sustainable use for the enjoyment
and benefit of present and future generations. The zoning plan provides for multiple uses within the marine park using
different zoning arrangements. For example, the plan provides for maximum protection in ‘green zones’ where extractive
use is prohibited, but passive uses such as diving can occur, while other zones provide for a range of more extractive
uses such as recreational and commercial fishing.
Society’s response
The review of the Moreton Bay Marine Park Zoning Plan, to be completed this year, recognises the importance of
balancing the needs of marine park users with the need to preserve this internationally significant waterway for future
generations. A draft plan (Figure 2.7), which was developed following scientific review and community consultation,
identified 15% of the 340,000 ha Marine Park as ‘green zones’—protecting some of the most valuable and vulnerable
conservation areas from extractive industries.
During the formal consultation for the draft zoning plan there was a large amount of community interest with over 8000
submissions received.
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Data
Figure 2.7: Draft zoning plan for Moreton Bay Marine Park (December 2007)
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
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Indicator author
Julie Northage, Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service
References
EPA 2007. Moreton Bay Marine Park Draft Zoning Plan. Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane.
Related indicators
Terrestrial protected areas
Freshwater, estuarine and marine water quality
Other data and links
<www.epa.qld.gov.au/parks_and_forests/marine_parks>
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
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Terrestrial protected areas
Total area and representation of regional ecosystems in the terrestrial conservation estate
Interpretation
Status assessment
Green
Where do we want to be?
A reserve systems that is comprehensive, adequate and representative with respect to the range of habitats across the
region.
What is happening?
Terrestrial protected areas in SEQ include World Heritage areas, Ramsar sites, national parks, conservation parks,
resource reserves, forest and timber reserves, and nature refuges and coordinated conservation areas (Figure 2.8).
Queensland maintains an ongoing reserve acquisition program that aims to capture key components of the state’s
biodiversity in the terrestrial reserve system. Table 2.5 presents information on the total area, and the number, proportion
and extent, of regional ecosystems in conservation reserves in the SEQ bioregion. In June 2005, a total area of 816 167
ha or 13.1% of the bioregion was contained in protected areas under the Nature Conservation Act 1994. This represents
an increase of 7.3% of the bioregion, or 59,580 ha since 1997.
The recent increases in the reserve network in the SEQ bioregion have mainly been due to state forests been converted
to conservation tenure during 2005–06. Many such areas expand the size of existing national parks. In the SEQ region
this includes Main Range National Park.
Why is it important?
The reserve system is considered the cornerstone of an integrated strategy to conserve nature, including biological
diversity. Understanding both the extent and condition of vegetation is essential to our understanding of the state of
biodiversity in reserves. A sound knowledge of condition contributes to the identification of priority issues and areas
relevant to natural resource managers, including responses to specific interventions and overall trends.
The biodiversity status of regional ecosystems is used to provide an indicator of condition and is used as the primary
planning surrogate to access the adequacy, comprehensiveness and representativeness of the terrestrial conservation
estate.
Comprehensiveness, that is the extent to which biodiversity is captured, is shown by the number of regional ecosystems
represented. In SEQ there has been a steady increase in the number of regional ecosystems represented in reserves
from 84% in 1997 to 95% in 2001 and 96% in 2003.
Adequacy is defined as the total amount of each ecosystem in reserves. A nominal target of 15% of pre-clearing area of
ecosystems has been established in the context of forested regions in Australia (JANIS 1996). With the recent expansion
of the reserve network in the SEQ bioregion, where the native vegetation is predominantly forest (e.g. rainforest, wet and
dry sclerophyll forest) and is subject to historical and current clearing and development pressure, over half of the regional
ecosystems now meets or exceeds the 15% target.
What does it mean for sustainability?
In SEQ our regional ecosystems are under increasing pressure from a rapidly growing population and climate change.
Threats to biodiversity and ecosystem services will escalate with the continued loss, modification, degradation and
fragmentation of the region’s ecosystems. Protected areas play an important role in conserving our biodiversity and
ensuring the sustainable use of the region for the enjoyment and benefit of present and future generations.
Society’s response
Queensland is taking a smart and innovative approach to conserving its biodiversity assets in the face of climate change
and population growth, recognising the benefits this can bring to the state’s economy, to healthy lifestyles and to
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
98
sustainable community wellbeing. The Queensland Government has set a target in Toward Q2: Tomorrow’s Queensland
to protect 50 per cent more land for nature conservation by 2020. This equates to 20 million ha of Queensland conserved
in the protected area estate. By protecting 7.5% of the state in national parks, Queensland will be well positioned to build
a world-class parks system.
ecoFund Queensland will be used as a source of funding to expand the protected area estate. Over the past four years,
$51 million has been spent acquiring land for conservation. An election commitment of $30 million for new acquisitions is
well on the way to being implemented with over half this funding now expended and the remainder committed to priority
purchases. Future reserve acquisitions will seek to protect many unrepresented regional ecosystems, together with those
that are poorly conserved or at risk, in the formal park system or the off-park nature refuge system. Consolidation of the
parks system across all bioregions will provide additional protection to the species and regional ecosystems.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
99
Data
Figure 2.8: Protected areas in SEQ
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
100
Table 2.5: Percentages of SEQ bioregion in reserves, reservation status of regional ecosystems by biodiversity and percentages of
regional ecosystems with >15% of pre-clearing extent reserved
Percentage of bioregion
in reserves
Area in
reserves in
2005 (ha)**
1997 1999 2001 2005
5.2
6.6
13.0
13.1
816 167
Percentage of total
number of regional
ecosystems reserved
(Number of regional ecosystems for each
bioregion) followed by number in
reserves in 2003
1997
2001
2003
Endangered
Of
concern
Percentage of
number of
regional
ecosystems with
>15% area
No concern at
reserved in 2003
present
84
95
96
(26) 22
(78) 76
(47) 47
52
** Gross area, may include stock routes and road reserves
Indicator author
Bruce Wilson, Environmental Protection Agency
References
Accad, A.; Neldner, V.J.; Wilson, B.A. & Niehus, R.E. 2006. Remnant Vegetation in Queensland: Analysis of Remnant
Vegetation 1997–1999, 2000, 2001–2003, including regional ecosystem information. Environmental Protection Agency,
Brisbane. <www.epa.qld.gov.au/nature_conservation/plants/remnant_vegetation_in_queensland/>
Environmental Protection Agency 2005. Regional Ecosystem Description Database (REDD). Version 5.0. Updated
December 2005. Database maintained by Queensland Herbarium, Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane.
<www.epa.qld.gov.au/nature_conservation/biodiversity/regional_ecosystems/>
Wilson, B. A.; Neldner, V.J.; & Accad, A. 2002. The extent and status of remnant vegetation in Queensland and its
implications for Statewide vegetation management and legislation. Rangeland Journal 24:6–35.
Wilson, B. A.; Young, P.A.R.; & Niehus, R. 2008. Habitat Protection. In: 2007 State of the Environment Report.
Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
101
Extent of regional ecosystems
The extent of remnant regional ecosystems as defined under the Vegetation Management Act 1999
Interpretation
Status assessment
Amber
Where do we want to be?
Ideally the extent of remnant regional ecosystems should be sufficient to maintain ecological and landscape processes to
ensure that the region continues to supply essential ecosystem services, retains all the biodiversity it contains and is
resilient in the face of natural and climate change induced environmental variability. The extent of remnant vegetation
needed to achieve this is debatable; however, it is recognised that a comprehensive, adequate and representative
reserve system complemented by off-park conservation measures is necessary to achieve this.
While the question of an ideal remnant extent for the region is debatable, McAlpine et al. (2002), present evidence
indicating that a reduction of remnant vegetation to 30% will result in the loss of 25–35% of the vertebrate fauna over a
period of 50 to 100 years. McAlpine et al. (2002) suggest that to achieve successful biodiversity conservation in
Queensland, at least 50% of the vegetation of a region needs to be retained, and at least 30% of each regional
ecosystem needs to be retained. The configuration and composition of this remnant vegetation are also very important,
so the region should attempt to maintain a comprehensive, adequate and representative sample of the regional
ecosystems through both the conservation estate and off-park areas. This remnant vegetation should be managed so that
it remains in good condition for the preservation of all aspects of the biodiversity not only the tree canopy. The remnant
vegetation should also be connected to other remnant areas to allow gene flow and enhance resilience to climate change.
For some parts of the region to achieve this goal, major revegetation/ rehabilitation projects may be necessary.
What is happening?
Across the shires in the area covered by the SEQ Regional Plan, the percentage of remnant vegetation ranges from 16%
(Toowoomba City) to 49% (Kilcoy Shire) with an overall percentage of the region of 36% (Table 2.6). This is a lower
percentage of remnant vegetation than for the SEQ bioregion as a whole, which was over 44%, indicating that generally
more remnant vegetation has been retained in the northern part of the bioregion than the more populous SEQ area.
Much of the remnant vegetation in the study area is in state or local government tenure for conservation or forestry
purposes (Table 2.7). In 2008 Queensland celebrates 100 years of national parks in Queensland with the first national
park at Witches Falls in Mt Tamborine gazetted in 1908. Through the regional agreement process, large areas of state
forest, which have been managed for timber production for the last century, have been transferred to the conservation
estate. In addition, there is an increasing area of vegetation that is being retained through off-park conservation
mechanisms such as nature refuges.
It is important to understand that the remnant vegetation is strongly biased towards ‘not of concern’ ecosystems (72% of
the remnant) substantially on ranges and infertile landscapes, whereas the ‘endangered’ (5%) and ‘of concern’
ecosystems (22%) are poorly represented in area (Table 2.7). It is also very important to appreciate that for much of the
remnant vegetation, which is defined substantially on the canopy vegetation, there are serious issues compromising the
biodiversity condition of the vegetation. These issues include the prevalence of feral plant and animal species, soil
erosion, overgrazing and rubbish disposal.
The rate of clearing in region has substantially slowed in recent years. This is primarily because most of the flat arable
land useful for agricultural pursuits was cleared in the last two centuries. For the SEQ bioregion as a whole, the remnant
extent in 1997 was 44.72% and has only declined slightly to 44.19% in 2003, with a loss of 32 920 ha (Accad et al. 2006).
This pattern is reflected in the wetlands of the region as shown in Table 2.8 where 58% of the wetlands were cleared prior
to 1999, with only 1% clearing between 1999 and 2003 at an average rate of clearing 40 ha per year.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
102
The connectivity of remnant vegetation to one another via corridors is important to allow gene flow and enhance
resilience to climate change. The extent of biodiversity corridors identified for the region through the SEQ biodiversity
planning assessment is shown in (Table 2.9). Many of these corridors are incomplete with only 44% of the area of the
corridors for the region being composed of remnant vegetation and only 31.6% of the corridor area occurring in protected
areas. The riparian corridors are in the worst state with only 14% of both state and regional corridors being remnant
vegetation and the amount in protected areas being 6.7% and 12.8% respectively.
The Vegetation Management Act 1999 has ended broadscale clearing in Queensland from the end of 2006. However,
there is still clearing allowed under exceptions and the urban provisions, which only protect endangered vegetation from
clearing in urban areas, means that many areas of remnant vegetation in SEQ urban areas are being cleared for housing
and industrial uses. Some sites that were not cleared for agriculture in the past centuries because of constraints such as
steep slopes or poor soils, are now being viewed as having desirable qualities such as scenic views, and are being
cleared for residential development. While the SEQ Regional Plan identifies areas for development, human population
growth in the region is having a greater impact on natural areas through increased recreation activities, such as walking,
mountain and trail bike riding, horse riding and four-wheel-drive driving.
Why is it happening?
The population growth in SEQ through interstate and international migration is continuing to drive residential and
industrial construction, which is one of the primary current causes of clearing of vegetation in the region.
Why is it important?
The extent of remnant vegetation is seen as an indicator of the overall environmental health of a region. Apart from the
obvious biodiversity values of remnant vegetation, it also provides important essential environmental services such as
catchments protection, carbon sequestration, and important social services like landscape, cultural and spiritual values.
It provides useful information on whether our landscape use is sustainable in a local, regional, national and global
context.
What does it mean for sustainability?
The current remnant extent of regional ecosystems suggests that to sustain the total productive capacity and ecosystem
services of the region, we need to maintain the current extent of remnant vegetation and enhance degraded areas
through targeted rehabilitation.
Society’s response
The government is continuing to respond through policies to regulate tree clearing (e.g. the Vegetation Management Act
1999), and to provide incentives for people to adapt to sustainable principles through initiatives such as NatureAssist and
rebates for watertanks. The development of environmental offsets and carbon trading mechanisms will promote the
retention of remnant vegetation and the rehabilitation of some non-remnant vegetation. It will be important for planning
and management information to be provided to maximise the opportunities for environmental and biodiversity gains
through these mechanisms.
The buyback of land by the Queensland Government in various stages of regeneration on the Springbrook Range is
recognition of the outstanding biodiversity values of the area and the need for active rehabilitation of many areas.
Endangered and vulnerable species listed under the Nature Conservation Act 1994 are also afforded protection through
this legislation and also the recognition of essential habitat under the Vegetation Management Act 1999. The koala, which
is recognised as vulnerable in SEQ, is provided with additional habitat protection through the Koala Conservation Plan.
Wetlands are now recognised for the important ecosystem services that they provide and are receiving a high priority for
conservation planning.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
103
Data
Table 2.6: Extent of remnant vegetation in the region in 2003
Local government authority
Remnant area in 2003 by biodiversity
status
Endangered
Of concern
No concern
at present
Beaudesert Shire
3 749
22 770
65 947
Boonah Shire
1 833
19 139
27 789
Brisbane City
567
4 808
44 157
Caboolture Shire
2 689
9 052
22 974
Caloundra City
2 888
10 497
26 952
Esk Shire
6 083
31 515
87 850
Gatton Shire
5 308
12 840
56 383
Gold Coast City
1 816
7 490
46 413
Ipswich City
1 965
7 244
16 053
Kilcoy Shire
957
9 608
60 342
Laidley Shire
808
8 283
10 500
Logan City
2 171
1 197
4 213
Maroochy Shire
2 345
13 042
38 262
Noosa Shire
5 428
17 497
23 139
Pine Rivers Shire
757
1 347
26 487
Redcliffe City
36
103
862
Redland Shire
1 804
3 766
24 222
Toowoomba City
286
176
1 415
Total
41 490
180 374
583 960
% area that
is remnant
in 2003
Non-remnant
32
25
37
28
37
32
48
41
21
49
28
30
46
53
37
25
55
16
36
192 288
142 893
83 036
87 662
69 924
267 522
82 277
81 806
94 849
73 033
50 347
17 375
61 761
40 212
48 067
3065
24 232
9 777
1 430 126
Total area
(ha)*
284 754
191 654
132 568
122 377
110 261
392 970
156 808
137 525
120 111
143 940
69 938
24 956
115 410
86 276
76 658
4066
54 024
11 654
2 235 950
* Area calculated from Universal Transverse Mercator zone 56 projection
Note: The SEQ study area does not cover the whole of the SEQ bioregion, but includes a very small area of the Brigalow Belt (BRB)
bioregion
Source: derived from Regional Ecosystem Mapping data (version 5.0). EPA, 2008
Table 2.7: Extent of regional ecosystems in national parks and forest reserves in the region in 2007
Region
Number of regional ecosystems in
Percentage
Area in
Percentage
Percentage of
reserves for each region followed by
of area in
reserves
of number
regional
total number in the region (bracketed)
reserves
2007 (ha)
of regional
ecosystems with
2007
ecosystems
>15% of their
Endangered Of concern
No
reserved in
remaining area
concern at
2007
reserved in 2007
present
13.1
816,167
22 (26)
76 (78)
47 (47) 96.0
51.7
SEQ
Bioregion
10.6
237,562
14 (25)
43 (53)
43 (53) 76.3
50.4
SEQ
Region
(SEQ/BRB*)
*SEQ Region includes 123 SEQ and 8 BRB regional ecosystems
Source data: Version 5.0 remnant regional ecosystems (2003) and National Park and Forest Reserves (2007)
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
104
Table 2.8: Extent of wetlands in the region in 2003
Wetland
PreRemnant
Remnant 2003
clearing
1997 area
area (ha)
area (ha)
(ha)
Area cleared (preArea cleared
Average
clearing 1997)
(1997–2003)
cleared 1997–
2003 ha/yr
ha
%
ha
%
Estuarine
30,174
21,477
21,434
8,697
29
43
0
7
Lacustrine
5, 629
5,629
5,629
0
0
0
0
0
Palustrine
116,731
42,236
41,219
74,495
64
1 017
2
170
Riverine
78,989
27,209
26,815
51,780
66
394
1
66
Total
231,523
96,551
95,097
134,972
58
1 454
1
242
*Wetland loss based on Regional Ecosystem (RE) mapping, particularly for riverine systems, provides an overestimation of wetland
loss. This is because the vegetation may be removed, but the channel or depression in many cases will remain, and the latter will still
function as a wetland but not show up on the RE mapping as a remnant wetland.
Table 2.9: Extent of biodiversity corridors identified for the region through the South East Queensland biodiversity planning assessment
Corridor buffer
Area of
% of SEQ
Corridor
Remnant
% SEQRPA*
Area of
% SEQRPA*
type
corridor in
bioregion
area within
2003 (v5.0)
corridors that
SEQRPA*
corridors in
SEQ
within
SEQRPA*
area within
is remnant
corridors in
protected
bioregion
corridor
(ha)
SEQRPA*
vegetation
protected
areas
corridors
areas
(Nov.07)
Regional riparian
503,462
8
207, 545
29,608
14
3, 782
12.8
State riparian
213,351
3
97,053
13,140
14
877
6.7
424,748
7
259,825
131,881
51
24,282
18.4
Regional
terrestrial
State terrestrial
1, 291, 485
21
419,473
266,268
63
113,349
42.6
38,189
1
23,789
7,079
30
1,255
17.7
Regional
terrestrial/riparian
130,185
2
61,511
25,351
41
5,869
23.2
State
terrestrial/riparian
Total area
2 601 421
42
1,069,196
473,328
44
149,415
31.6
*SEQRPA: SEQ Regional Plan Area
Indicator author
John Neldner, Environmental Protection Agency
References
Accad, A.; Neldner, V.J.; Wilson, B.A. & Niehus, R.E. 2006. Remnant Vegetation in Queensland: Analysis of Remnant
Vegetation 1997–1999, 2000, 2001–2003, including regional ecosystem information. Environmental Protection Agency,
Brisbane. <www.epa.qld.gov.au/nature_conservation/plants/remnant_vegetation_in_queensland/>
Environmental Protection Agency 2005. Regional Ecosystem Description Database (REDD). Version 5.0. Updated
December 2005. Database maintained by Queensland Herbarium, Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane.
<www.epa.qld.gov.au/nature_conservation/biodiversity/regional_ecosystems/>
McAlpine, C.A.; Fensham, R.J. & Temple-Smith, D.E. 2002. Biodiversity conservation and vegetation clearing in
Queensland: principles and thresholds. The Rangeland Journal 24:36–55.
Wilson, B. A.; Neldner V.J. & Accad, A. 2002. The extent and status of remnant vegetation in Queensland and its
implications for statewide vegetation management and legislation. Rangeland Journal. 24:6–35.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
105
Invasive plants and animals
The potential maximum extent of invasive species, new pest introductions and outbreaks, and eradication status for Class
1 pests
Interpretation
Status assessment
Amber
Where do we want to be?
Queensland is home to many plants and animals that have been introduced, either deliberately or accidentally, since
human settlement. Some of these species have become invasive—that is they have spread and multiplied to the point
where they can cause damage to the environment, the productive sector and human health and recreation. The objective
is to limit the distribution of invasive species, and try to slow or halt further spread. Most exotic vertebrate pests have long
been established in the state and have broad distributions. Eradication is not feasible for these species, so their
management must focus on restricting their spread, preventing new introductions and controlling their impacts.
What is happening?
Current and potential distribution and density of invasive species
Exotic terrestrial vertebrates, exotic birds, declared vertebrate pests and declared terrestrial and freshwater plants are all
present in SEQ (Table 2.10, Figure 2.9 and Figure 2.10). There is also significant potential for the distribution of these to
increase within the region (Table 2.10, Figure 2.11 and Figure 2.12). In 2002 the Plant Protection Quarterly published a
paper from the Queensland Herbarium providing an assessment of invasive naturalised plants in SEQ.
The assessment concluded that there were approximately 200 invasive naturalised plants, one-third of the 200 species
were categorised as ‘highly invasive’, and the paper states that there are on average 87 new naturalisations recorded per
decade in SEQ.
Potential maximum extent of pests
Many animal species, for example wild deer, feral horses and exotic birds, have the potential to expand their range further
west and north along the coast.
Declared Class 1 and 2 terrestrial weeds currently occupy an average of 30% of their potential range (statewide) with the
highest density of weed species being in and around Brisbane. There is considerable potential for many declared
terrestrial plant taxa to expand their distribution further west and north along the coast.
Number of new pest introductions and pest outbreaks
New pest introductions and pest outbreaks continue to occur throughout the state, for example 10 new weed species are
estimated to enter Queensland each year.
Yellow crazy ants and red-eared slider turtles are two examples of species that have been introduced, or detected
recently in SEQ. Multiple incursions of yellow crazy ants (Anoplolepis gracilipes) have occurred in Queensland since 2001.
Electric ants (Wasmannia auropunctata) were detected in 2006. In 2004 red-eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta) were
found in SEQ.
Status of eradication for Class 1 pest animals and weeds
Pest animals and plants may be declared ‘Class 1’ pest animals or weeds under the Land Protection (Pest and Stock
Route Management) Act 2002. Class 1 pests are subject to eradication from the state. The following case study outlines
the status of eradication for crazy ants, a Class 1 pest animal.
Yellow crazy ants (Anoplolepis gracilipes)
Yellow crazy ants have been declared as a Class 1 declared animal under the Land Protection (Pest and Stock Route
Management) Act 2002. Crazy ants are considered one of the world’s worst invaders by the World Conservation Union,
and are considered a major threat to biodiversity.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
106
Isolated infestations of crazy ants have been found and treated at properties in the Brisbane suburbs of Rocklea, Slacks
Creek and Wacol, and in industrial estates at Caboolture
Previous infestations of crazy ants have also been detected and controlled at Fisherman Island and Hamilton wharves in
Brisbane.
Number of local government area pest management plans
The Land Protection (Pest and Stock Route Management) Act 2002 included a requirement for every local government in
Queensland to develop a pest management plan by 1 July 2005. In accordance with this requirement, all 18 of SEQ’s
local government areas have pest management plans in place.
Why is it happening?
Most pest animals in Queensland were introduced at the time of European settlement for food, sport and aesthetic value.
Today introductions of pest animals are most likely to occur illegally through the pet trade and for hunting purposes or
unintentionally through transport of goods and people.
The small size of invertebrates increases the chance of their accidental introduction by the transport of people and goods.
Yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes) incursions are most commonly associated with areas where shipping containers
are unloaded and cleaned. However, pest ant species can be spread by the translocation of products such as soil, pot
plants, camping equipment and mulch.
General climate warming may influence the spread and distribution of weeds in Queensland. Tropical weed species could
extend further south while temperate species retreat. Summer-growing species would also become more prevalent in
southern regions. Drought can also weaken native pasture systems, making them prone to weed invasion.
Transport of people and goods is a major pathway for weed spread in Queensland. Seeds can ‘hitchhike’ to new sites in
and on vehicles, on machinery and other equipment, and attached to clothing or the soles of footwear. The transportation
of stock can facilitate weed spread, as seeds consumed at the animals’ point of origin can be defecated at other sites,
leading to weed establishment. Products such as hay, silage and seed for planting can also be contaminated with weed
seed and facilitate weed spread.
The nursery trade is also recognised as a potentially major source of new weeds. Approximately 70% of the nearly 2000
agricultural and environmental weeds in Australia are invasive garden plants (Groves et al. 2005). The trading of plants
and seeds over the internet by private citizens makes it particularly difficult to control the introduction of potentially
invasive species. Plants cultivated for pasture or fodder may invade adjacent habitats.
Why is it important?
Introduced pest animals place considerable pressure on native plants and animals. Some pest animals affect specific
habitats or species, while others have more general impacts, affecting the whole ecosystem of many species and
underlying ecological processes.
Pest animals cost Queensland at least $110 million a year by preying on livestock, causing crop losses, competing for
pasture and spreading disease. They also have uncosted impacts on the environment through overgrazing, predation,
competition and poisoning. Pest animals can also be a nuisance in urban areas where they spread disease and can be
traffic hazards.
Invasive terrestrial plants (weeds) cost Queensland an estimated $600 million a year in lost primary production and
control. Weeds degrade the natural environment, decrease primary production, pose human and animal health and safety
risks, and lower the aesthetic value of the natural landscape.
What does it mean for sustainability?
Increasing pest animal and weed distribution has potentially negative implications for social, economic and ecological
aspects of sustainability, including through:

impacts on habitats, species and in some cases on whole ecosystems and ecological processes

reducing the viability of primary industries

lowering the cultural and aesthetic value of the natural landscape

causing risks to human health.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
107
Society’s response
There have been a number of management actions in response to weed and pest animals. For example at a national
level there is an Australian Pest Animal Strategy, and the Australian Weed Strategy. At a state level the Land Protection
(Pest and Stock Route Management) Act 2002 provides a framework for enforced control of weeds and pest animals. The
Queensland Pest Animal Strategy and the Queensland Weed Strategy help to implement this Act. There are also local
government pest management plans, and regional natural resource management (NRM) bodies help to implement these
local government plans by aiding coordination, as most pest problems cross local government boundaries.
Data
Table 2.10: A selection of established exotic terrestrial vertebrates and birds in Queensland
Class 2 pests
Wild dog
Canis familiaris
Feral goat
Capra hircus
Feral cat
Felis catus
European rabbit
Oryctolagus cuniculus
Feral pig
Sus scrofa
European fox
Vulpes vulpes
Non-declared animals
Chital deer
Axis axis
Cane toad
Bufo marinus
Red deer
Cervus elaphus
Rusa deer
Cervus timorensis
Fallow deer
Dama dama
Feral horse
Equus caballus
Exotic birds
Common myna
Acridotheres tristis
Mallard (incl. black duck hybrids)
Anas platyrhynchos
Cattle egret (natural invasion)
Ardeola ibis
European goldfinch
Carduelis carduelis
Rock dove (feral pigeon)
Columba livia
Nutmeg mannikin
Lonchura punctulata
Helmeted guineafowl
Numida meleagris
House sparrow
Passer domesticus
Indian peafowl
Pavo cristatus
Common pheasant
Phasianus colchicus
Red-whiskered bulbul
Pycnonotus jocosus
Spotted turtle dove
Streptopelia chinensis
Collared-dove
Streptopelia decaocto
Common starling
Sturnus vulgaris
Common blackbird
Turdus merula
Source: Queensland Government, Biosecurity Queensland, 2007
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
108
Figure 2.9: Current distribution of established exotic terrestrial vertebrates in Queensland
Source: Queensland Government, Biosecurity Queensland, 2007
Figure 2.10: Current distribution of established exotic birds in Queensland
Source: Queensland Government, Biosecurity Queensland, 2007
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
109
Figure 2.11: Potential distribution of established exotic terrestrial vertebrates in Queensland
Source: Queensland Government, Biosecurity Queensland, 2007
Figure 2.12: Potential distribution of established exotic birds in Queensland
Source: Queensland Government, Biosecurity Queensland, 2007
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
110
Figure 2.13: Proportion of potential range currently occupied by exotic species in Queensland
Source: Queensland Government, Biosecurity Queensland, 2007
Indicator authors
Andrew Wilke, Alexsis Wilson and Jodi Ravey, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries
Related indicators
Biodiversity; Extent of regional ecosystems; Scenic amenity; Rural economy
Other data and links
State of Environment Queensland 2007
References
Batianoff, G.N. & Butler, D.W. 2002. Assessment of invasive naturalised plants in South East Queensland. Plant
Protection Quarterly Vol 17(1).
Groves, R.H.; Boden, R. & Lonsdale, W.M. 2005. Jumping the garden fence: invasive garden plants in Australia and their
environmental and agricultural impacts CSIRO report prepared for World Wildlife Foundation, Sydney
Queensland Government 2008. State of Environment Queensland 2007. Queensland Government, Brisbane.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
111
Freshwater, estuarine and marine water quality
The overall ecosystem health status of freshwater, estuarine and marine waterways as determined by the Ecosystem
Health Report Card
Interpretation
Status assessment
Amber
Where do we want to be?
Good ecosystem health for all catchments and bay regions in SEQ through protection, rehabilitation and reductions in
diffuse and point source pollution.
What is happening?
An ecosystem health score has been calculated for 18 catchments and nine bay regions. The health rating is calculated
for each system each year to assess whether the various management actions outlined in the SEQ Regional Water
Quality Management Strategy (2001) and SEQ Healthy Waterways Strategy (2007) have resulted in improvements in
water quality.
The freshwater ecosystem health scores are calculated using the Ecosystem Health Index (EHI), which measures how
much of a waterway complies with defined water quality objectives. The ecosystem health scores for the estuarine and
marine sites are calculated using both the EHI (80% of total score) and a biological health rating (20% of the total score),
which incorporates indicators such as seagrass depth range that do not conform to spatial prediction or do not have water
quality guideline values.
The 2006–07 trends in the ecosystem health rating for all the systems are contained in Ecosystem Health Monitoring
Program Annual Technical Report (EHMP), South East Queensland Healthy Waterways Partnership, Brisbane. This
report can be found on the website: <www.ehmp.org>.
The overall findings of this report are below.
Freshwater

The freshwater score is based on the Ecosystem Health Index.

Although the annual score for the region was very good (0.79), there has been a continued decline in annual regional
scores over the past four years (0.83 in 2003, 0.81 in 2004, 0.80 in 2005 and 0.79 in 2006) due to increased
urbanisation and below average rainfall.

The pattern of annual scores by reporting areas was very similar to that for the preceding year, and consequently
there was a high correlation between these two sets of scores (r = 0.89, P<0.01, n=18). Of the 18 reporting areas, 10
showed a decline in annual scores, seven improved their scores, while the annual score for one reporting area, Pine
Rivers, remained the same.

None of the reporting area scores were high enough to receive an ‘A’ report card grade. Low annual scores (‘F’) were
recorded for the most heavily populated areas of Lower Brisbane and Redlands.

Based on three-year, long-term average scores, the ranking of reporting areas based on the ecological health of
freshwater ecosystems from best to worst were: Nerang (0.878), Pimpama/Coomera (0.876), Mooloolah (0.876),
Noosa (0.896), Albert (0.864), Stanley (0.861), Mid Brisbane (0.833), Caboolture (0.833), Tallebudgera/Currumbin
(0.830), Pumicestone (0.799), Maroochy (0.798), Pine Rivers (0.778), Upper Brisbane (0.771), Logan (0.769),
Lockyer (0.725), Bremer (0.702), Redlands (0.684), and Lower Brisbane (0.682).
Estuaries and marine

The score for estuaries and marine waters is based 80% on the EHI and 20% on the BHR.

Of the 19 estuaries monitored, ecosystem health remained unchanged for 11 estuaries, declined for five estuaries,
and improved for two estuaries.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
112

Of the three estuaries in the northern subregion, the Maroochy River and the Noosa River showed a decrease in
ecosystem health, which was linked to increases in run-off and associated diffuse nutrient influxes.

In the Moreton subregion, estuarine ecosystem health remained generally poor for many systems, particularly the
Bremer and Oxley estuaries. The Caboolture River also declined slightly while water quality in the other estuaries did
not change.

Most the subregion’s estuaries had high EHI values, the exceptions being the Logan and Albert rivers. The
ecosystem health in the Coomera River improved slightly while the Logan estuary was reduced from ‘D-‘ to ‘F’ due to
an increase in sediment loads entering the upper estuary.

Of the nine bay regions monitored, water quality improved for Pumicestone Passage and Deception Bay, declined for
the Southern and Central Bays, and remained the same for the Bramble and Waterloo Bays and the eastern parts of
Moreton Bay. The Broadwater recorded a slight reduction in ecosystem health but maintained an overall ‘good’ rating.

Ecosystem health for the marine zones was linked to exposure to coastal pollution (Figure 2.14).
Why is it important?
Freshwater, estuarine and marine environments not only provide a variety of natural habitats that sustain a diverse range
of wildlife, they also provide an essential source of water that supports human life and economic activity, including mining,
recreational and commercial fishing, tourism and agricultural production. The rapid growth in SEQ and climate variability
is placing pressure on the quality of the region’s water. A continuation of these trends, without effective intervention,
would see a further deterioration in water quality in the long term, placing the community’s health and prosperity and the
ecological integrity and amenity of the region at risk. Future development needs to be carried out in a way that enhances
rather than adversely affects water quality. To do this, it is important to continue to identify and undertake actions to
improve the health of degraded waterways and to protect areas of high ecological value.
What does it mean for sustainability?
The EHMP provides an objective assessment of the implications of past and present human activities on our catchments
and waterways. To ensure future development occurs without causing further declines, we must continue to identify and
undertake actions to improve the health of degraded waterways and to protect areas of high ecological value. In the
catchment areas under development pressure, particularly expanding urban centres and changing intensive agricultural
areas, this will require a significant investment in protection and restoration. In addition, as climate variability increases,
we face the added challenge of maintaining good ecosystem health in our waterways. There is a need to prepare our
catchments for high-flow events, which bring high loads of sediment and nutrients. Better riparian condition and
catchment protection will help to make our waterways more resilient to the impacts of climate change.
Society’s response
The EHMP Annual Report is one of the ongoing commitments of the partnership within the 2001 SEQ Regional Water
Quality Management Strategy (SEQRWQMS). The completion of the SEQ Healthy Waterways Strategy 2007–2012
confirms the ongoing commitment by the SEQ Healthy Waterways Partnership to achieving the vision that by 2026 our
waterways and catchments will be healthy ecosystems supporting the livelihoods and lifestyles of people in SEQ. The
strategy focuses on:

protection and conservation of high ecological value areas already contributing to good waterway health

management of point sources through wastewater reuse and discharge standards

management of rural diffuse sources by achieving good land management practices and addressing stream and gully
erosion to achieve load reductions at source

management of urban diffuse sources through ‘water-sensitive urban design’ in proposed and existing urban areas.
Since 2001 there have been major gains in point source controls, with an estimated $400 million investment in upgrades
of wastewater treatment plants. These upgrades have reduced the nitrogen loads to the waterways by approximately
40% with a further 20–30% reduction expected once further upgrades are completed.
The process of tackling diffuse loads (pollution loads from the catchment) has commenced, but will take many years.
Significant improvement will not be seen in some catchments unless a major investment is made in addressing ‘diffuse
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
113
loads’ e.g. riparian (or riverbank) protection/ restoration, good land management practices, and managing urban
stormwater run-off through ‘water sensitive urban design’.
The pressures of an increasing population in SEQ will continue to impact on water quality in the region: the projected
increase (from 2.67 million people currently to 4 million by 2026) could potentially result in estimated increases of up to
39–49% in point source loads of phosphorus and nitrogen respectively and up to 63% increase in urban diffuse loads of
sediment across the region’s waterways by 2026 if a business as usual approach is taken (SEQ Healthy Waterways
Strategy 20072012).
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
114
Data
1998
2001
2003
2005
2007
2008
Figure 2.14: Sewage plume maps of Moreton Bay from 1998 to 2008, showing a significant decrease in sewage derived nitrogen (red
areas indicate sewage signal).
Source: SEQHWP 2007
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
115
Indicator author
Dr Simon Costanzo and Dr David Rissik, Environmental Protection Agency
References
EHMP 2008. Ecosystem Health Monitoring Program 2006–07 Annual Technical Report. South East Queensland Healthy
Waterways Partnership, Brisbane <www.ehmp.org/>.
South East Queensland Healthy Waterways Partnership (SEQHWP) 2007. Ecosystem Health Monitoring Program Annual
Technical Report 200506 on the health of the freshwater, estuarine and marine waterways of South East Queensland.
SEQHWP, Brisbane.
South East Queensland Healthy Waterways Partnership (SEQHWP) 2008. Ecosystem Health Monitoring Program Report
Card 2008. South East Queensland Healthy Waterways Partnership, Brisbane <www.ehmp.org/>.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
116
Emissions to water
Loads of nutrients released to water from large sewage treatment plants
Interpretation
Status assessment
Amber
Where do we want to be?
Good ecosystem health for all catchments and bay regions in SEQ through significant reductions in nutrient loads from
point source emissions.
What is happening?
There have been major reductions in nitrogen loads from point source emissions to water (Figure 2.15) as a result of
upgrades of sewage treatment plants to advanced biological nutrient removal. This is despite significant population
growth. Phosphorus loads are progressively reducing, but not to the same extent.
Why is it important?
Point source emissions can contribute significantly to catchment loads and result in elevated nutrient concentrations in
waterways. Excessive nutrient concentrations can lead to eutrophication, which is characterised by excessive plant
growth and decay, such as algal blooms, and is likely to cause severe reductions in water quality. Eutrophication
decreases the resource value of catchments for recreational activities such as fishing, canoeing and camping, and it can
interfere with the treatment of drinking water leading to health-related problems.
What does it mean for sustainability?
The results are positive for reduction in nitrogen loads and suggest that water quality could be improving in some areas
despite population growth. However, reductions in phosphorus have not been as significant. The sustainability of these
discharges depends on whether water quality objectives are being achieved. Based on the Healthy Waterways Report
Card, most estuaries and other coastal waters in SEQ currently exceed water quality objectives for nutrient
concentrations suggesting current loads from both point and diffuse sources are not sustainable.
Society’s response
Commitments to improving emissions to water have been made by government in the SEQ Healthy Waterways Strategy
2007–2012 in light of the increasing volumes of treated wastewater being generated.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
117
Data
1800
1600
Nitrogen Load
Phosphorus Load
Tonnes per year
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2003-2004
2004-2005
2005-2006
2006-2007
Financial Year
Figure 2.15: SEQ nutrient loads
Indicator author
Dr Ian Ramsay, Environmental Protection Agency
Related indicators
Freshwater, estuarine and marine water quality
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
118
Air quality
The concentration of air pollutants in ambient air in SEQ
Interpretation
Status assessment
Green
Where do we want to be?
The objective is to ensure air quality in SEQ remains within recommended safe limits to protect human health and
wellbeing and to preserve ecological integrity and amenity in the face of increasing population growth and development.
What is happening?
Monitoring data shows that SEQ generally experiences good air quality (Figure 2.16–Figure 2.19). Typically there are one
or two days in the year when air quality standards for ambient air are exceeded, mainly for ozone (an indicator for
photochemical smog) and particles.
The transport sector is the greatest source of air pollutant emissions to the atmosphere in SEQ, with lesser contributions
from vegetation burning, industry, commercial and domestic activities (Environmental Protection Agency and Brisbane
City Council 2003).
Bushfires and controlled burning programs (conducted to reduce the severity of summer bushfires) in bushland areas in
SEQ occasionally lead to episodes of high particle pollution when meteorological conditions limit dispersal of the smoke
generated. Volatile oil emissions from forests and bushland are a significant source of ozone precursors during hot
weather (ozone formation requires sunlight and two types of precursor emissions—oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic
compounds).
Why is it important?
The rapid growth in SEQ (in particular growth in motor vehicle usage) is placing pressure on the quality of the region’s air.
A continuation of these trends, without effective intervention, would see air quality deteriorate in the long term, placing the
community’s health and wellbeing, and the ecological integrity and amenity of the region at risk.
Appropriate planning and positioning of new industrial and commercial air pollutant sources are needed to prevent
localised air quality concerns.
What does it mean for sustainability?
Clean air is vital to maintaining human and ecosystem health (there is no alternative consumption choice), but is often
undervalued until under threat, when the cost of remediation is much higher than the cost of prevention would have been.
In some instances exposure to air pollutants can result in non-reversible health effects. Governments have an obligation
to manage air quality on behalf of the community at large. Organisations and individuals need to appreciate the potential
consequences of their actions on the welfare of other users (including future generations) and modify these behaviours to
minimise impacts on the air environment.
Society’s response
Actions being taken by governments at Commonwealth, state and local levels to manage transport emissions include:

tighter emission standards for new vehicles

cleaner fuel specifications

rebates for conversion of vehicles from petrol or diesel to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or compressed natural gas
(CNG)

lower emission CNG/LNG buses for the public transport fleet

more fuel-efficient and hybrid vehicles in the Queensland Government fleet
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
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
integrated public transport ticketing and TransLink Network Plan to improve efficiency and attractiveness of the public
transport system

a tiered motor vehicle transfer duty system, favouring fuel-efficient vehicles and hybrids

intelligent transport systems to improve efficiency through better access to real-time information

high occupancy vehicle lanes to encourage vehicle sharing on congested road corridors.
Under the SEQ Regional Plan, management of transport demand is an integral component of regional land use planning.
The SEQ Infrastructure Plan and Program provides for a greater number of travel options by enhancing and extending
public transport networks and operations using rail or bus. This will be achieved by upgrading the trunk and regional
transport network, and encouraging healthy and sustainable modes of transport such as walking and cycling by investing
in expanded pedestrian and cycling paths. Major spending on road infrastructure to reduce congestion and travel times
will also reduce emissions because free flowing traffic has much lower emissions than slow moving or stop–start traffic.
The SEQ Regional Freight Network Strategy aims to facilitate the efficient movement of freight across the region's
transport network. Efficient and integrated freight transport systems, as envisaged in the SEQ Regional Plan, have the
potential to reduce the rate of emissions growth from this sector.
Public education programs such as TravelSmart and AirCare encourage the use of environmentally friendly transport
options and highlight ways individuals can reduce motor vehicle emissions. The Commonwealth’s ‘Green Vehicle Guide’
helps people planning to buy a new car to identify makes and models with the lowest emissions.
Public and private employers encouraging car pooling and telecommuting are helping to reduce emissions associated
with the trip to work, particularly during peak periods.
Greater coordination between fire management, environmental management and local government agencies regarding
the timing of controlled burning programs has reduced the incidence of smoke impacts on populated areas in recent
years. Local government bans on residential ‘backyard burning’ and requirements for vegetation on land development
sites to be mulched rather than burnt also contribute to reduced particle emissions.
Air emissions from industry and commercial facilities are controlled through Environmental Protection Agency or local
government licensing and compliance monitoring programs. The EPA’s ecoBiz partnership program assists businesses
take advantage of the profitability of improved environmental performance.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
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Data
Mountain Creek
Deception Bay
Rocklea
Helensvale
Flinders View
Toowoomba
Springwood
95th percentile ozone concentrations (ppm)
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
1995 1996 1997
1998 1999
2000 2001 2002
2003 2004
2005 2006 2007
Year
Figure 2.16: Annual trend in SEQ 95th percentile daily four-hour average ozone concentrations, 19952007
Mountain Creek
Rocklea
Springwood
Helensvale
Flinders View
Toowoomba
3
95th percentile PM 10 concentrations ( gm )
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Year
Figure 2.17: SEQ daily 24-hour daily average PM10 95th percentile ozone concentrations, 19952007
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
121
Poor air quality
Fair air quality
160
140
Number of days
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Year
Figure 2.18: SEQ daily peak air quality index (human health)
Poor air quality
Fair air quality
80
70
Number of days
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1995 1996 1997
1998 1999
2000 2001 2002
2003 2004
2005 2006 2007
Years
Figure 2.19: SEQ daily peak air quality index (amenity)
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
122
Indicator author
Donald Neale, Environmental Protection Agency
Related indicators
Pollutant emissions to air from large industry, Vehicle kilometres travelled, Health status
Other data and links
Air NEPM monitoring reports for Queensland
<www.epa.qld.gov.au/environmental_management/air/air_quality_monitoring/air_quality_reports/>
Air quality monitoring in Queensland annual summary and trend reports
<www.epa.qld.gov.au/environmental_management/air/air_quality_monitoring/air_quality_reports/>
Air quality index regional trends
<www.epa.qld.gov.au/environmental_management/air/air_quality_monitoring/regional_trends/>
References
Environmental Protection Agency & Brisbane City Council 2003. Air emissions inventory SEQ Region.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
123
Emissions to air from large industry
Trend in pollutant emissions to air from large industry in SEQ
Interpretation
Status assessment
Amber
Where do we want to be?
The objective is to ensure that the trend in pollutant emissions to air, from large industry in SEQ, is either neutral or
downward. This will assist in maintaining air quality within recommended safe limits to protect human health and
wellbeing and to preserve ecological integrity and amenity.
What is happening?

The National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) reports on the annual emissions of pollutants from industry and other sources.
Facilities that burn large amounts of fuel or handle large amounts of toxic chemicals are required to report on their
emissions. These reports are collated and published by the Department of Environment on the National Pollutant
Inventory website <www.npi.gov.au>.

This indicator presents the trends for 18 key substances.

Criteria air pollutants refer to the six pollutants listed in the Air Quality National Environmental Protection Measure
(Figure 2.20).

The trends for criteria air pollutants show that sulfur dioxide emissions have decreased, while oxides of nitrogen and
total volatile organic compounds have increased slightly. Carbon monoxide and particulate matter <10μm show some
variability but no overall trend is evident.

Five substances are listed in the Air Toxics National Environmental Protection Measure. Trends in emissions for four
of these substances are shown in Figure 2.21. The emissions of four of these substances are quite variable and no
overall trend is apparent. The fifth substance, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), shows a significant
downwards trend.

Trends in emissions of metals shown in Figure 2.22 and Figure 2.23. Copper, nickel, mercury, cadmium and
chromium(VI) emissions are relatively stable with no overall trend apparent. Zinc, chromium(III) and particularly
selenium emissions show an overall downward trend.
Why is it important?
The emissions data collected from facilities is useful for measuring pressures on the air quality of SEQ. This information
can then be used by the air quality monitoring program to ensure that monitoring occurs for pollutants of concern. This
assists in ensuring that air quality remains within recommended safe limits. Trends that are neutral or downward indicate
the effectiveness of government policies and reduction programs within facilities. Trends that are upward may indicate a
need for further investigation, which should commence with an analysis of air quality data with reference to the
recommended safe limits for those substances.
What does it mean for sustainability?
A greater understanding of the source of emissions informs policy decisions leading to better outcomes for the community.
With respect to pollutants, sustainability is achieved when emissions have no deleterious impacts on human health and
wellbeing, and ecological integrity and amenity.
Society’s response

The main purpose of the NPI is to provide government, industry and the community with up-to-date information about
pollutant emissions.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
124

Trend analysis of pollutant emissions is useful for demonstrating ‘at a glance’ the pattern of industrial pollutant
emissions.

Publishing this information puts pressure on industries, both directly and indirectly, to reduce emissions.

For more information, see the NPI website <www.npi.gov.au>.
Data
Figure 2.20: Trend in emissions of criteria air pollutants in SEQ
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
125
Figure 2.21: Trend in emissions of air toxics in SEQ
Figure 2.22: Emissions of zinc, copper, nickel and chromium(III) in SEQ
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
126
Figure 2.23: Emissions of mercury, cadmium, chromium(VI) and selenium in SEQ
Indicator author
Damian Lovejoy, Environmental Protection Agency
Related indicators
Air quality
Other data and links
NPI data at <www.npi.gov.au>
EPA air monitoring stations, see ‘live air quality data’ on the EPA website at <www.epa.qld.gov.au>
References
National Environment Protection Measures (NEPM) <www.ephc.gov.au/nepms/nepms.html>.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
127
Greenhouse gas emissions
Queensland greenhouse gas emissions and SEQ household carbon footprint
Interpretation
Status assessment
Amber
Where do we want to be?
Queensland has committed to playing its part in achieving a national target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions to 60%
of the 2000 emissions by 2050. There are currently no emissions reduction targets specifically for SEQ. The high
population and carbon footprint of the region suggests that the national target is unlikely to be reached unless the
emissions attributable to the region are significantly reduced.
What is happening?
Queensland’s net greenhouse gas emissions in 2006 were estimated to be 170.9 Mt CO2-e, representing approximately
29.7% of Australia’s net emissions (DCC 2006).
Figure 2.24 shows that total Queensland greenhouse gas emissions have been relatively stable over the period 1990–
2006. However, Figure 2.25 shows that this flat overall trend is the result of significant declines in emissions from land
use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) combined with significant, continuing increases in emissions from fossil fuel
use (the stationary energy, transport and fugitive emissions sectors).
Trends in Queensland greenhouse gas emissions are discussed in more detail in SOE (2007).
The Department of Climate Change does not disaggregate emissions beyond states and territories. The international
rules and procedures used to prepare the national inventory and state and territory inventories cannot be sensibly applied
to small regions because emissions are attributed to the locations where they enter the atmosphere, without regard for
where the associated products or generated energy are actually consumed.
An alternative to greenhouse emissions data that can be used at a regional scale to monitor progress towards a lowcarbon society is to estimate the household carbon footprint. A carbon footprint includes both direct emissions (emissions
from energy used in the home and for personal and public transport) and indirect or ‘embodied’ emissions that are
required to produce the goods and services consumed in households. A similar concept could be applied to businesses.
Estimates of average household carbon footprint for SEQ, Brisbane and Gold Coast suburbs from the Australian
Conservation Foundation’s Consumption Atlas (ACF 2007) are shown in Figure 2.26–Figure 2.28. The carbon footprint of
Brisbane and the surrounding areas are among the highest in Queensland. Other hot spots include the Sunshine Coast,
Surfers Paradise and Toowoomba (ACF2007).
Why is it happening?
The key to interpreting the carbon footprint analysis is to realise that indirect household emissions from the consumption
of goods and services are typically two to three times higher than direct emissions in most developed countries (Lenzen
2001, and Figure 2.29). The finding that affluent areas are responsible for higher greenhouse emissions is due to higher
income households having higher consumption levels (ACF2007b). In addition, some activities with high greenhouse
impacts, such as air travel and construction and renovation, tend to be concentrated in high-income groups (ACF 2007b).
The steady increase in consumption of goods such as household water, electricity and petrol as wealth increases gives
firm support to the correlation between wealth and environmental impact (ACF 2007b).
Why is it important?
Greenhouse gas emissions are one of the key drivers of climate change. Queensland is particularly vulnerable to climate
change. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change identified SEQ as a vulnerability ‘hot spot’ in its Fourth
Assessment Report. The direct impacts of climate change on Queensland are summarised in the next indicator paper,
entitled ‘Climate Change Trends’.
Moving to a low-carbon future is essential to ensure the long-term prosperity of the state. Although Queensland emissions
represent only a small proportion of global emissions, our per capita emissions are amongst the highest in the world.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
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Effective mitigation action will require global participation. Although Queensland alone cannot prevent greenhouse gas
concentrations increasing, it is participating in, and contributing to, global action.
Society’s response
In April 2007 the Premier announced that Queensland would play its part in achieving a national target of reducing
greenhouse gas emissions to 60% of the 2000 emissions by 2050. The Queensland Government has set a target in
Toward Q2: Tomorrow’s Queensland to cut by one-third Queenslanders’ carbon footprint with reduced car and electricity
use by 2020.
ClimateSmart 2050 is the Queensland Government's contribution to tackling climate change. It outlines a long-term
strategy to secure a clean energy future by investing in the development and deployment of clean coal technologies. In
the interim, gas, which has an emissions profile half that of coal, will be utilised to meet Queensland’s medium-term
energy needs. The strategy also supports deployment of existing renewable technologies such as solar power, wind, hot
rocks and biomass, and provides measures for households and businesses to conserve energy. In total, $414 million will
be invested under ClimateSmart to deliver the next steps in Queensland's climate change response.
Further details on ClimateSmart 2050 are available online at <www.climatechange.qld.gov.au>, and further information
about Queensland responses to the climate change challenge can be found in SOE2007.
The statewide initiatives described above are unlikely to reduce the relative discrepancy in carbon footprints between the
wealthier urban areas of SEQ and other regions. The difficulty is that, while many people in SEQ are increasingly aware
of the need to conserve water and reduce energy use, it is much harder to find information about the hidden
environmental costs of products and services (Dey et al. 2007). For example, the suggested steps towards sustainability
discussed in the Community section in ClimateSmart 2050 and the ‘Your home’ section of the ClimateSmart Living
website (<www.climatesmart.qld.gov.au/your_home>) are dominated by actions aimed at reducing direct water and
energy use and reducing waste, and make almost no mention of the emissions embedded in the products we buy or the
services we use.
Given that the research indicates that indirect household emissions account for 70% of the total average household
carbon footprint, and that reducing such emissions is not a current focus for action, it appears that there is significant
potential in SEQ to make progress towards a low-carbon economy by utilising wealth in a more environmentally sound
way.
Dey et al. (2007) suggest that ‘smarter consumption’ is a valid response to reducing greenhouse emissions. Clearly,
households have many choices for smarter consumption, including reducing their expenditure on non-essential goods,
choosing to consume smaller-footprint services rather than larger-footprint goods, and using recycled materials.
However, Dey et al. (2007) also suggest there is a role for governments to play in promoting smarter consumption. They
list as possible initiatives:

educating on the importance of the indirect environmental impacts of consuming goods and services

regulating to improve product labelling

mandating higher performance standards for equipment

investing in infrastructure that will improve the choices available to households.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
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Data
Figure 2.24: Queensland greenhouse gas emissions 1990–2006
Source: Department of Climate Change
Figure 2.25: Queensland greenhouse gas emissions by sector, 2006
Source: Department of Climate Change
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
130
Figure 2.26: Average household carbon footprints for SEQ
Source: Australian Conservation Council
Figure 2.27: Average household carbon footprints for Brisbane
Source: Australian Conservation Council
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
131
Figure 2.28: Average household carbon footprints for Gold Coast
Source: Australian Conservation Council
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
132
Figure 2.29: Average household profile: carbon footprints. Direct household emissions (cut-out slices) account for an average of only
30% of a household’s total carbon footprint (Dey et al. 2007)
Source: Australian Conservation Council
Indicator author
Dr David Rayner, Office of Climate Change
Related indicators
Climate change trends, Ecological footprint
References
ACF 2007. Consumption Atlas. Australian Conservation Foundation, viewed 17 January 2008
<www.acfonline.org.au/consumptionatlas/>.
ACF 2007b. Consuming Australia: Main Findings, Australian Conservation Foundation, viewed 17 January 2008
<acfonline.org.au/uploads/res/res_atlas_main_findings.pdf>.
Brohan, P.; Kennedy, J.J.; Harris, I.; Tett, S.F.B. & Jones, P.D. 2006. Uncertainty estimates in regional and global
observed temperature changes: a new dataset from 1850. J. Geophys. Res. 111:D12106.
Cai, W. 2006. Antarctic ozone depletion causes an intensification of the Southern Ocean super-gyre circulation.
Geophysical Research Letter: L03712.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
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Cane, M.A. 2005. The evolution of El Niño, past and future. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230(3–4):227–240.
Collins, M. 2005. El Niño- or La Niña-like climate change?. Climate Dynamics 24:89–104.
Crimp, S. & Day, K. 2003. Evaluation of multi-decadal variability in rainfall for Queensland and other Australian rangeland
regions using indices of El Niño-Southern Oscillation and inter-decadal variability. Proceedings of the National Drought
Forum: Science for Drought 15–16 April, Brisbane. pp.106–15.
CSIRO 2007. Climate change in Australia Technical Report 2007. CSIRO, viewed 15 January 2008,
<www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/resources.php>
Department of Climate Change 2008. State and Territory Greenhouse Gas Inventories 2006. Commonwealth of Australia,
Canberra. <www.climatechange.gov.au/inventory>.
Dey, C.; Berger, C.; Foran, B.; Foran, M.; Joske, R.; Lenzen, M.; & Wood, R. 2007. An Australian environmental atlas:
household environmental pressure from consumption. pp 280–315 In: Birch, G.: Water, Wind, Art and Debate: how
environmental concerns impact on disciplinary research. Sydney University Press, Sydney.
DNRW 2007. The South East Queensland Drought to 2007. Department of Natural Resources and Water, Brisbane,
viewed 15 January 2008, <www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/forecasts/pdfs/seq_drought_2007.pdf>.
Gillett, N.P. & Thompson, D.W.J. 2003. Simulation of recent Southern Hemisphere climate change. Science
302(5643):273–275.
Hegerl, G.C.; Zwiers, F.W.; Braconnot, P.; Gillett, N.P.; Luo, Y.; Marengo Orsini, J.A.; Nicholls, N.; Penner, J.E. & Stott,
P.A. 2007. Understanding and Attributing Climate Change. In: Solomon, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M.; Chen, A.; Marquis, M.;
Averyt, K.B.; Tignor, M. & Miller, H.L. (eds) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working
Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Hendon, H.H.; Thompson, D.W.J. & Wheeler, M.C. 2007, Australian rainfall and surface temperature variations
associated with the Southern Hemisphere annular mode. Journal of Climate 20(11):2452–2467.
IPCC 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M.; Chen, A.;
Marquis, M.; Averyt, K.B.; Tignor, M. & Miller, H.L. (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Lenzen, M. 2001. The importance of goods and services consumption in household greenhouse gas calculators. Ambio
30(7):439–442.
Main, A.R. 1988. Climate change and its impact on nature conservation. In: Pearman, G.I. (ed). Greenhouse: Planning for
Climate Change. CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Research, Melbourne, pp.361–374.
Nicholls 2007. Detecting, understanding and attributing climate change. Australian Greenhouse Office, Department of the
Environment and Water Resources, Canberra.
Rayner, D.; Wall, C.; Willcocks, J.; Barley, R. & Prior K. 2008. Climate and Greenhouse. In: Queensland State of the
Environment 2007, Queensland Government, Brisbane.
Syktus, J. 2005. Reasons for decline in eastern Australia’s rainfall. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
86(5):624.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
134
Climate change trends
Historical climate trends and climate change projections for SEQ.
Interpretation
Status assessment
Amber
What is happening?
SEQ has experienced a marked drying trend since 1950s and average annual temperatures have increased at a greater
faster rate than the national average. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment
Report identified SEQ as a vulnerability ‘hot spot’. This means that the region is expected to be particularly impacted by
climate change. These changes include a likely increase in inundation as a result of storm surges due to higher mean sea
level and more intense weather systems; an increase in one-in-100-year storm events projected to be 0.45 m along the
Sunshine Coast; less water available for cities, industries, agriculture and natural ecosystems; an increase in the number
of days over 35ºC, potentially affecting peak energy demand; fewer frosts and increased pest and disease risk.
Temperature
Annual maximum, mean and minimum temperature anomaly time-series for SEQ are presented in Figure 2.30. In the
period 1910 to 2006, SEQ’s:

average maximum temperature increased by 0.2°C

average mean temperature increased by 0.5°C

average minimum temperature increased by 0.8°C.
The increase in maximum temperature has been much more rapid since around 1980, whereas the minimum temperature
has not increased since around 1970. It is not clear why the minimum temperature has not increased in recent decades in
SEQ, whereas it has for most of Eastern Australia. It must be noted however that SEQ is a very small region for
calculating climate change trends, and the temperature trend is really determined from only three Bureau of Meteorology
(BOM) high-quality observing stations (Amberley Airport, Cape Moreton Lighthouse, and Brisbane Airport).
Temperatures in SEQ will continue to rise while human activities continue to produce greenhouse gasses. In Brisbane,
mean temperatures are likely to rise by a further 1°C by 2030 if emissions continue. The best estimate of the temperature
rise by 2070 ranges from 1.6°C to 3.1°C, depending on the extent of global fossil-fuel use this century (Table 2.11).
Temperature increases are likely to be higher in the inland regions of SEQ than they will be along the coast.
Rainfall
Average annual rainfall totals for SEQ show no overall trend since the late 1890s (Figure 2.31). Periods of below-average
rainfall occurred in the 1900s, around 1920, around 1980, the early 1990s, and again this century. Above-average rainfall
totals were recorded in the 1890s, 1930s, 1950s and 1970s.
However, rainfall in SEQ appears to have declined since 1950, and recent years have been particularly dry. The region’s
rainfall over the eight-year period 2000 to 2007 was the lowest in the historical record, with an average of 869mm per
year recorded (compared to the overall median of 1071mm). The accumulated rainfall deficit over the Brisbane dam
catchments in the period 2001–07 was more severe than that experienced even during the Federation Drought (DNRW
2007).
Unlike regional temperatures, which are nearly always simulated to increase with global warming, climate models show
both increases and decreases in rainfall, for different locations. For some locations, such as SEQ, some models suggest
rainfall will increase while others suggest a decrease. The rainfall projections for Brisbane are indicative of the projections
for the whole region. For Brisbane, the projected range of rainfall changes is -12% to +5% by 2030, and -33% to +17% by
2070 (with respect to 1980–1999 averages) (Table 2.11). There is a 60–70% probability that climate change will decrease
annual rainfall in SEQ.
Extreme events
In addition to changes in annual rainfall, climate change may change the frequency or severity of extreme rainfall events
such as tropical cyclones or storms. Modelling by Abbs et al. (2006) found that only small changes or a slight decrease in
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
135
the intensity of extreme rainfall events in SEQ by 2030. However, the intensity of such events had increased by 2070
(Abbs et al. 2006).
The frequency of severe tropical cyclones (Categories 3, 4 and 5) on the east Australian coast has been projected to
increase 22% from 2000 to 2050 (IPCC, 1992), with a 200 km southward shift in the cyclone genesis region (Leslie and
Karoly, 2007). Even without changes in cyclone severity or frequency, climate change will mean such events pose a
larger risk to SEQ. For example, it has been estimated that the flooding around the Gold Coast caused by a tropical
cyclone similar to Wanda in 1974 would affect 3 to 18% more people and dwellings if it were to occur in 2050 after there
has been a 10 to 40 cm rise in mean sea level (Abbs et al. 2000), even without changes in population density in the area.
Finally, droughts are likely to become more frequent. If the current criteria for ‘drought’ continues to be used, most of
Australia will spend 20% more time in drought by 2030 and eastern Australia may spend 40% more time in drought by
2070 (CSIRO 2007).
Why is it happening?
Temperature
Instrumental records show that temperatures increased across the globe in the 20th century (e.g. Brohan et al. 2006).
Most of this rise in global temperature, at least since the mid-20th century, is very likely to have been caused by human
activities (IPCC 2007). Climate simulations of the 20th century are now sufficiently accurate to demonstrate that
temperature increases in even sub-continental regions—such as eastern Queensland—can only be explained by
enhanced greenhouse gas concentrations (Hegerl et al. 2007). Hendon et al. (2007) suggest that natural climate
variability associated with variations in the Southern Annular Mode would actually have caused declining summer
maximum temperatures in SEQ over the period 1979–2005 were it not for anthropogenic changes.
Rainfall
Trends in rainfall in coastal Queensland were discussed in Queensland State of the Environment 2007 (SOE 2007), and
the discussion is reproduced below.
The drying trend over eastern Queensland since 1950 is consistent with an increased frequency of El Niño events since
1976–77; there have been more than twice as many El Niño events as La Niña events since then (Crimp and Day 2003;
DNRW 2007). The perceived drying trend since 1950 is accentuated by the wet decades of the 1950s and 1970s, which
were associated with strong La Niña events (DNRW 2007).
It is not possible to associate low rainfalls experienced in Queensland in recent years with human activities. However,
increases in temperatures that are related to human activities may have exacerbated the impacts of drought in some
regions (CSIRO 2007). It is also possible that anthropogenic climate change may have contributed to the increased
frequency of El Niño conditions since the 1970s. However, global warming-related changes in ENSO are still uncertain
(Cane 2005; Collins 2005), and it does not necessarily follow that a general warming of the Pacific associated with global
warming will lead to an El Niño-like decline in rainfall in Queensland. It is expected that ENSO will continue to be a cause
of year-to-year variability in rainfall.
Another question that has emerged is to what extent stratospheric ozone depletion has affected rainfall patterns in
Australia. Recent decades have seen the circumpolar westerlies in the Southern Hemisphere strengthen and the midlatitude westerlies weaken, a trend that has been attributed to Antarctic ozone depletion (Gillett and Thompson 2003; Cai
2006). The possible influences of these changes on Queensland rainfall are the subject of current research. Preliminary
results from global circulation model (CGM) simulations indicate, however, that the combined influence of stratospheric
ozone decreases and greenhouse gas increases may have contributed to rainfall deficits in eastern Queensland since the
1970s (Syktus 2005).
Queensland rainfall patterns will continue to be monitored and analysed in an attempt to gain a better understanding of
past and possible future changes. Understanding the decline in rainfall along the Australian east and south-east coasts
has been identified as the highest priority detection and attribution study for Australia (Nicholls 2007).
Why is it important?
Even if greenhouse emissions are drastically reduced climate change will continue into the next few decades at least. The
build-up and long life of these greenhouse gases in the atmosphere guarantees this. Furthermore, the climate is changing
at a faster rate than was previously anticipated. Climate change will impact on every aspect of life in SEQ—across
economic sectors, regional development, infrastructure, human health and lifestyle, and natural systems. Some examples
are listed below:
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
136

Agricultural industries are highly sensitive to climate change. Australia is projected to be one of the most adversely
affected regions from future changes in climate in terms of reductions in agricultural production and exports. Recent
drought conditions illustrate the effect that climate change could have on agricultural production.

Settlements in SEQ are sensitive to many of the impacts of climate-related change, especially increases in sea-level,
flooding, storm surges and tropical cyclones. Increases in extreme storm events are expected to cause more flash
flooding affecting industry and infrastructure services, including water, sewerage and stormwater, transport and
communications, and potentially emergency services.

One of the most significant health impacts of climate change is likely to be an increase in heat-related deaths.
Assuming no planned adaptation, the heat related deaths in major, temperate capitals (including Brisbane) are
projected to rise from 1115 per year at present to 2300–2500 per year in 2020 and 4300–6200 by 2050 for all SRES
scenarios (these data account for projected population changes and exclude the cold related deaths in Canberra)
including demographic change (McMichael et al. 2003). Heat related mortality for Brisbane by 2050 is estimated to
increase to between 800–1400 per year from a baseline of 134.

Climate reliant water supplies are likely to be increasingly stressed due to increasing demand and climate-driven
changes, such as higher evaporation reducing run-off to rivers and a possible decline in annual rainfall.

Climate change is also likely to have serious implications for nature conservation management, especially the
challenge of retaining species while managing fire, predators, introduced species, competitors and disease (Main
1988). Climate change may lead to changes in plant composition, species dominance and ecosystem structure, and
in species distribution and abundance. The communities most at risk are those in which options for adaptation are
limited (such as coastal ecosystems and isolated patches of remnant vegetation), and communities where climate
changes add to existing stresses (IPCC 1990).
The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (2007) assessed six
key ‘hot spots’ in Australia where vulnerability to climate change is likely to be high, assuming a medium emissions
scenario for 2050. One of these hot spots was SEQ where the risks to human settlements were of great concern. The
report notes that ongoing development is likely to exacerbate losses to built environment from rising sea level, storm
surges and flooding.
Most human settlements across Queensland are considered to have a significant capacity to adapt to the effects of
climate change, because most communities have well-developed economies and have access to technical capabilities,
disaster mitigation strategies, and biosecurity measures. However, the substantial economic losses caused by extreme
events such as droughts, floods, fires, tropical cyclones and hail demonstrate that our society is actually highly vulnerable
to climatic risks.
What does it mean for sustainability?
Climate change represents a major risk to the state and sustainability of our environmental assets. Loss of habitat,
biodiversity and resources are all impacts that will affect our environment due to the ‘locked in’ temperature increase
caused by greenhouse gas emissions. These impacts will be exacerbated without substantial cuts to greenhouse gas
emissions. Addressing the challenges presented by climate change is an essential part of ensuring a sustainable future.
Society’s response
Queensland’s vulnerability to climate change will be reduced by identifying and managing potential impacts. We need to
start to plan how we will adapt to the impacts of climate change now.
ClimateSmart Adaptation 2007–12: an action plan for managing the impacts of climate change, a major initiative in the
Queensland Government’s ClimateSmart 2050 strategy, was released in 2007. ClimateSmart Adaptation focuses on the
need to change or adapt as the climate changes. Under the plan, the Queensland Government will implement a wide
range of climate adaptation actions in a number of priority sectors, including water planning and services, agriculture,
human settlements, natural environment and landscapes, emergency services and human health, tourism, business and
industry, and finance and insurance. ClimateSmart Adaptation is being implemented by the Office of Climate Change.
The SEQ Regional Plan is currently being reviewed to have greater regard for the impacts of climate change on planning
decisions. Other adaptation actions by the Queensland Government include the Environmental Infrastructure Research
Program, which commenced in July 2006, to encourage the introduction of innovative technologies and infrastructure
solutions that provide greater value for money in terms of cost efficiencies and environmental and social impacts.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
137
Also, a $50 million Urban Water Security Research Alliance has been formed to address SEQ's emerging urban water
issues. This collaborative initiative has identified stormwater harvesting, aquifer storage and recovery, and evaporation
reduction as priority research areas.
Data
Figure 2.30: SEQ annual temperature anomalies (differences from the 1961–90 average)
Source: Bureau of Meteorology 2007
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
138
Table 2.11: Projected climate changes for Brisbane, 2030 and 2070 scenarios
2070
2070
2070
Variable
Season
2030
2030
2030
A1B
A1B
A1B
B1
B1
B1
50p
90p
10p
10p
50p
90p
Temperature
(°C)
No. days over
35°C
Rainfall (%)
Potential
evaporation
(%)
Wind-speed
(%)
2070
A1F1
10p
2070
A1F1
50p
2070
A1F1
90p
Annual
Summer
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Annual
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
1.5
1
0.9
0.9
1
1
2.0
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.5
2.5
1.1
1.1
1
1.1
1.1
2.1
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.6
1.7
3.0
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.5
4.6
2.1
2
1.9
2.1
2.1
4.0
3.1
3
3
3.1
3.2
7.6
4.4
4.4
4.3
4.3
4.8
20.6
Annual
Summer
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Annual
Summer
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Annual
Summer
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Annual
-12
-11
-14
-15
-17
+2
+2
+2
+2
+2
-1
-2
-3
-6
0
-1.1
-3
-1
-3
-6
-6
+3
+3
+4
+4
+3
+2
+2
+1
0
+5
-0.1
+5
+9
+10
+4
+6
+5
+5
+6
+6
+4
+6
+7
+5
+6
+12
+0.9
-18
-17
-23
-24
-28
+3
+3
+3
+4
+3
-1
-3
-4
-10
0
-1.9
-5
-1
-5
-10
-10
+6
+6
+6
+6
+5
+3
+4
+2
-1
+9
-0.1
+9
+15
+16
+6
+10
+8
+9
+10
+10
+7
+10
+11
+9
+10
+19
+1.5
-33
-31
-39
-42
-47
+7
+6
+6
+7
+5
-2
-5
-9
-20
0
-306
-9
-3
-9
-18
-18
+11
+11
+12
+12
+9
+6
+7
+3
-1
+17
-0.2
+17
+29
+31
+11
+18
+16
+17
+20
+19
+14
+19
+22
+18
+19
+37
+3.0
1.9
-2
0.4
3.1
-3.9
0.7
6
Relative
humidity (%)
-1.2
0.2
Solar radiation Annual
(%)
Source: Bureau of Meteorology 2007
Figure 2.31: Historical rainfall for SEQ. Bars represent annual rainfall. The red line represents a five-year running average
Source: Bureau of Meteorology 2007
Indicator author
Dr David Rayner, Office of Climate Change
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
139
Related indicators
Greenhouse gas emissions
Other data and links
Historical climate data for Australia are available from the Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology
<www.bom.gov.au/climate/>
Climate change projections for Australia are available from CSIRO <www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/>
References
Brohan, P.; Kennedy, J.J.; Harris, I.; Tett, S.F.B. & Jones, P.D. 2006. Uncertainty estimates in regional and global
observed temperature changes: a new dataset from 1850. J. Geophys. Res. 111:D12106.
Cai, W. 2006. Antarctic ozone depletion causes an intensification of the Southern Ocean super-gyre circulation.
Geophysical Research Letter: L03712.
Cane, M.A. 2005. The evolution of El Niño, past and future. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 230(3–4):227–240.
Collins, M. 2005. El Niño- or La Niña-like climate change?. Climate Dynamics 24:89–104.
Crimp, S. & Day, K. 2003. Evaluation of multi-decadal variability in rainfall for Queensland and other Australian rangeland
regions using indices of El Niño-Southern Oscillation and inter-decadal variability. Proceedings of the National Drought
Forum: Science for Drought 15–16 April, Brisbane. pp.106–15.
CSIRO 2007. Climate change in Australia Technical Report 2007. CSIRO, viewed 15 January 2008,
<www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/resources.php>
DNRW 2007. The South East Queensland Drought to 2007. Department of Natural Resources and Water, Brisbane,
viewed 15 January 2008, <www.climatechange.qld.gov.au/forecasts/pdfs/seq_drought_2007.pdf>.
Gillett, N.P. & Thompson, D.W.J. 2003. Simulation of recent Southern Hemisphere climate change. Science
302(5643):273–275.
Hegerl, G.C.; Zwiers, F.W.; Braconnot, P.; Gillett, N.P.; Luo, Y.; Marengo Orsini, J.A.; Nicholls, N.; Penner, J.E. & Stott,
P.A. 2007. Understanding and Attributing Climate Change. In: Solomon, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M.; Chen, A.; Marquis, M.;
Averyt, K.B.; Tignor, M. & Miller, H.L. (eds) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working
Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Hendon, H.H.; Thompson, D.W.J. & Wheeler, M.C. 2007, Australian rainfall and surface temperature variations
associated with the Southern Hemisphere annular mode. Journal of Climate 20(11):2452–2467.
IPCC 2007. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M.; Chen, A.;
Marquis, M.; Averyt, K.B.; Tignor, M. & Miller, H.L. (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Lenzen, M. 2001. The importance of goods and services consumption in household greenhouse gas calculators. Ambio
30(7):439–442.
Main, A.R. 1988. Climate change and its impact on nature conservation. In: Pearman, G.I. (ed). Greenhouse: Planning for
Climate Change. CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Research, Melbourne, pp.361–374.
McMichael, A.J.; Woodruff, R.E.; & Whetton, P. et al. 2003. Human health and climate change in Oceania: a risk
assessment. Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing, Canberra p116.
Nicholls 2007. Detecting, understanding and attributing climate change. Australian Greenhouse Office, Department of the
Environment and Water Resources, Canberra.
Rayner, D.; Wall, C.; Willcocks, J.; Barley, R. & Prior K. 2008. Climate and Greenhouse. In: Queensland State of the
Environment 2007, Queensland Government, Brisbane.
Syktus, J. 2005. Reasons for decline in eastern Australia’s rainfall. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
86(5):624.
South East Queensland State of the Region Technical Report 2008
140