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Prepared by : Mohammed Jarkash (instructor) Page 1 Shireen M. abedrabo (Instructor) Contents Chapter page 1. Preface ………………………………………………………………….. 4 2. Safety rules and regulation …………………………………….…… 5 3. The microscope …………………………………..………………….. 7 Exercise 1-1: Parts of compound light microscope……..... …… 8 Exercise 1-2: using a compound light microscope ………..…... 9 Exercise 1-3: other type of microscope …………………………. 11 Laboratory report…………………………………………………… 12 4. The cell Differentiation between animal and plant cel…………. 15 Exercise 2-1: prepare human cheek cells slide……………... ... 17 Exercise 2-2: prepare plant cells (onion) slide…………………. 17 Laboratory report …………………………………………………… 18 5. The cell (2)……………………….. …………………………………….. 20 6. BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES and cellular transport………………..25 Exercise 3-1:osmosis in plant cells ………………………………. Exercise 3-2: osmosis in animal cells …………………………….. Laboratory report ……………………………………………………. Page Introduction: epithelial tissues Exercise 4-1: simple squamous epithelium ……………………… Laboratory report 2 7. Human tissues ………………………………………………………… 29 8. Human tissues………..………………………………………………….36 Introduction: connective tissues …………………….………… Laboratory report... ……………………………………………. 9. Human tissues ……………………………………………………..…….43 Blood and Blood typing …….……………...……………………47 Cell division ……………………………………………………… 55 12. Vertebrate anatomy (digestive and respiratory system). ... 62 13. Exercise 8-1: mitosis in animal cells…………………………….. Exercise 8-2: mitosis in plant cells……………………………..... Exercise 8-3:meiosis in animal cells……………………………... Exercise 9-1: external anatomy of rabbit ………………..…….. Exercise 9-2:internal anatomy of rabbit Exercise 10-1: circulatory system…………………………………. Exercise 10-2: urogenital system………………………………….. Exercise 10-3: endocrine system………………………………….. References ………………………………………………… …….72 3 11. Exercise 7-1: blood type test …………………………………… Laboratory report ……………………………………………….… Page 10. Introduction: nervous tissues and muscular tissues…..……… Laboratory report ……………………………………………. Preface This laboratory manual is designed to target students of basic and applied biology. The topics cover the basic biology concepts that are usually taught in general biology 101. The objective of each exercise is designed to stress those concepts, bring them closer to the understanding of the students, and to provide them with the basic practical skills. These skills are needed in order to progress through the more advanced courses. The manual The manual includes: 1. 2. 3. 4. Objectives or desired outcomes. Introduction to provide background for understanding. Materials needed in experiments. Procedure which explain the transaction of the experiment and any safety regulation and warning. 5. The laboratory report should be the place for drawing tables, collecting data and asking. To the students Students are advised to read the objectives of the manual and the introductory text to each exercise before they start experimental work. This will expand their understanding for the experiment and how it is carried out. If any concept was not clear in the manual or in the introductory presentation of the instructor, we encourage students to discuss with their instructor the concept of the experiment before doing the work. Grading: 30 marks Page 4 1st midterm exam ………………………………..10 marks Final exam ……………………………………… 10 marks Reports ,Quizzes, and Activities ………………10marks Safety rules and regulations 1. Purchase a lab coat and safety glasses, bring them to class, and use them. 2. Eating, drinking, chewing gum, and smoking are totally forbidden and NOT allowed in the laboratory. 3. Only shoes that provide complete foot covering are allowed in the laboratory. Long hair should be pulled back. All students are required to wear lab coats at all times (you must provide them yourselves). 4. Use of rubber, latex, or disposable gloves will be required at the discretion of your TA. 5. Report all accidents/spills to your TA IMMEDIATELY! You will be required to go to the Student Health Center for any injury unless you refuse (minor injuries only). If you refuse, you will be required to sign a waiver on the Incident Report form filed by your TA. If you sustain an eye injury involving chemicals, you must flush immediately with water at the eyewash station for no less than 15 minutes and you must go to the Student Health Center. The On- Campus emergency phone number to call is x0-4321. 6. Biological waste must be disposed of properly in the Biohazard Waste Container. 7. Avoid breathing, tasting, or having skin contact with chemicals. Wash your hands periodically. 8. Always use a suction bulb or pipette aid. 10. No unauthorized experiments are to be performed in the laboratory. Never leave you experiment unattended, unless Page 5 authorized to do so. 11. Work areas should be initially cleaned with both Lysol and 70% ethanol before you begin the lab exercise. At the end of the labsession, clean your work area again with both Lysol and 70% ethanol, make sure it’s dry, and slide your chair under the table. If necessary, chemicals and reagents must be returned to their proper places. 12. You should always wash your hands before leaving the Page 6 laboratory. Good laboratory practices ensure a safe environment. Lab1: the Structure and Function Objective: 1. Practice carrying a microscope. 2. Identify the parts of compound and dissecting light microscope and explain their function. 3. Use a compound and dissecting light microscope to examine biological specimens. 4. Prepare a wet mount and determine the magnification of its parts. Introduction: Page 7 The light microscope is a major tool in teaching and research in some fields of biological science; like cytology, histology, microbiology embryology, anatomy of plants and animals. The unaided eye has a resolving power of about 0.1mm. This mean that our eyes cannot distinguish between two points which are less than 0.1 mm apart as separated points. For this reason, students in these sciences resort to light microscope to observe and examine microstructure, which is smaller than 0.1mm. This is due to the ability of the microscope to magnify objects up to 1000 times and improve resolution. In this connection, two points should be considered: 1. During handling of the microscope, it should be upside down. 2. The base should be held by the left hand, while the arm should be held by the right hand. Materials needed: Compound microscope, slides, cover slips, dissecting set, filter paper, dissecting microscope, distilled water, insect. Parts of a compound light microscope The microscope has 3 main parts: 1. Head: house of eyepiece, tube, hold objective lens, nose piece. 2. Arm: connect between head and base. ( hold the stage, iris diaphragm, coarse and fine knob) 3. Base: the bottom of microscope ( use for support) hold the illuminator ( source of light) (Fig.1-1) Exercise 1-1 Procedure: Page a. Ocular lens: the lens at the top that you look through. They are usually 10X power. b. Tube: Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses c. Arm : Supports the tube and connects it to the base d. Nosepiece: carries objective lens (the small, medium, high, and oil objective lenses) to rotate and change magnification power. e. Objective lens: Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope. 8 Study the mechanical system and observed the following parts. (Fig.1-1) f. g. h. i. j. They always consist of 4X, 10X, 40X and 100X powers. When coupled with a10X (most common) eyepiece lens, we get total magnifications of 40X (4X times 10X), 100X, 400X and 1000X. Stage: The flat platform where you place your slides Coarse adjustment knob: it moves the stage or the tube up and down for focusing under low magnification. Fine adjustment knob: for focusing under high magnification power and give more resolution Iris diaphragm : regulate the amount of light on the specimen Illuminator: projects light upward through the diaphragm, specimen and lenses. Exercise 1-2: Using a compound light microscope A. Preparation of a wet mount Some specimens are prepared on microscope slides by making a wet preparation. This is done by using a piece of paper containing the letter “e” and by following these steps Procedure: 1. Clean a microscope slide and cover slip very well. Also, clean the lenses of your microscope by using a lens paper. 2. Using razor blade, cut around any letter “e” from a small piece transfer the letter “e” onto the center of the slide and then add a drop of water. (fig.2-1) 3. Hold a clean cover slip and place it edge adjacent to the drop of water, at an angel of 45 (fig.2-1) 4. With a teasing needle or forceps, lower the cover slip gently so that it covers the piece of paper. Avoid having air bubble in your preparation. If present it appears as circles with dark edge. B. Focusing the image of the wet amount preparation Procedure: Place the wet mount preparation you have prepared on the stage of your microscope and clip it well. Make sure that the letter “e” is over the center of the hole in the stage. 2. Plug in your microscope to the power outlet on your bench, and turn on the light source 3. Rotate the nosepiece so that the 4X objective lens is in upright position. Page Make it habit: always starts your microscope study with the 4X objective lens 9 1. 4. Rotate the coarse adjustment knob clockwise so that the distance between the lens and the slide is 5-10mm. never use the coarse knob when you view a specimen with 40X objective lens. Explain why not? 5. Look through ocular lenses with both eyes to see letter “e” if you don’t see it, move the slide lies over the center of the hole of the stage. 6. Move fine adjustment knob up and down to sharp focus 7. Adjust iris diaphragm to have proper brightness and get the best view. 8. Calculate the total of magnification of letter “e” by applying this formula: Total magnification =magnification of objective lens X magnification of ocular lens Page 10 (Fig.1-2) Magnification of ocular lens Magnification of objective lens Total magnification 10X 4X 40X 10X 10X 100X 10X 40X 400X 10X 100X 1000X Exercise 1-3: Other type of microscope The dissecting microscope The transmission microscope (Fig.3-1) Page 11 (Fig.4-1) The microscope laboratory report Name: …………………………. Lab section: …………… Lab instructor: ……….................. Date: …………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Page 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 12 1. Label the parts of the microscope shown in the following figure, and give the function of each. 2. Draw the letter “e” under the following magnification power: X40 Page 13 100 Lab2 Differentiation between animal and plant cells Objectives: by the end of this exercise you should be able to: 1. View prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells using a microscope. 2. Identify plant and animal cell organelles and describe their function. Recognize the common feature of cells. Introduction: Page 14 1. Every living organism is made up of one or more cells. 2. The smallest living organisms are single cells, and cells are the functional units of multicellular organism. 3. All cells arise by division of pre-existing cells. 4. All cell have the following in common: plasma membrane, nucleous, cytoplasm. 5. There are two different types of cells : prokaryotic (bacteria, archea) And eukaryotic (ex. Protist, Plant and animal cell). The most important differences between animal and plant cells are Animal Cells: Figure 2.2: Animal cell * don't have chloroplast * no cell wall (only cell membrane) * one small vacuole * Either circular, irregular or defined shapes depending on the type of cell Figure 2.2: Animal cell Page a scrape) 4. Transfer the material adhering to the toothpick to the glass slide by lightly rubbing the toothpick onto the methylene blue solution on the slide. 5. Cover slide and examine it under the microscope. 6. Drawing of the slide under high power and label it. Compare with (fig.3-2). 15 Exercise (2-1): prepare (human cheek cell) Procedure: 1. Get a flat- edge toothpick and a clean glass slide. 2. Put one drop of methylene blue on your slide. 3. Rub the inside of your cheek lightly with the toothpick( you don’t have Plant Cells: Figure 2.3: plant cell Page 16 * have chloroplasts and use photosynthesis to produce food * have cell wall made of cellulose OBVIOUSLY DISTINGUISHED * one very large vacuole in the center * are rectangular in shape Exercise (2-2): prepare plant cells slide (onion cells) Procedure: Get a clean slide. Place a drop of water on the slide. Take a piece of onion and fold it so it doesn’t completely break. Take thin layer of the tissue. Place the layer of tissue on a slide over the drop of water and then add a small drop of iodine solution to the slide. Place a cover slip on the slide by slowly lowering it over the sample to avoid creating air bubbles. (If necessary refer to figure 1-2, preparation of wet mount). 5. Place the slide on the microscope and draw of the slide label the following structure: cytoplasm, cell wall, vacuole, and nucleus. Page 17 1. 2. 3. 4. The Cells laboratory report LAB REPORT: Sample :------------------------------- Classification: An example of --------------------------Stain Used: ----------------------------Magnification power -----------------------Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ X400 Sample :------------------------------- Classification: An example of --------------- Stain used: ---------------------------Main Features: 1. ------------------------------ Magnification power ------------------------ 2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Page 18 X100 Lab3 Types of cells Objective To know and recognize types of cells. To know How to find a good field to study and draw. To know what the differences multicellular and unicellular organisms. To know how to use oil immersion lens. Types of cells. A cell type is a classification used to distinguish between morphologically or phenotypically distinct cell forms within a species. multicellular Page as muscle cells and skin cells in humans. 19 organism may contain a number of widely differing and specialized cell types, such Multicellular VS Unicellular organisms Multicellular Organisms All higher multicellular organisms contain cells specialized for different functions. Most distinct cell types arise from a single totipotent cell that differentiates into hundreds of different cell types during the course of development. Figure 3.1: algae (Volvox) Examples of multicellular organisms: Human beings, animals, plants, some species of fungi. Algae Unicellular Organisms Due to the presence of only one cell in them, unicellular organisms are much smaller in size and are very simple in structure. protozoa (paramecium) Most unicellular organisms are so small and microscopic in nature,Figure that3.2:they are almost invisible to the naked human eyes. They do not have internal organs as well, and this means that the membranes which are organic coats around the organs are also absent. Examples of unicellular organisms: All forms of bacteria, amoeba, yeast and protozoa Figure 3.2: algae Eukaryotes VS Prokaryotes Figure 3.3 Prokaryotic cells (Figure 3.4) shapes of bacteria) they called prokaryotes because they haven’t nucleus. They lacks the nuclear envelope so there is no nucleus Have simple enzyme system lack most of the cellular organelles like mitochondria. Reproduce by binary fission (simple dividing process) Page 20 They characterized by: - Found in bacteria and archea only Eukaryotic cells Have nuclear envelope and cellular organelles. Have nucleolus. Have complex enzyme system. Reproduce by simple and complex processes. All the living cells are eukaryotic cells except that of bacteria. Figure 3.3 Adjustments for oil immersion objective lens Without changing the adjustment of high powerX400, turn to oil immersion objective. One drop of oil is added into on the slide. The nose piece is turned such that the oil Page 21 immersion objective touches on the drop of oil. Open the iris diaphragm completely. LAB REPORT: Sample : Bacteria Stain used: Gram Stain Main Features: 1. ------------------------------ Classification: An example of Unicellular/prokaryote Magnification power X1000 2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Sample : Bacteria Stain used: Gram Stain Main Features: 1. ------------------------------ Classification: An example of Unicellular/prokaryote Magnification power X1000 2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Sample : Penicillium Classification: Fungi /Eukaryote/multicellular Stain used: ---------------------------Magnification power Main features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Page Classification: An example of ---------------------Stain used: ---------------------------Magnification power Main features: 1------------------------------ 22 Sample :------------------------------- Sample :------------------------------------Stain used: ---------------------------Main Features: 1. ------------------------------ Classification: An example of -------------------Magnification power ------------------------ 2. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------------Stain used: ---------------------------Main Features: 1. ------------------------------ Classification: An example of -------------------Magnification power ------------------------ 2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------------Stain used: ---------------------------Main Features: 1. ------------------------------ Classification: An example of -------------------Magnification power ------------------------ 2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ 2. ------------------------------ Classification: An example of -------------------Magnification power ------------------------ 23 Stain used: ---------------------------Main Features: 1. ------------------------------ Page Sample :------------------------------- Lab 4: BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES and cellular transport Cell Transport The purpose of cell transport is to maintain homeostasis. The different kinds of cell transport are divided into two categories: those that require energy and those that do not. Objective To study the changes of environment on cells. To find a good field to study and draw. To know what the differences osmosis and diffusion. To know how to make blood smear. To recognize between cell wall and cell membrane in plant cells. Passive transport does not require energy. There are three kinds of passive transport. In diffusion substances move from high concentrations to low concentrations. concentrations via carrier proteins. Finally, in osmosis water moves from high concentrations (of water) to low concentrations. 24 In facilitated diffusion substances move from high concentrations to low Page Active transport requires energy and usually moves substances from low concentrations to high concentrations against the concentration gradient. Endocytosis, a form of active transport, the cell engulfs material. In exocytosis, the cell expels material. Osmosis: It is the passive flow of water across the selective permeable membrane from low concentration to high concentration. Osmotic pressure gradient: Figure 4.2 It is created by the presence of different concentrations of solute in the solution on either side of the membrane. This pressure cause the water to move by osmosis ●Living cells are normally founded in aqueous environments so water will enter or exits from these cells according to the concentration. 1.Hypotonic solution (low concentration) causes water to flow in to the cell making it swell. 2.Hypertonic solution (high concentration) causes water to flow out of the cell making it shrink. Page 25 3.Isotonic solution (equal concentration) keeping the cell normal. Materials: Onion (plant cells), blood ( animal cells),( hypotonic , hypertonic, isotonic solution),blank slide ,methylene blue, dropper , distilled water, filter paper, coverslip, microscope Procedure: Osmosis in plant cells 1. Prepare wet amount slides of the onion tissue ( 3 slide ) 2. drop sufficient of stained salt solutions( hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic) on samples. 3. placing cover slip on the slide. 4. Observe the effect of the saline(salt) solution on the onion cells 5. Drawing of the cells in your report Preparation of blood smears Figure 4.3 1 1. Select the finger to puncture, usually the middle or ring finger.. 2. Clean the area to be punctured with 70% alcohol; allow to dry. 3. Puncture the ball of the finger, or in infants puncture the heel. 4. Wipe away the first drop of blood with clean gauze. 2 5. Touch the next drop of blood with a clean slide. Repeat with several Slides if needed. Note :If blood does not well up, gently squeeze the finger. 6. Bring a clean spreader slide, held at a 45° angle, toward the drop 3 of blood on the specimen slide. 7. Wait until the blood spreads along the entire width of the spreader slide. 4 8. While holding the spreader slide at the same angle, push it Page 5 26 forward rapidly and smoothly. Osmosis in animal cells 1. Prepare blood smear ( 3 slide ) 2. drop sufficient amount of salt solutions( hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic) on samples. 3. Observe the effect of the saline(salt) solution on the onion cells LAB REPORT : Sample :------------------------------- Magnification power------------------------ Stain Used: ---------------------------- Case#1 --------------------------Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. ------------------------------ Case#2--------------------------Main Features: Page 2. ------------------------------ 27 1. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------Stain Used: ---------------------------- Magnification power ------------------------ Case#1 --------------------------Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. ------------------------------ Case#2--------------------------Main Features: 1. ------------------------------ Page 28 2. ------------------------------ Lab 5 Epithelial tissues Cover all body surfaces, line most internal surfaces of passageways or tubes, and are the major tissues of glands. Because epithelium covers organs, forms the inner lining of body cavities, and lines hollow organs, it always has a free surface-one that is exposed to the outside or to an open space internally. The underside of this tissue is always anchored to connective tissue by a thin, noncellular layer called the basement membrane. As a rule, epithelial tissues lack blood vessels; however, substances diffuse from underlying capillaries in connective tissues to nourish epithelial cells. Connective tissue is usually well supplied with blood vessels. 1. OBJECTIVES: 1. Be able to classify epithelial tissues. 2. Know the structure and function of junctions. 3. Know the structure of apical specializations and their functions. Page 29 4. Be able to correlate different types of epithelia to their functions. Epithelial tissue is classified by the number of cell layers and cell shape. There are three major types of epithelium based on the number of cell layers in each type: 1. Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells, with each cell extending from the basement membrane to the free surface. 2. Stratified epithelium consists of more than one layer of cells, only one of which is adjacent to the basement membrane. 3. Pseudostratified epithelium called pseudostratified because, although it consists of a single cell layer, it appears multilayered. The arrangement of the nuclei gives a stratified appearance. There are three types of epithelium based on the epithelial cell shapes: 1. Squamous (flat) cells are flat or scalelike, and frequently look like floor tiles. 2. Cuboidal (cubelike) cells are cube-shaped, and are about as wide as they are tall. Page 30 3. Columnar (tall and thin, similar to a column) cells are taller than they are wide. 1-Simple squamous epithelium is composed of a single layer of flattened cells each with a somewhat flattened nucleus Locations: alveoli of the lungs; walls of blood capillaries; mesothelium Function: diffusion; some secretion Key Features: single layer of flat cells with flat nucleus; little matrix, free surface 2-Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer of cells squarish in profile. The nucleus of each cell is round and centrally located. Locations: bronchioles; kidney tubules; thyroid and other gland 3-Simple columnar epithelium is composed of a single layer of tall, thin cells. The nuclei are usually elongated and located in the basal one-third of the cell. Simple columnar epithelium frequently contain mucus-secreting goblet cells. Locations: the stomach, intestines, and the uterus Functions: secretion and absorption Key Features: single layer of columnar cells; nuclei in a Page 31 somewhat linear arrangement; may have goblet cells; little matrix 4- Pseudostratified columnar epithelium appears stratified because the nuclei are staggered and appear at many levels. However, it is categorized as simple because every cell contacts the basement membrane. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium frequently contains goblet cells and cilia. Location: the lining of the respiratory passages Function: secretion Key Features: staggered nuclei; may have goblet cells and cilia; little matrix 5-Stratified squamous epithelium consists of multiple layers of cells with the surface cells flattened (squamous) and the deeper cells cuboidal. Some stratified squamous epithelium are keratinized, meaning that the surface cells have died and are anucleated after secreting the protein keratin. Locations: the epidermis, the oral cavity, and the anal canal Function: protection against abrasion Key Features: flattened, anucleated cells near free surface; little matrix 6-Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists of two or more layers of cuboidal cells. Locations: limited, but can be found lining ovarian follicles and the lining of some ducts and glands Functions: lining of ducts Page cells 32 Key Features: cuboidal cells near free surface; usually two layers of 7-Stratified columnar epithelium consists of two or more layers of cells, typically with columnar surface cells resting upon cuboidal basal cells. Location: limited, and includes small portions of the pharynx and larynx Functions: a transitional zone between stratified squamous epithelium and simple columnar epithelium or pseudostratified epithelium 8- Transitional epithelium consists of two or more layers of cells with the basal cells being mostly cuboidal and surface cells varying from flattened to dome-shaped depending on the distension of the organ. Occasionally binucleated cells are observed near the surface. Locations: limited to structures of the urinary system - ureters, urinary bladder and the urethra Functions: allows for distension as an organ fills with fluid Page 33 Key Features: domed cells near free surface, binucleated cells Lab report Sample :------------------------------- Classification: An example of ------------------------ Location : ---------------------------- Magnification power ------------------------ Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------- Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------ Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------- Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------ Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. ------------------------------ Page 34 3. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------- Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------ Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------- Classification: An example of ------------------------ --Location: ---------------------------- Magnification power ------------------------ Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------- Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------ Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. ------------------------------ Page 35 3. ------------------------------ lab6 Connective Tissue Connective Tissue bind structures together, provide support and protection, serve as frameworks, fill spaces, store fat, produce blood cells, protect against infections, and help repair tissue damage. Connective tissue cells are usually spaced farther apart than epithelial cells, and they have an abundance of intercellular material, or matrix, between them. This matrix consists of fibers and a ground substance whose consistency varies from fluid (blood) to semisolid (cartilage) to Page 36 solid (bone). 2. OBJECTIVES 1. Be able to describe the functions of cells commonly found in connective tissue and identify them. 2. Be able to recognize different types of connective tissue (e.g., dense irregular, dense regular, loose, adipose) and provide examples where they are found in the body. 3. Be able to recognize a basement membrane (or basal lamina) in sections or micrographs where the structure is conspicuously present and understand its functions. Connective tissue cells are usually able to divide and replace themselves. In most cases, they have good blood supplies and are well nourished. Some connective tissues, such as bone and cartilage, are quite rigid. Loose fibrous connective tissue, adipose tissue, and dense fibrous connective tissue are more flexible. Fibroconnective tissue, or fibrous connect tissue, is a tissue type that consists of cells and a matrix that is predominately protein fibers. Cell types include: Fibroblasts: most common cell; cell that produces the matrix. Histiocytes: macrophage of fibroconnective tissue. Leukocytes: white blood cells. Plasma cells: cells that produce antibodies. Mast cells: cells that produce the anticoagulant heparin and histamine, Adipocytes: fat cells; cells that store triglycerides. Page inflammation. 37 a substance that promotes Fiber types include: Collagenous fibers: strong and flexible fibers that appear as wavy bundles in tissue sections. Reticular fibers: thin collagen fibers coated with a glycoprotein. They tend to branch extensively forming delicate networks. Elastic fibers: consist of the protein elastin, which allows for stretching and recoiling. Ground substance: the tissue fluid, minerals, and proteoglycans located between the cells and fibers of connective tissue. Types of connective tissue 1- Areolar connective tissue consists of a loose arrangement of fibers. It contains all of the cell types mentioned, as well as all three fiber types. Areolar also has an abundance of ground substance, which appears white in tissue preparations. Locations: multiple locations including beneath epithelium and mesenteries Functions: provides nutrients and support to other tissue types; immune functions Key Features: loose appearance, multiple fiber and cell types 2- Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, which store fat droplets. The nucleus of the adipocyte is located adjacent to the plasma membrane. Locations: subcutaneous region, bone marrow, and mesenteries Functions: lipid storage; thermoregulation; protection Page minimal matrix; capillaries may be present 38 Key Features: cells with nuclei "pushed to the side"; 3- Reticular connective tissue consists of branching fibers and fibroblasts. Locations: stoma of spleen, liver, lymph nodes and thymus Function: support Key Features: "network" appearance; fibroblasts and branching reticular fibers 4- Dense (fibrous) regular connective tissue consists of closely packed parallel collagen fibers and fibroblasts interspersed between the fibers. Locations: tendons; ligaments Function: strong support Key Features: one fiber type in parallel arrangement; thin fibroblasts; minimal ground substance 5- Dense (fibrous) irregular connective tissue is similar to the dense regular connective tissue except that the collagen fibers do not exhibit a consistent pattern. Locations: dermis; sheaths around bones, nerves and cartilages Function: strong support Key Features: thick bundles of fibers with no pattern, minimal Page 39 ground substance 6- Cartilage There are three types of cartilage: (a) hyaline cartilage, (b) fibrocartilage, and (c) elastic cartilage. Cartilage is a connective tissue that consists of chondrocytes trapped in cavities called lacunae and surrounded by extracellular matrix consisting of collagen fibers. The different types of cartilages are classified based on differences in the fibers. Cartilage is avascular; it is frequently surrounded by a layer of dense connective tissue called a perichondrium. 7-Compact bone tissue is dense calcified tissue with no spaces visible to the naked eye. The structural unit of compact bone is an osteon. An osteon consists of osteocytes within lacunae embedded within a matrix arranged in concentric cylinders. At the center of each osteon is a central or Haversian canal. Locations: outer surface and shaft of bone Page 40 Function: support LAB REPORT Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------- Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------ Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------- Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------ Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------- Classification: An example of ------------------------ --Location: ---------------------------- Magnification power ------------------------ Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. ------------------------------ Page 41 3. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------- Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------ Main features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------- Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------ Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------- Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------ Main Features: Page 42 1. ------------------------------ Lab 7 Muscular and nervous Tissues Objective: Identify the subtype of nervous and muscular tissues. Identify the function of each tissue. 43 Define the following terms: neuron, cell body, axon, dendrites, and intercalated disc. Page Nervous tissues: Nervous tissues are found in the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and reach all organs. These tissues consist of neurons which are specialized in transmitting impulses. A neuron consists of cell body which contains a nucleus and surrounding cytoplasm. There are large numbers of mitochondria. A neuron has two types of process: axon which is long and carries impulses away from the cell body, and dendrites which are short and carry impulses toward the cell body. Fig.6-1: structure of neuron Muscle tissue: B B, in cross section Page A Fig.6-2: skeletal muscle: A, in longitudinal section; 44 Muscle tissue has the ability to contract. Contraction of muscle tissues is a product of interaction between two muscle proteins actin and myosin. Are divided into three types: skeletal, smooth and cardiac. a. Skeletal muscle: i. attaches to bone, skin or fascia ii. Striated ( striped appearance ) with light & dark bands appearance under microscope iii. Voluntary movement control of contraction & relaxation b. Smooth muscle: i. Named because it lacks striation. ii. It found in the wall of the digestive tract, urinary bladder, arteries and internal organs. iii. None striated in appearance. iv. Involuntary Fig.6-3: smooth muscle Page Fig 6-3: cardiac muscle appear in longitudinal section 45 c. Cardiac muscle: i. Forms the contractile wall of the heart. ii. striated in appearance iii. involuntary control iv. The ends of the cells are joined by structure called intercalated disc. REPORT Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Magnification power ------------------------ Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Magnification power ------------------------ Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Magnification power ------------------------ Sample :------------------------------- 46 Magnification power ------------------------ Page Location: ---------------------------Main Features: COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION OF THE BLOOD Blood is not an epithelial tissue, and it’s not loose or dense connective tissue; it’s classified as a “special connective tissue”. You have about 5 liters of blood, but that is only half of the body fluid. The other half includes fluid around each cell, and joint fluids, etc. Blood 2. Heart 3. Blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, veins) 4. Lymph and lymph vessels Page 1. 47 COMPONENTS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM FUNCTIONS: 1. Transports oxygen and nutrients to cells 2. Removes carbon dioxide and wastes from cells 3. Immunity (protects from disease) 4. Temperature regulation (cold, constricts; hot, dilates) 5. Helps prevent loss of blood by clotting 6. Transports hormones 7. Erection of the penis Blood consists of the following: A. Plasma B. Red blood cells C. White blood cells D. Platelets a. PLASMA Plasma is what the blood cells float around in. If you spin a blood sample in a test tube, the red blood cells sink to the bottom, and you’ll see the yellow plasma on top. Some people who need blood just need the packed RBCs, others need the plasma, and some need whole blood, which is both plasma and RBCs. b. RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES) a doughnut with the hole not fully cut out. Page body. There are about 5 million of them in each of us. Their structure is simple; like 48 These are small red biconcave discs. They are among the smallest cells in the a. They have no nucleus b. Filled with a red pigment called hemoglobin, which carries O2 throughout the body. Oxygenated Hb is bright red, deoxy Hb is dull red. Blood in the veins only looks blue because you are seeing the dull red color through a yellow fat layer in the skin and subdermal tissue. c. average life span is 120 days. They are made in the red bone marrow, and the old ones are destroyed in the spleen and liver, and Hb is recycled. During your lifetime, about 250 billion of these cells are destroyed, and 250 billion are made. c. WHITE BLOOD CELLS (LEUKOCYTES) There are different kinds; all fight infection. They seep out of the blood vessels whenever they sense bacteria nearby. d. PLATELETS When a platelet encounters a broken blood vessel it releases a substance that clots blood. Platelets are responsible for clot formation. HEMOPHILIA is a hereditary disease of males, where they are unable to clot properly. When they get even a slight bump or bruise they have to have an intravenous infusion of clotting factors or they will bleed to death. This is probably the disease that was in the genes of Henry VIII, which caused all of his male children to become weak and die in infancy. BONE MARROW Most blood cells mature in the red bone marrow. When they are mature, they are released into the bloodstream. When they are old, they are destroyed in the Page 49 spleen. ANEMIA: If the body makes too few erythrocytes. a. Causes of anemia include lack of iron, lack of hemoglobin, hemorrhage, lack of vitamin B12 (needed for cell division). b. Characteristic sign of anemia: pale skin and fatigue. LEUKEMIA: Cancer of the blood is called leukemia. It actually only involves the white blood cells. Something goes wrong in one stem cell, and it starts making huge amounts of clones of itself which don’t work right and not enough normal white blood cells are made. Therefore, the body cannot fight infection. There are many types of Page 50 leukemias. Lab 8 BLOOD TYPING A - BLOOD GROUPS – THE ABO SYSTEM Blood typing is the technique for determining which specific protein type is present on RBCs. In the human ABO blood group system, there are four main blood groups - A, B, AB and O. An individual’s blood group is determined by the type of antigen expressed on the surface membrane of their erythrocytes (red blood cells). Antigens are glycoproteins Page types of antigen - “A” antigen and “B” antigen. 51 that are recognized by the body's immune system. In the ABO system there are just two 3. objective 1. To provide basic information of the types of donors. 2. Criteria for donor selection 3. To understand the basic concept of Blood Grouping Only certain types of blood transfusions are safe because the outer membranes of the red blood cells carry certain types of proteins that another person’s body will think is a foreign body and reject it. These proteins are called antigens (something that causes an allergic A person with Type A antigens on their blood cells have Type A blood. A person with Type B antigens have Type B blood. A person with both types has type AB blood. A person with neither antigen has type O blood. Page 52 reaction). There are two types of blood antigens: Type A and Type B. If a person with type A blood gets a transfusion of type B antigens (from Type B or Type AB, the donated blood will clump in masses (coagulation), and the person will die. The same is true for a type B person getting type A or AB blood. Type O blood is called the universal donor, because there are no antigens, so that blood can be donated to anyone. Type AB blood is considered the universal acceptor, because they can use any other type of blood. This blood type is fairly rare. 2. RH FACTOR There is another term that follows the blood type. The term is “positive” or “negative”. This refers to the presence of another type of protein, called the Rh factor. A person with type B blood and has the Rh factor is called A-positive. A person with type B blood and no Rh factor is called B-negative. The reason this is so important is that if an Rh- mother has an Rh+ fetus in her womb (from an Rh+ father), her antibodies will attack the red blood cells of the fetus because her body detects the Rh protein on the baby’s red blood cells and thinks they Rh+, because that means the baby has a 50% chance of being Rh+ like the father. Therefore, anytime a mother is Rh-, they will ask if the father is Rh-. If so, they will Page This can be prevented if the doctor knows the mother is Rh- and the father is 53 are foreign objects. This is called Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN). give her an injection of a medicine that will prevent her immune system from attacking the baby. MATERIAL AND PROCEDURES The test to determine your blood group is called ABO typing. Your blood sample is mixed with antibodies against type A and B blood, and the sample is checked to see whether or not the blood cells stick together (agglutinate). If blood cells stick together, it means the blood reacted with one of the antibodies. Blood typing is also done to tell whether or not you have a substance called Rh factor on the surface of your red blood cells. If you have this substance, you are considered Rh+ (positive). Those without it are considered Rh- (negative). Rh typing uses a method similar to ABO typing. LAB REPORT Test your partner’s blood then write the type of blood in the results: (+ = agglutination, - = no agglutination) Anti A Anti B Anti D RESULT: Page 54 Blood group of subject (partner) is:----------- LAB 9 Mitosis & Meiosis 1. Objectives 1. Recognize and distinguish the various stages of mitosis and meiosis. 2. Understand the changes in DNA content and chromosome number as cells Page 55 progress through the cell-cycle and mitosis. All living organisms need to produce new cells. They can only do this by division of pre-existing cells. Cell division in prokaryotic cells is called binary fission and it is used for asexual reproduction. It involves the replication of the single circular chromosome. The two copies of the chromosome move to opposite ends of the cell. Division of the cytoplasm to form two cells quickly follows. This process is called cytokinesis. In eukaryotic cells, division of the nucleus to form two genetically identical nuclei is termed mitosis. DNA replication before mitosis converts all of the chromosomes from a single DNA molecule into two identical DNA molecules, called chromatids. During mitosis, one of these chromatids passes to each daughter nucleus. The daughter nuclei are therefore genetically identical to each other and to the original parent nucleus. Mitosis occurs before the cytoplasm is split by cytokinesis, so the two daughter cells can therefore each receive one of the nuclei. MITOSIS Mitosis means the division of the cell into two daughter cells that have the same number of chromosomes of the parent cell. ●The amount of DNA is replicated before the cell divides. This duplicated amount of DNA on the chromosomes will be distributed equally to the new daughter (diploid 2N). ●By this process the cell conserves the amount of DNA in every division so conserve the genetic traits from generation to generation. Page 56 Stages of mitosis: Prophase: ●The chromosomes become thicker and shorter ●The chromosomes attached to the microtubules ●The nucleus disappear Metaphase: ●The chromosomes arrange in the middle of the cell ●The call has the shape of spindle Anaphase: ●The microtubules begin shortening pulling the chromatids (each chromosome consist of 2 chromatids) to the poles of the cell. Telophase: ●The cytokinesis begin ●The nucleus formed again Page 57 ●The microtubules disappear MEIOSIS Occurs in the formation of gametes in organisms which reproduce sexually. Sexual reproduction is a process of genetic reassortment producing variation. Most is produced by meiosis. Meiosis results in halving the number of chromosomes in a cell, i.e. meiosis is reduction division. Meiosis precedes the formation of the male and female gametes. The gametes therefore contain half the number of chromosomes (haploid or N number), in man this is 23. Two successive divisions. 1. Meiosis I PROPHASE I: Early - chromosomes become apparent Mid - chromosomes come together in homologous pairs (bivalents) Late - Chromatids become apparent. Bivalent pairs coil around each other. Touch at certain points - called Chiasmata. By the end, the nuclear membrane and nucleoli have disappeared. The spindle has formed by the centrosome which divided at interphase. METAPHASE I Bivalents arrange themselves on the equator of the cell and become attached by their centromeres. ANAPHASE I Page them to opposite poles of the cell. 58 Shortening of the spindle drags the homologous chromosomes of each bivalent apart, pulling TELOPHASE I Two groups of chromosomes come together at opposite poles. Each group becomes surrounded by a new nuclear membrane. Chromosomes uncoil, nucleoli reappear. Cleavage of the cytoplasm occurs in as mitosis. Daughter cells usually go into a short resting stage (interphase) or may proceed directly into meiosis II. 2-Meiosis II The same as mitosis. RESULT Four cells each with the haploid number chromosomes. Male - all four will develop into male gametes. Female - usually only one develops into female gamete. Produces gametes with varied Page 59 combination of genes by: Lab Report Sample : Magnification power ------------ Used stain: Phase #1 --------------------------Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Phase #2 --------------------------Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Phase #3 --------------------------Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Phase #4 --------------------------Main Features: 1. ------------------------------ Page 3. ------------------------------ 60 2. ------------------------------ Sample : Phase #1 --------------------------Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Phase #2 --------------------------Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Phase #3 --------------------------Main Features: 1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------ Phase #4 --------------------------Main Features: Page 2. ------------------------------ 61 1. ------------------------------ Dissection of the Rabbit Lab 10 Dissection of the Rabbit The Rabbit is a vertebrate, which means that many aspects of its structural organization are common with all other vertebrate, including man. The similarity of structures among related organisms shows evidence of common ancestry. In a way, studying the Rabbit is like studying a human. As the Page equivalent structure in your own body - what is the structure and where is it located. 62 leading theme of this lab, ask yourself: for every structure observed in the Rabbit, there is an As the second leading theme, pay particular attention to the relationships among organs and groups of organs. Structural parts are not "just there" in random locations. Their specific layout within the body contributes to making certain functions possible. Therefore, for every structure seen, you should determine the following: What organ system it belongs to How it is connected with other components Its general function Its specific function (if applicable) Dissection Dissecting tools will be used to open the body cavity of the Rabbit and observe the structures. Keep in mind that dissecting does not mean "to cut up"; in fact, it means "to expose to view". Careful dissecting techniques will be needed to observe all the structures and their connections to other structures. You will not need to use a scalpel. Contrary to popular belief, a scalpel is not the best tool for dissection. Scissors serve better because the point of the scissors can be pointed upwards to prevent damaging organs underneath. Always raise structures to be cut with your forceps before cutting, so that you can see exactly what is underneath and where the incision should be made. Never cut more than is absolutely necessary to expose a part. Part One: External Anatomy 1. Obtain your rabbit and observe the general characteristics. Key six anatomical regions: Page The rabbit’s body is divided into 63 terms are underlined. i. Cranial region – head ii. Cervical region – neck iii. Pectoral region – area where front legs attach iv. Thoracic region – chest area v. Abdomen – belly vi. Pelvic region – area where the back legs attach 2. Note the hairy coat that covers the rabbit and the sensory hairs (whiskers) located on the rabbit’s face, called vibrissae. 3. The mouth has a large cleft in the upper lip which exposes large front incisors. Rabbits are gnawing mammals, and these incisors will continue to grow for as long as the rabbit lives. 4. Note the eyes with the large pupil and the nictitating membrane found at the inside corner of the eye. This membrane can be drawn across the eye for protection. The eyelids are similar to those found in humans. 5. The ears are composed of the external part, called the pinna, and the auditory meatus, the ear canal. 8. Locate the anus, which is ventral to the base of the tail. 9. Determine whether your rabbit is male or female by looking near the tail for the male or female genital organs. Part Two: Respiratory System The respiratory is responsible for the exchange of gases. The rabbit must take in oxygen for respiratory processes and must rid itself Page 1. You will carefully remove the skin and muscles of the rabbit to expose the organs beneath. 64 of carbon dioxide waste. Use scissors to cut through the abdominal wall of the rabbit following the incision marks as shown in Figure 2. Cut slowly and carefully; do not cut too deeply to prevent damaging the underlying structures. Keep the tip of your dissection tool pointed upwards. Note: when you cut through the thoracic cavity, you will encounter bone. 3. Once the incisions have been made, pin both skin flaps to the side of the rabbit. 4. Locate the trachea. The trachea is a tube that extends from the neck to the chest. It is white and lined with cartilage. The opening of the trachea is the glottis. The enlargement at the anterior end of the trachea is the larynx (voice box) which contains the vocal chords. 5. The trachea splits in the chest cavity into two bronchi. Each of these air tubes extends into the lungs and splits into smaller tubes called bronchioles. Using this information, locate the two lungs which lie on either side of the heart. 6. Locate the thin muscular diaphragm just above the liver. This muscle is responsible for drawing air into the chest cavity. Part Three: Digestive System 1. Locate the large, reddish-brown organ called the liver which occupies much of the abdominal space. It is just under the diaphragm. The liver has many functions, one of which is to produce bile which aids in the digestion of fats. The liver also stores glycogen and transforms wastes into less harmful substances. Rabbits do not have a gall bladder (which is used for bile storing in other animals). Note: You may choose to use Figure 2 to help identify the organs that make up the digestive the stomach. It is distinguished from the trachea by its lack of cartilage rings. Page 2. Locate the esophagus which runs through the diaphragm and moves food from the mouth to 65 system. 3. Locate the stomach on the right side just under the liver. The function of the stomach includes food storage, physical breakdown of food, and the digestion of protein. The opening between the esophagus and the stomach is called the cardiac sphincter. The outer margin of the curved stomach is called the greater curvature; the inner margin is called the lesser curvature. 4. Locate the spleen which is about the same colour as the liver and is attached to the greater curvature of the stomach. It is shaped like a banana and is associated with the circulatory system and functions in the destruction of blood cells and blood storage. It helps with the function of the immune system. A person may live without a spleen but are more likely to get sick. 5. Locate the pancreas which is a thin membrane that may be white and granular. It lies beneath the stomach. The pancreas produces digestive enzymes that are sent to the intestine via the pancreatic duct. 6. Locate the small intestine which is a slender coiled tube that receives partially digested food from the stomach via the pyloric sphincter. The term “small” refers to its diameter, not its length. It consists of three sections: duodenum, ileum, and jejunum. The small intestine leads to the cecum (also spelled caecum, latin term for “blind”). Observe that the small intestine is not loose in the abdominal cavity but is held in place by the mesentery. Check and look for veins and arteries in the clear mesentery; they transport nutrients. 7. Locate the cecum which is a pouch that connected the large and small intestine. Food is temporarily stored in the cecum while helpful bacteria digest the cellulose found in plant cells. Most herbivores have a large cecum. In humans and other omnivores, the cecum is smaller and referred to as the appendix. the colon and contains a variety of bacteria to aid in digestion. Page small intestine and leads to the anus. The final stage of digestion and water absorption occurs in 66 8. Locate the large intestine which is the large, possibly greenish tube that extends from the 9. Locate the rectum which is the short, terminal section of the colon between the descending colon and anus. The rectum temporarily stores feces before they are expelled from the body. Part Four: Circulatory System The general structure of the circulatory system of the rabbit is almost identical to that of humans. Pulmonary circulation carries blood through the lungs for oxygenation and then back to the heart. Systematic circulation moves oxygenated blood through the body after it has left the heart 1. Observe the interior of the rabbit for any veins and arteries. Veins carry used blood (blue) back to the heart and lungs. Arteries carry oxygenated blood to the muscles and organs that need it. The arteries in your rabbit should be stained red for easy identification. Use Figures 3 and 4 to help you locate the major veins and arteries. 2. Locate the heart which is covered in a thin, tough membrane called the pericardium. 67 Figure 2: Circulatory System - Arteries Page Figure 1: Circulatory System - Veins 3. Proceed slowly and cautiously with this next step. Remove the heart from the pericardial sac. You will need to sever the arteries and veins connecting the heart to the circulatory system. Leave as many of the veins and arteries attached to the heart as possible. 4. Identify the aorta, the superior vena cava and pulmonary artery. 5. Cut the heart in half through the frontal plane using a sharp blade. The heart is composed of four chambers. Use Figure 5 to help you locate the 2 atria and 2 ventricles. You may also notice the septum. It is the structure that separabbites the two ventricles. Part Five: Urogenital System Figure 3: Cross Section of a Heart This section is a study of the urogenital system. “Uro” stand for the urinary system; “genital” stands for the reproductive system. The urinary/excretory system and genital system are structurally related. 1. Locate the kidneys which are the primary organs of the excretory system. These organs are large bean shaped structures located towards the back of the abdominal cavity on either side of the spine. 2. Remove one of the kidneys and cut it lengthwise. Notice the very fine veins and arteries within. Locate the cortex and medulla on one half of the kidneys. 3. Locate the adrenal glands which are the small yellow glands embedded in the fat on top of the kidneys. They secrete adrenaline into the blood during times of stress (ie. fight or flight) For male rabbits: a) The major reproductive organs of the male rabbit are the testes (singular: testis) which are located in the scrotal sac. Cut through the sac carefully to reveal the testis. On the surface of the testis is a coiled tube called the epididymis which collects and stores sperm cells. The tubular Page penis and out the body. 68 vas deferens moves sperm from the epididymis to the urethra, which carries sperm through the b) The lumpy brown glands located to the left and right of the urinary bladder are the seminal vesicles. The gland below the bladder is the prostate gland and it is partially wrapped around the penis. The seminal vesicles and the prostate gland secrete materials that form the seminal fluid (semen). For female rabbits: a) The short gray tube lying dorsal to the urinary bladder is the vagina. The vagina divides into two uterine horns that extend toward the kidneys. This duplex uterus is common in some animals and will accommodate multiple embryos (a litter). In contrast, a uterus found in humans has a single chamber for the development of a single embryo. b) At the tops of the uterine horns are small lumpy glands called ovaries, which are connected to the uterine horns via oviducts. The oviducts are extremely tiny and may be difficult to find without a dissecting scope. *NOTE: You are responsible for know the individual components of both the male and female reproductive systems. Be sure to observe a rabbit which is the opposite sex of yours!!! Page 69 Figure 4: Male Rabbit (left) and Female Rabbit (right) Reproductive Organs Part Seven: Clean-up 1. With soap, wash all the utensils you used except for the scalpel. The instructor will collect all blades at the end of the dissection. 2. Wash and thoroughly rinse the dissecting pan. 3. Dispose of the rabbit according to your instructor’s directions. 4. Return all materials to their appropriate bin. 5. Clear and wipe down your workspace. Check each box as you identify the Corresponding organ/structure: Respiratory System Trachea Diaphragm Lungs Bronchi Digestive System Liver Large Intestine Esophagus Rectum Stomach Spleen Pancreas Cecum Small Intestine Circulatory System Heart Excretory/Reproductive System Superior Vena Cava Kidneys Pulmonary Artery Adrenal Glands Aorta/Aortic Arch Ovaries (female only) Right/left Atrium Testes (male only) Page 70 Right/left Ventricle Lab report Put the name of each organs in the pictures above 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 23 Page names on them. 64 Capture at least 4 pictures for your dissected animal, and put the organs' References: Biology Campbell (Jane B.Reece), university of California, 9 editions. 65 http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/General_Biology http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20101/bio_1_m enu.htm http://histology.med.umich.edu/medical/ http://www.biologycorner.com Page