Download Sample - 101 Biology

Prepared by :
Mohammed Jarkash (instructor)
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Shireen M. abedrabo (Instructor)
Contents
Chapter
page
1. Preface ………………………………………………………………….. 4
2. Safety rules and regulation …………………………………….…… 5
3. The microscope …………………………………..…………………..
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Exercise 1-1: Parts of compound light microscope……..... …… 8
Exercise 1-2: using a compound light microscope ………..…... 9
Exercise 1-3: other type of microscope …………………………. 11
Laboratory report…………………………………………………… 12
4. The cell Differentiation between animal and plant cel…………. 15
 Exercise 2-1: prepare human cheek cells slide……………... ... 17
 Exercise 2-2: prepare plant cells (onion) slide…………………. 17
 Laboratory report …………………………………………………… 18
5. The cell (2)……………………….. …………………………………….. 20
6. BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES and cellular transport………………..25
 Exercise 3-1:osmosis in plant cells ……………………………….
 Exercise 3-2: osmosis in animal cells ……………………………..
 Laboratory report …………………………………………………….
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 Introduction: epithelial tissues
 Exercise 4-1: simple squamous epithelium ………………………
 Laboratory report
2
7. Human tissues ………………………………………………………… 29
8. Human tissues………..………………………………………………….36
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Introduction: connective tissues …………………….…………
Laboratory report... …………………………………………….
9. Human tissues ……………………………………………………..…….43
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Blood and Blood typing …….……………...……………………47
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Cell division ……………………………………………………… 55
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12.
Vertebrate anatomy (digestive and respiratory system). ... 62
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13.
Exercise 8-1: mitosis in animal cells……………………………..
Exercise 8-2: mitosis in plant cells…………………………….....
Exercise 8-3:meiosis in animal cells……………………………...
Exercise 9-1: external anatomy of rabbit ………………..……..
Exercise 9-2:internal anatomy of rabbit
Exercise 10-1: circulatory system………………………………….
Exercise 10-2: urogenital system…………………………………..
Exercise 10-3: endocrine system…………………………………..
References ………………………………………………… …….72
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11.
Exercise 7-1: blood type test ……………………………………
Laboratory report ……………………………………………….…
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10.
Introduction: nervous tissues and muscular tissues…..………
Laboratory report …………………………………………….
Preface
This laboratory manual is designed to target students of basic and applied biology. The
topics cover the basic biology concepts that are usually taught in general biology 101.
The objective of each exercise is designed to stress those concepts, bring them closer
to the understanding of the students, and to provide them with the basic practical skills.
These skills are needed in order to progress through the more advanced courses.
The manual
The manual includes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Objectives or desired outcomes.
Introduction to provide background for understanding.
Materials needed in experiments.
Procedure which explain the transaction of the experiment and any safety
regulation and warning.
5. The laboratory report should be the place for drawing tables, collecting data and
asking.
To the students
Students are advised to read the objectives of the manual and the introductory text
to each exercise before they start experimental work. This will expand their
understanding for the experiment and how it is carried out.
If any concept was not clear in the manual or in the introductory presentation of the
instructor, we encourage students to discuss with their instructor the concept of the
experiment before doing the work.
Grading: 30 marks
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1st midterm exam ………………………………..10 marks
Final exam ……………………………………… 10 marks
Reports ,Quizzes, and Activities ………………10marks
Safety rules and regulations
1. Purchase a lab coat and safety glasses, bring them
to class, and use them.
2. Eating, drinking, chewing gum, and smoking
are totally forbidden and NOT allowed in
the laboratory.
3. Only shoes that provide complete foot covering are
allowed in the laboratory. Long hair should be
pulled back. All students are required to wear lab
coats at all times (you must provide them
yourselves).
4. Use of rubber, latex, or disposable gloves will be
required at the discretion of your TA.
5. Report all accidents/spills to your TA IMMEDIATELY! You will
be required to go to the Student Health Center for any injury
unless you refuse (minor injuries only). If you refuse, you will
be required to sign a waiver on the Incident Report form filed
by your TA. If you sustain an eye injury involving chemicals,
you must flush immediately with water at the eyewash station
for no less than 15 minutes and you must go to the Student Health
Center. The On- Campus emergency phone number to call is
x0-4321.
6. Biological waste must be disposed of properly in the Biohazard
Waste Container.
7. Avoid breathing, tasting, or having skin contact with
chemicals. Wash your hands periodically.
8. Always use a suction bulb or pipette aid.
10. No unauthorized experiments are to be performed in the
laboratory.
Never leave you experiment unattended, unless
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authorized to do so.
11. Work areas should be initially cleaned with both Lysol and 70%
ethanol before you begin the lab exercise. At the end of the labsession, clean your
work area again with both Lysol and 70% ethanol, make sure
it’s dry, and slide your chair under the table. If necessary, chemicals and
reagents must be returned to their proper places.
12. You should always wash your hands before leaving the
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laboratory. Good laboratory practices ensure a safe environment.
Lab1:
the
Structure and Function
Objective:
1. Practice carrying a microscope.
2. Identify the parts of compound and
dissecting light microscope and
explain their function.
3. Use a compound and dissecting light
microscope to examine biological
specimens.
4. Prepare a wet mount and determine
the magnification of its parts.
Introduction:
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The light microscope is a major tool in
teaching and research in some fields of
biological science; like cytology, histology, microbiology embryology, anatomy of plants
and animals.
The unaided eye has a resolving power of about 0.1mm. This mean that our eyes
cannot distinguish between two points which are less than 0.1 mm apart as
separated points.
For this reason, students in these sciences resort to light microscope to observe
and examine microstructure, which is smaller than 0.1mm. This is due to the ability
of the microscope to magnify objects up to 1000 times and improve resolution.
In this connection, two points should be considered:
1. During handling of the microscope, it should be upside down.
2. The base should be held by the left hand, while the arm should be held by
the right hand.
Materials needed:
Compound microscope, slides, cover slips, dissecting set, filter paper,
dissecting microscope, distilled water, insect.
Parts of a compound light microscope
The microscope has 3 main
parts:
1. Head: house of eyepiece,
tube, hold objective lens, nose
piece.
2. Arm: connect between head
and base. ( hold the stage,
iris diaphragm, coarse and
fine knob)
3. Base: the bottom of
microscope ( use for support)
hold the illuminator ( source of
light)
(Fig.1-1)
Exercise 1-1
Procedure:
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a. Ocular lens: the lens at the top that you look through. They are usually 10X
power.
b. Tube: Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses
c. Arm : Supports the tube and connects it to the base
d. Nosepiece: carries objective lens (the small, medium, high, and oil
objective lenses) to rotate and change magnification power.
e. Objective lens: Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope.
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Study the mechanical system and observed the following parts. (Fig.1-1)
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
They always consist of 4X, 10X, 40X and 100X powers. When coupled with
a10X (most common) eyepiece lens, we get total magnifications of 40X (4X
times 10X), 100X, 400X and 1000X.
Stage: The flat platform where you place your slides
Coarse adjustment knob: it moves the stage or the tube up and down
for focusing under low magnification.
Fine adjustment knob: for focusing under high magnification power and
give more resolution
Iris diaphragm : regulate the amount of light on the specimen
Illuminator: projects light upward through the diaphragm, specimen
and lenses.
Exercise 1-2:
Using a compound light microscope
A. Preparation of a wet mount
Some specimens are prepared on microscope slides by making a wet
preparation. This is done by using a piece of paper containing the letter “e”
and by following these steps
Procedure:
1. Clean a microscope slide and cover slip very well. Also, clean the lenses of your
microscope by using a lens paper.
2. Using razor blade, cut around any letter “e” from a small piece transfer the letter “e”
onto the center of the slide and then add a drop of water. (fig.2-1)
3. Hold a clean cover slip and place it edge adjacent to the drop of water, at an angel of
45 (fig.2-1)
4. With a teasing needle or forceps, lower the cover slip gently so that it covers the
piece of paper. Avoid having air bubble in your preparation. If present it appears as
circles with dark edge.
B. Focusing the image of the wet amount preparation
Procedure:
Place the wet mount preparation you have prepared on the stage of your
microscope and clip it well. Make sure that the letter “e” is over the center of
the hole in the stage.
2. Plug in your microscope to the power outlet on your bench, and turn on the
light source
3. Rotate the nosepiece so that the 4X objective lens is in upright position.
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Make it habit: always starts your microscope study with the 4X objective lens
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1.
4. Rotate the coarse adjustment knob clockwise so that the distance between the lens
and the slide is 5-10mm. never use the coarse knob when you view a specimen with
40X objective lens. Explain why not?
5. Look through ocular lenses with both eyes to see letter “e” if you don’t see it, move
the slide lies over the center of the hole of the stage.
6. Move fine adjustment knob up and down to sharp focus
7. Adjust iris diaphragm to have proper brightness and get the best view.
8. Calculate the total of magnification of letter “e” by applying this formula:
Total magnification =magnification of objective lens X magnification
of ocular lens
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(Fig.1-2)
Magnification of ocular lens
Magnification of objective lens
Total magnification
10X
4X
40X
10X
10X
100X
10X
40X
400X
10X
100X
1000X
Exercise 1-3: Other type of microscope
 The dissecting microscope The transmission microscope
(Fig.3-1)
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(Fig.4-1)
The microscope laboratory report
Name: ………………………….
Lab section: ……………
Lab instructor: ………..................
Date: ……………………
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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1. Label the parts of the microscope shown in the following figure, and
give the function of each.
2. Draw the letter “e” under the following magnification power:
X40
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100
Lab2
Differentiation between animal and plant cells
Objectives:
by the end of this exercise
you should be able to:
1. View prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells using a
microscope.
2. Identify plant and
animal cell organelles
and describe their
function.
Recognize the common feature of
cells.
Introduction:
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1. Every living organism is made up of one or more cells.
2. The smallest living organisms are single cells, and cells are the
functional units of multicellular organism.
3. All cells arise by division of pre-existing cells.
4. All cell have the following in common: plasma membrane, nucleous,
cytoplasm.
5. There are two different types of cells : prokaryotic (bacteria, archea)
And eukaryotic (ex. Protist, Plant and animal cell).
The most important differences between animal and plant cells are
Animal Cells: Figure 2.2: Animal cell
* don't have chloroplast
* no cell wall (only cell membrane)
* one small vacuole
* Either circular, irregular or defined shapes depending on the type of cell
Figure 2.2: Animal cell
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a scrape)
4. Transfer the material adhering to the toothpick to the glass slide by
lightly rubbing the toothpick onto the methylene blue solution on the
slide.
5. Cover slide and examine it under the microscope.
6. Drawing of the slide under high power and label it. Compare with
(fig.3-2).
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Exercise (2-1): prepare (human cheek cell)
Procedure:
1. Get a flat- edge toothpick and a clean glass slide.
2. Put one drop of methylene blue on your slide.
3. Rub the inside of your cheek lightly with the toothpick( you don’t have
Plant Cells: Figure 2.3: plant cell
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* have chloroplasts and use photosynthesis to produce food
* have cell wall made of cellulose OBVIOUSLY DISTINGUISHED
* one very large vacuole in the center
* are rectangular in shape
Exercise (2-2): prepare plant cells slide (onion cells)
Procedure:
Get a clean slide. Place a drop of water on the slide.
Take a piece of onion and fold it so it doesn’t completely break.
Take thin layer of the tissue.
Place the layer of tissue on a slide over the drop of water and then add
a small drop of iodine solution to the slide. Place a cover slip on the
slide by slowly lowering it over the sample to avoid creating air
bubbles. (If necessary refer to figure 1-2, preparation of wet mount).
5. Place the slide on the microscope and draw of the slide label the
following structure: cytoplasm, cell wall, vacuole, and nucleus.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
The Cells laboratory report
LAB REPORT:
Sample :------------------------------- Classification: An example of
--------------------------Stain Used: ----------------------------Magnification power -----------------------Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
X400
Sample :-------------------------------
Classification: An example of ---------------
Stain used: ---------------------------Main Features:
1. ------------------------------
Magnification power ------------------------
2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
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X100
Lab3
Types of cells
Objective
 To know and recognize types of cells.
 To know How to find a good field to
study and draw.
 To
know
what
the
differences
multicellular and unicellular organisms.
 To know how to use oil immersion
lens.
Types of cells.
A cell type is a classification used to distinguish between
morphologically or phenotypically distinct cell forms within a species. multicellular
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as muscle cells and skin cells in humans.
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organism may contain a number of widely differing and specialized cell types, such
Multicellular VS Unicellular organisms
 Multicellular Organisms

All higher multicellular organisms contain cells
specialized for different functions. Most distinct cell
types arise from a single totipotent cell
that differentiates into hundreds of different cell types
during the course of development.

Figure 3.1: algae (Volvox)
Examples of multicellular organisms: Human beings,
animals, plants, some species of fungi.
Algae
 Unicellular Organisms

Due to the presence of only one cell in them, unicellular
organisms are much smaller in size and are very simple in
structure.

protozoa (paramecium)
Most unicellular organisms are so small and microscopic in nature,Figure
that3.2:they
are
almost invisible to the naked human eyes. They do not have internal organs as
well, and this means that the membranes which are organic coats around the
organs are also absent.

Examples of unicellular organisms: All forms of bacteria, amoeba, yeast and
protozoa Figure 3.2: algae
Eukaryotes VS Prokaryotes Figure 3.3
 Prokaryotic cells
(Figure 3.4)
shapes of bacteria)
they called prokaryotes because they haven’t nucleus.
They lacks the nuclear envelope so there is no nucleus

Have simple enzyme system
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lack most of the cellular organelles like mitochondria.
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Reproduce by binary fission (simple dividing process)
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They characterized by: -

Found in bacteria and archea only
Eukaryotic cells

Have nuclear envelope and cellular organelles.

Have nucleolus.

Have complex enzyme system.

Reproduce by simple and complex processes.

All the living cells are eukaryotic cells except that of bacteria.
Figure 3.3
Adjustments for oil immersion objective lens
Without changing the adjustment of high powerX400, turn to oil immersion objective.
One drop of oil is added into on the slide. The nose piece is turned such that the oil
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immersion objective touches on the drop of oil. Open the iris diaphragm completely.
LAB REPORT:
Sample :
Bacteria
Stain used: Gram Stain
Main Features:
1. ------------------------------
Classification: An example of Unicellular/prokaryote
Magnification power X1000
2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Sample :
Bacteria
Stain used: Gram Stain
Main Features:
1. ------------------------------
Classification: An example of Unicellular/prokaryote
Magnification power X1000
2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Sample :
Penicillium
Classification: Fungi /Eukaryote/multicellular
Stain used: ---------------------------Magnification power
Main features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
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Classification: An example of ---------------------Stain used: ---------------------------Magnification power
Main features: 1------------------------------
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Sample :-------------------------------
Sample :------------------------------------Stain used: ---------------------------Main Features:
1. ------------------------------
Classification: An example of -------------------Magnification power ------------------------
2. ------------------------------
Sample :------------------------------------Stain used: ---------------------------Main Features:
1. ------------------------------
Classification: An example of -------------------Magnification power ------------------------
2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Sample :------------------------------------Stain used: ---------------------------Main Features:
1. ------------------------------
Classification: An example of -------------------Magnification power ------------------------
2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
2. ------------------------------
Classification: An example of -------------------Magnification power ------------------------
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Stain used: ---------------------------Main Features:
1. ------------------------------
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Sample :-------------------------------
Lab 4:
BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES and cellular transport
Cell Transport
The purpose of cell transport is to maintain homeostasis. The different kinds of cell transport
are divided into two categories: those that require energy and those that do not.
Objective
 To study the changes of environment on cells.
 To find a good field to study and draw.
 To know what the differences osmosis and diffusion.
 To know how to make blood smear.
 To recognize between cell wall and cell membrane in plant cells.
Passive transport does not require energy. There are three kinds of passive transport.
In diffusion substances move from high concentrations to low concentrations.
concentrations via carrier proteins. Finally, in osmosis water moves from high
concentrations (of water) to low concentrations.
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In facilitated diffusion substances move from high concentrations to low
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Active transport requires energy and usually moves substances from low
concentrations to high concentrations against the concentration gradient. Endocytosis,
a form of active transport, the cell engulfs material. In exocytosis, the cell expels
material.

Osmosis:
It is the passive flow of water across the selective permeable membrane from low concentration
to high concentration.
Osmotic pressure gradient: Figure 4.2
It is created by the presence of different concentrations of solute in the solution on either side of
the membrane. This pressure cause the water to move by osmosis
●Living cells are normally founded in aqueous environments so water will enter or exits from
these cells according to the concentration.
1.Hypotonic solution (low concentration) causes water to flow in to the cell making it swell.
2.Hypertonic solution (high concentration) causes water to flow out of the cell making it shrink.
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3.Isotonic solution (equal concentration) keeping the cell normal.
Materials:
Onion (plant cells), blood ( animal cells),( hypotonic , hypertonic, isotonic solution),blank
slide ,methylene blue, dropper , distilled water, filter paper, coverslip, microscope
Procedure:
Osmosis in plant cells
1. Prepare wet amount slides of the onion tissue ( 3 slide )
2. drop sufficient of stained salt solutions( hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic) on
samples.
3. placing cover slip on the slide.
4. Observe the effect of the saline(salt) solution on the onion cells
5. Drawing of the cells in your report
Preparation of blood smears Figure 4.3
1
1. Select the finger to puncture, usually the middle or ring finger..
2. Clean the area to be punctured with 70% alcohol; allow to dry.
3. Puncture the ball of the finger, or in infants puncture the heel.
4. Wipe away the first drop of blood with clean gauze.
2
5. Touch the next drop of blood with a clean slide. Repeat with
several Slides if needed. Note :If blood does not well up, gently
squeeze the finger.
6. Bring a clean spreader slide, held at a 45° angle, toward the drop
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of blood on the specimen slide.
7. Wait until the blood spreads along the entire width of the spreader
slide.
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8. While holding the spreader slide at the same angle, push it
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forward rapidly and smoothly.
Osmosis in animal cells
1. Prepare blood smear ( 3 slide )
2. drop sufficient amount of salt solutions( hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic) on
samples.
3. Observe the effect of the saline(salt) solution on the onion cells
LAB REPORT :
Sample :-------------------------------
Magnification power------------------------
Stain Used: ----------------------------
Case#1 --------------------------Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. ------------------------------
Case#2--------------------------Main Features:
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2. ------------------------------
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1. ------------------------------
Sample :------------------------------Stain Used: ----------------------------
Magnification power ------------------------
Case#1 --------------------------Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. ------------------------------
Case#2--------------------------Main Features:
1. ------------------------------
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2. ------------------------------
Lab 5
Epithelial tissues
Cover all body surfaces, line most internal
surfaces of passageways or tubes, and are the
major tissues of glands. Because epithelium
covers organs, forms the inner lining of body
cavities, and lines hollow organs, it always has
a free surface-one that is exposed to the outside
or to an open space internally. The underside of
this tissue is always anchored to connective
tissue by a thin, noncellular layer called the
basement membrane.
As a rule, epithelial tissues lack blood vessels;
however, substances diffuse from underlying
capillaries in connective tissues to nourish
epithelial cells. Connective tissue is usually well supplied with blood vessels.
1.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Be able to classify epithelial tissues.
2. Know the structure and function of junctions.
3. Know the structure of apical specializations and their functions.
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4. Be able to correlate different types of epithelia to their functions.
Epithelial tissue is classified by the number of cell layers and cell shape.
There are three major types of epithelium based on the number of cell layers in each type:
1. Simple epithelium consists of a
single layer of cells, with each cell
extending from the basement
membrane to the free surface.
2. Stratified epithelium consists of
more than one layer of cells, only
one of which is adjacent to the
basement membrane.
3. Pseudostratified epithelium called
pseudostratified because, although it
consists of a single cell layer, it
appears multilayered. The
arrangement of the nuclei gives a
stratified appearance.
There are three types of epithelium based on the epithelial cell shapes:
1. Squamous (flat) cells are flat or scalelike, and frequently look like floor tiles.
2. Cuboidal (cubelike) cells are cube-shaped, and are about as wide as they are tall.
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3. Columnar (tall and thin, similar to a column) cells are taller than they are wide.
1-Simple squamous epithelium is composed of a single layer of
flattened cells each with a somewhat flattened nucleus
Locations: alveoli of the lungs; walls of blood capillaries;
mesothelium
Function: diffusion; some secretion
Key Features: single layer of flat cells with flat nucleus; little
matrix, free surface
2-Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer of cells squarish in profile. The
nucleus of each cell is round and centrally located.
Locations: bronchioles; kidney tubules; thyroid and other gland
3-Simple columnar epithelium is composed of a single layer of
tall, thin cells. The nuclei are usually elongated and located in
the basal one-third of the cell. Simple columnar epithelium
frequently contain mucus-secreting goblet cells.
Locations: the stomach, intestines, and the uterus
Functions: secretion and absorption
Key Features: single layer of columnar cells; nuclei in a
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somewhat linear arrangement; may have goblet cells; little matrix
4- Pseudostratified columnar epithelium appears stratified
because the nuclei are staggered and appear at many levels.
However, it is categorized as simple because every cell contacts
the basement membrane. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
frequently contains goblet cells and cilia.
Location: the lining of the respiratory passages
Function: secretion
Key Features: staggered nuclei; may have
goblet cells and cilia; little matrix
5-Stratified squamous epithelium consists of multiple layers of
cells with the surface cells flattened (squamous) and the deeper cells
cuboidal. Some stratified squamous epithelium are keratinized,
meaning that the surface cells have died and are anucleated after
secreting the protein keratin.
Locations: the epidermis, the oral cavity, and the anal canal
Function: protection against abrasion
Key Features: flattened, anucleated cells near free surface; little
matrix
6-Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists of two or more layers of
cuboidal cells.
Locations: limited, but can be found lining ovarian follicles and the
lining of some ducts and glands
Functions: lining of ducts
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cells
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Key Features: cuboidal cells near free surface; usually two layers of
7-Stratified columnar epithelium consists of two or
more layers of cells, typically with columnar surface cells
resting upon cuboidal basal cells.
Location: limited, and includes small portions of the pharynx
and larynx
Functions: a transitional zone between stratified squamous
epithelium and simple columnar epithelium or pseudostratified
epithelium
8- Transitional epithelium consists of two or more layers
of cells with the basal cells being mostly cuboidal and surface
cells varying from flattened to dome-shaped depending on the
distension of the organ. Occasionally binucleated cells are
observed near the surface.
Locations: limited to structures of the urinary system - ureters,
urinary bladder and the urethra
Functions: allows for distension as an organ fills with fluid
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Key Features: domed cells near free surface, binucleated cells
Lab report
Sample :-------------------------------
Classification: An example of ------------------------
Location : ----------------------------
Magnification power ------------------------
Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Sample :------------------------------Location: ----------------------------
Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------
Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Sample :------------------------------Location: ----------------------------
Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------
Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. ------------------------------
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3. ------------------------------
Sample :------------------------------Location: ----------------------------
Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------
Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Sample :-------------------------------
Classification: An example of ------------------------
--Location: ----------------------------
Magnification power ------------------------
Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Sample :------------------------------Location: ----------------------------
Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------
Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. ------------------------------
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3. ------------------------------
lab6
Connective Tissue
Connective Tissue
bind structures together, provide support and protection, serve as frameworks, fill spaces,
store fat, produce blood cells, protect against infections, and help repair tissue damage.
Connective tissue cells are usually spaced farther apart than epithelial cells, and they have an
abundance of intercellular material, or matrix, between them. This matrix consists of fibers
and a ground substance whose consistency varies from fluid (blood) to semisolid (cartilage) to
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solid (bone).
2.
OBJECTIVES
1. Be able to describe the functions of cells commonly found in connective tissue and
identify them.
2. Be able to recognize different types of connective tissue (e.g., dense irregular, dense regular,
loose, adipose) and provide examples where they are found in the body.
3. Be able to recognize a basement membrane (or basal lamina) in sections or micrographs where
the structure is conspicuously present and understand its functions.
Connective tissue cells are usually able to divide and replace themselves. In most cases, they
have good blood supplies and are well nourished. Some connective tissues, such as bone
and cartilage, are quite rigid. Loose fibrous connective tissue, adipose tissue, and dense
fibrous connective tissue are more flexible.
Fibroconnective tissue, or fibrous connect tissue, is a tissue type that consists of cells and a
matrix that is predominately protein fibers.
Cell types include:

Fibroblasts: most common cell; cell
that produces the matrix.

Histiocytes: macrophage of
fibroconnective tissue.

Leukocytes: white blood cells.

Plasma cells: cells that produce
antibodies.

Mast cells: cells that produce the
anticoagulant heparin and histamine,

Adipocytes: fat cells; cells that store triglycerides.
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inflammation.
37
a substance that promotes
Fiber types include:

Collagenous fibers: strong and flexible fibers that appear as wavy bundles in tissue
sections.

Reticular fibers: thin collagen fibers coated with a glycoprotein. They tend to branch
extensively forming delicate networks.

Elastic fibers: consist of the protein elastin, which allows for stretching and recoiling.
Ground substance: the tissue fluid, minerals, and proteoglycans located between the cells and
fibers of connective tissue.
Types of connective tissue
1- Areolar connective tissue consists of a loose
arrangement of fibers. It contains all of the cell types mentioned,
as well as all three fiber types. Areolar also has an abundance of
ground substance, which appears white in tissue preparations.
Locations: multiple locations including beneath epithelium and
mesenteries
Functions: provides nutrients and support to other tissue types;
immune functions
Key Features: loose appearance, multiple fiber and cell types
2- Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, which store fat droplets. The nucleus of the
adipocyte is located adjacent to the plasma membrane.
Locations: subcutaneous region, bone marrow, and
mesenteries
Functions: lipid storage; thermoregulation; protection
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minimal matrix; capillaries may be present
38
Key Features: cells with nuclei "pushed to the side";
3- Reticular connective tissue consists of branching fibers
and fibroblasts.
Locations: stoma of spleen, liver, lymph nodes and thymus
Function: support
Key Features: "network" appearance; fibroblasts and branching
reticular fibers
4- Dense (fibrous) regular connective tissue consists of closely packed parallel
collagen fibers and fibroblasts interspersed between the fibers.
Locations: tendons; ligaments
Function: strong support
Key Features: one fiber type in parallel arrangement; thin
fibroblasts; minimal ground substance
5- Dense (fibrous) irregular connective tissue is similar to
the dense regular connective tissue except that the collagen fibers do not exhibit a consistent
pattern.
Locations: dermis; sheaths around bones, nerves and
cartilages
Function: strong support
Key Features: thick bundles of fibers with no pattern, minimal
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39
ground substance
6- Cartilage
There are three types of cartilage: (a) hyaline cartilage, (b) fibrocartilage,
and (c) elastic cartilage.
Cartilage is a connective tissue that consists of chondrocytes trapped in
cavities called lacunae and surrounded by extracellular matrix consisting of
collagen fibers. The different types of cartilages are classified based on
differences in the fibers.
Cartilage is avascular; it is frequently surrounded by a layer of dense
connective tissue called a perichondrium.
7-Compact bone tissue is dense calcified tissue with no spaces visible to the
naked eye. The structural unit of compact bone is an osteon. An osteon
consists of osteocytes within lacunae embedded within a matrix arranged
in concentric cylinders. At the center of each osteon is a central or
Haversian canal.
Locations: outer surface and shaft of bone
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40
Function: support
LAB REPORT
Sample :------------------------------Location: ----------------------------
Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------
Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Sample :------------------------------Location: ----------------------------
Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------
Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Sample :-------------------------------
Classification: An example of ------------------------
--Location: ----------------------------
Magnification power ------------------------
Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. ------------------------------
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41
3. ------------------------------
Sample :------------------------------Location: ----------------------------
Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------
Main features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Sample :------------------------------Location: ----------------------------
Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------
Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Sample :------------------------------Location: ----------------------------
Classification: An example of -----------------------Magnification power ------------------------
Main Features:
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42
1. ------------------------------
Lab 7
Muscular and nervous Tissues
Objective:
Identify the subtype of nervous and muscular tissues.
Identify the function of each tissue.
43


Define the following terms: neuron, cell body, axon, dendrites, and
intercalated disc.
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
 Nervous tissues:




Nervous tissues are found in the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and reach
all organs.
These tissues consist of neurons which are specialized in
transmitting impulses.
A neuron consists of cell body which contains a nucleus and
surrounding cytoplasm. There are large numbers of mitochondria.
A neuron has two types of process: axon which is long and carries
impulses away from the cell body, and dendrites which are short
and carry impulses toward the cell body.
Fig.6-1: structure of neuron
 Muscle tissue:


B
B, in cross section
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A
Fig.6-2: skeletal muscle: A, in longitudinal section;
44
Muscle tissue has the ability to contract.
Contraction of muscle tissues is a product of interaction between
two muscle proteins actin and myosin.
 Are divided into three types: skeletal, smooth and
cardiac. a. Skeletal muscle:
i.
attaches to bone, skin or fascia
ii.
Striated ( striped appearance ) with light & dark bands
appearance under microscope
iii.
Voluntary movement control of contraction & relaxation
b. Smooth muscle:
i.
Named because it lacks striation.
ii. It found in the wall of the digestive tract, urinary bladder, arteries
and internal organs.
iii.
None striated in appearance.
iv.
Involuntary
Fig.6-3: smooth muscle
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Fig 6-3: cardiac muscle appear in longitudinal section
45
c. Cardiac muscle:
i.
Forms the contractile wall of the
heart. ii.
striated in appearance
iii.
involuntary control
iv.
The ends of the cells are joined by structure called intercalated disc.
REPORT
Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Magnification power ------------------------
Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Magnification power ------------------------
Sample :------------------------------Location: ---------------------------Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Magnification power ------------------------
Sample :-------------------------------
46
Magnification power ------------------------
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Location: ---------------------------Main Features:
COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION OF THE BLOOD
Blood is not an epithelial tissue, and it’s not loose or dense connective tissue; it’s
classified as a “special connective tissue”. You have about 5 liters of blood, but that
is only half of the body fluid. The other half includes fluid around each cell, and joint
fluids, etc.
Blood
2.
Heart
3.
Blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, veins)
4.
Lymph and lymph vessels
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1.
47
COMPONENTS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS:
1.
Transports oxygen and nutrients to cells
2.
Removes carbon dioxide and wastes from cells
3.
Immunity (protects from disease)
4.
Temperature regulation (cold, constricts; hot, dilates)
5.
Helps prevent loss of blood by clotting
6.
Transports hormones
7.
Erection of the penis
Blood consists of the following:
A. Plasma
B. Red blood cells
C. White blood cells
D. Platelets
a. PLASMA
Plasma is what the blood cells float around in. If you spin a blood sample in a
test tube, the red blood cells sink to the bottom, and you’ll see the yellow plasma on
top. Some people who need blood just need the packed RBCs, others need the
plasma, and some need whole blood, which is both plasma and RBCs.
b. RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES)
a doughnut with the hole not fully cut out.
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body. There are about 5 million of them in each of us. Their structure is simple; like
48
These are small red biconcave discs. They are among the smallest cells in the
a. They have no nucleus
b. Filled with a red pigment called hemoglobin, which carries O2 throughout
the body. Oxygenated Hb is bright red, deoxy Hb is dull red. Blood in the
veins only looks blue because you are seeing the dull red color through a
yellow fat layer in the skin and subdermal tissue.
c. average life span is 120 days. They are made in the red bone marrow,
and the old ones are destroyed in the spleen and liver, and Hb is
recycled. During your lifetime, about 250 billion of these cells are
destroyed, and 250 billion are made.
c. WHITE BLOOD CELLS (LEUKOCYTES)
There are different kinds; all fight infection. They seep out of the blood vessels
whenever they sense bacteria nearby.
d. PLATELETS
When a platelet encounters a broken blood vessel it releases a substance that
clots blood. Platelets are responsible for clot formation.
HEMOPHILIA is a hereditary disease of males, where they are unable to clot
properly. When they get even a slight bump or bruise they have to have an
intravenous infusion of clotting factors or they will bleed to death. This is probably the
disease that was in the genes of Henry VIII, which caused all of his male children to
become weak and die in infancy.
BONE MARROW
Most blood cells mature in the red bone marrow. When they are mature, they
are released into the bloodstream. When they are old, they are destroyed in the
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49
spleen.
ANEMIA: If the body makes too few erythrocytes.
a. Causes of anemia include lack of iron, lack of hemoglobin, hemorrhage, lack
of vitamin B12 (needed for cell division).
b. Characteristic sign of anemia: pale skin and fatigue.
LEUKEMIA: Cancer of the blood is called leukemia. It actually only involves the
white blood cells. Something goes wrong in one stem cell, and it starts making huge
amounts of clones of itself which don’t work right and not enough normal white blood
cells are made. Therefore, the body cannot fight infection. There are many types of
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50
leukemias.
Lab 8
BLOOD TYPING
A - BLOOD GROUPS – THE ABO SYSTEM
Blood typing is the technique for determining which specific protein type is
present on RBCs.
In the human ABO blood group system, there are four main blood groups - A, B, AB
and O. An individual’s blood group is determined by the type of antigen expressed on
the surface membrane of their erythrocytes (red blood cells). Antigens are glycoproteins
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types of antigen - “A” antigen and “B” antigen.
51
that are recognized by the body's immune system. In the ABO system there are just two
3.
objective
1. To provide basic information of the types of donors.
2. Criteria for donor selection
3. To understand the basic concept of Blood Grouping
Only certain types of blood transfusions are safe because the outer membranes of the
red blood cells carry certain types of proteins that another person’s body will think is a
foreign body and reject it.

These proteins are called antigens (something that causes an allergic
A person with Type A antigens on their blood cells have Type A blood.

A person with Type B antigens have Type B blood.

A person with both types has type AB blood.

A person with neither antigen has type O blood.
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
52
reaction). There are two types of blood antigens: Type A and Type B.
If a person with type A blood gets a transfusion of type B antigens (from Type B or
Type AB, the donated blood will clump in masses (coagulation), and the person will
die.
The same is true for a type B person getting type A or AB blood.
Type O blood is called the universal donor, because there are no antigens, so that
blood can be donated to anyone. Type AB blood is considered the universal
acceptor, because they can use any other type of blood. This blood type is fairly rare.
2.
RH FACTOR
There is another term that follows the blood type. The term is “positive” or “negative”.
This refers to the presence of another type of protein, called the Rh factor. A person
with type B blood and has the Rh factor is called A-positive.
A person with type B blood and no Rh factor is called B-negative.
The reason this is so important is that if an Rh- mother has an Rh+ fetus in her womb
(from an Rh+ father), her antibodies will attack the red blood cells of the fetus
because her body detects the Rh protein on the baby’s red blood cells and thinks they
Rh+, because that means the baby has a 50% chance of being Rh+ like the father.
Therefore, anytime a mother is Rh-, they will ask if the father is Rh-. If so, they will
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This can be prevented if the doctor knows the mother is Rh- and the father is
53
are foreign objects. This is called Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN).
give her an injection of a medicine that will prevent her immune system from
attacking the baby.
MATERIAL AND PROCEDURES
The test to determine your blood group is called ABO typing. Your blood sample is
mixed with antibodies against type A and B blood, and the sample is checked to see
whether or not the blood cells stick together (agglutinate). If blood cells stick together, it
means the blood reacted with one of the antibodies.
Blood typing is also done to tell whether or not you have a substance called Rh factor
on the surface of your red blood cells. If you have this substance, you are considered
Rh+ (positive). Those without it are considered Rh- (negative). Rh typing uses a method
similar to ABO typing.
LAB REPORT
Test your partner’s blood then write the type of blood in the results:
(+ = agglutination, - = no agglutination)
Anti
A
Anti
B
Anti
D
RESULT:
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54
Blood group of subject (partner) is:-----------
LAB 9
Mitosis & Meiosis
1.
Objectives
1. Recognize and distinguish the various stages of mitosis and meiosis.
2. Understand the changes in DNA content and chromosome number as cells
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55
progress through the cell-cycle and mitosis.
All living organisms need to produce new cells. They can only do this by division of
pre-existing cells.
Cell division in prokaryotic cells is called binary fission and it is used for asexual
reproduction. It involves the replication of the single circular chromosome. The two
copies of the
chromosome move
to opposite ends
of the
cell. Division
of the
cytoplasm to form two cells quickly follows. This process is called cytokinesis.
In eukaryotic cells, division of the nucleus to form two genetically identical nuclei is
termed mitosis. DNA replication before mitosis converts all of the chromosomes from
a single DNA molecule into two identical DNA molecules, called chromatids. During
mitosis, one of these chromatids passes to each daughter nucleus. The daughter nuclei
are therefore genetically identical to each other and to the original parent nucleus.
Mitosis occurs before the cytoplasm is split by cytokinesis, so the two daughter cells
can therefore each receive one of the nuclei.
MITOSIS
Mitosis means the division of the cell into two daughter cells that have the same
number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
●The amount of DNA is replicated before the cell divides. This duplicated amount of
DNA on the chromosomes will be distributed equally to the new daughter (diploid 2N).
●By this process the cell conserves the amount of DNA in every division so conserve
the genetic traits from generation to generation.
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56
Stages of mitosis:
Prophase:
●The chromosomes become
thicker and shorter
●The chromosomes attached
to the microtubules
●The nucleus disappear
Metaphase:
●The chromosomes arrange in
the middle of the cell
●The call has the shape of
spindle
Anaphase:
●The microtubules begin
shortening pulling the
chromatids (each chromosome
consist of 2 chromatids) to the
poles of the cell.
Telophase:
●The cytokinesis begin
●The nucleus formed again
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57
●The microtubules disappear
MEIOSIS
Occurs in the formation of gametes in organisms which reproduce sexually. Sexual reproduction
is a process of genetic reassortment producing variation. Most is produced by meiosis. Meiosis
results in halving the number of chromosomes in a cell, i.e. meiosis is reduction division.
Meiosis precedes the formation of the male and female gametes. The gametes therefore contain
half the number of chromosomes (haploid or N number), in man this is 23.
Two successive divisions.
1.
Meiosis I
PROPHASE I:
Early
-
chromosomes become apparent
Mid
-
chromosomes come together in homologous pairs (bivalents)
Late
-
Chromatids become apparent. Bivalent pairs coil around each other. Touch at
certain points - called Chiasmata.
By the end, the nuclear membrane and nucleoli have disappeared. The spindle has formed by
the centrosome which divided at interphase.
METAPHASE I
Bivalents arrange themselves on the equator of the cell and become attached by their
centromeres.
ANAPHASE I
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them to opposite poles of the cell.
58
Shortening of the spindle drags the homologous chromosomes of each bivalent apart, pulling
TELOPHASE I
Two groups of chromosomes come together at opposite poles. Each group becomes surrounded
by a new nuclear membrane. Chromosomes uncoil, nucleoli reappear.
Cleavage of the cytoplasm occurs in as mitosis.
Daughter cells usually go into a short resting stage (interphase) or may proceed directly into
meiosis II.
2-Meiosis II
The same as mitosis.
RESULT
Four cells each with the haploid number chromosomes.
 Male - all four will develop into male gametes.
 Female - usually only one develops into female gamete. Produces gametes with varied
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59
combination of genes by:
Lab Report
Sample :
Magnification power ------------
Used stain:
Phase #1 --------------------------Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Phase #2 --------------------------Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Phase #3 --------------------------Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Phase #4 --------------------------Main Features:
1. ------------------------------
Page
3. ------------------------------
60
2. ------------------------------
Sample :
Phase #1 --------------------------Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Phase #2 --------------------------Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Phase #3 --------------------------Main Features:
1. -----------------------------2. -----------------------------3. ------------------------------
Phase #4 --------------------------Main Features:
Page
2. ------------------------------
61
1. ------------------------------
Dissection of the Rabbit
Lab 10
Dissection of the Rabbit
The Rabbit is a vertebrate, which
means that many aspects of its
structural organization are common
with all other vertebrate, including
man. The similarity of structures
among
related
organisms
shows
evidence of common ancestry. In a way, studying the Rabbit is like studying a human. As the
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equivalent structure in your own body - what is the structure and where is it located.
62
leading theme of this lab, ask yourself: for every structure observed in the Rabbit, there is an
As the second leading theme, pay particular attention to the relationships among organs and
groups of organs. Structural parts are not "just there" in random locations. Their specific layout
within the body contributes to making certain functions possible. Therefore, for every structure
seen, you should determine the following:

What organ system it belongs to

How it is connected with other components

Its general function

Its specific function (if applicable)
Dissection
Dissecting tools will be used to open the body cavity of the Rabbit and observe the structures.
Keep in mind that dissecting does not mean "to cut up"; in fact, it means "to expose to view".
Careful dissecting techniques will be needed to observe all the structures and their connections
to other structures. You will not need to use a scalpel. Contrary to popular belief, a scalpel is not
the best tool for dissection. Scissors serve better because the point of the scissors can be pointed
upwards to prevent damaging organs underneath. Always raise structures to be cut with your
forceps before cutting, so that you can see exactly what is underneath and where the incision
should be made. Never cut more
than is absolutely necessary to
expose a part.
Part One: External Anatomy
1. Obtain your rabbit and observe
the general characteristics. Key
six anatomical regions:
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The rabbit’s body is divided into
63
terms are underlined.
i.
Cranial region – head
ii.
Cervical region – neck
iii.
Pectoral region – area where front legs attach
iv.
Thoracic region – chest area
v.
Abdomen – belly
vi.
Pelvic region – area where the back legs attach
2. Note the hairy coat that covers the rabbit and the sensory hairs (whiskers) located on the
rabbit’s face, called vibrissae.
3. The mouth has a large cleft in the upper lip which exposes large front incisors. Rabbits are
gnawing mammals, and these incisors will continue to grow for as long as the rabbit lives.
4. Note the eyes with the large pupil and the nictitating membrane found at the inside corner of
the eye. This membrane can be drawn across the eye for protection. The eyelids are similar to
those found in humans.
5. The ears are composed of the
external part, called the pinna, and
the auditory meatus, the ear canal.
8. Locate the anus, which is ventral
to the base of the tail.
9. Determine whether your rabbit is
male or female by looking near the
tail for the male or female genital
organs.
Part Two: Respiratory System
The respiratory is responsible for the
exchange of gases. The rabbit must take in oxygen for respiratory processes and must rid itself
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1. You will carefully remove the skin and muscles of the rabbit to expose the organs beneath.
64
of carbon dioxide waste.
Use scissors to cut through the abdominal wall of the rabbit following the incision marks as
shown in Figure
2.
Cut slowly and carefully; do not cut too deeply to prevent damaging the underlying
structures. Keep the tip of your dissection tool pointed upwards.
Note: when you cut through the thoracic cavity, you will encounter bone.
3. Once the incisions have been made, pin both skin flaps to the side of the rabbit.
4. Locate the trachea. The trachea is a tube that extends from the neck to the chest. It is white
and lined with cartilage. The opening of the trachea is the glottis. The enlargement at the anterior
end of the trachea is the larynx (voice box) which contains the vocal chords.
5. The trachea splits in the chest cavity into two bronchi. Each of these air tubes extends into the
lungs and splits into smaller tubes called bronchioles. Using this information, locate the two
lungs which lie on either side of the heart.
6. Locate the thin muscular
diaphragm just above the liver. This
muscle is responsible for drawing air
into the chest cavity.
Part Three: Digestive System
1. Locate the large, reddish-brown
organ called the liver which
occupies much of the abdominal
space. It is just under the diaphragm.
The liver has many functions, one of
which is to produce bile which aids in the digestion of fats. The liver also stores glycogen and
transforms wastes into less harmful substances. Rabbits do not have a gall bladder (which is used
for bile storing in other animals).
Note: You may choose to use Figure 2 to help identify the organs that make up the digestive
the stomach. It is distinguished from the trachea by its lack of cartilage rings.
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2. Locate the esophagus which runs through the diaphragm and moves food from the mouth to
65
system.
3. Locate the stomach on the right side just under the liver. The function of the stomach includes
food storage, physical breakdown of food, and the
digestion of protein. The opening between the
esophagus and the stomach is called the cardiac
sphincter. The outer margin of the curved stomach
is called the greater curvature; the inner margin is
called the lesser curvature.
4. Locate the spleen which is about the same
colour as the liver and is attached to the greater curvature of the stomach. It is shaped like a
banana and is associated with the circulatory system and functions in the destruction of blood
cells and blood storage. It helps with the function of the immune system. A person may live
without a spleen but are more likely to get sick.
5. Locate the pancreas which is a thin membrane that may be white and granular. It lies beneath
the stomach. The pancreas produces digestive enzymes that are sent to the intestine via the
pancreatic duct.
6. Locate the small intestine which is a slender coiled tube that receives partially digested food
from the stomach via the pyloric sphincter. The term “small” refers to its diameter, not its length.
It consists of three sections: duodenum, ileum, and jejunum. The small intestine leads to the
cecum (also spelled caecum, latin term for “blind”). Observe that the small intestine is not loose
in the abdominal cavity but is held in place by the mesentery. Check and look for veins and
arteries in the clear mesentery; they transport nutrients.
7. Locate the cecum which is a pouch that connected the large and small intestine. Food is
temporarily stored in the cecum while helpful bacteria digest the cellulose found in plant cells.
Most herbivores have a large cecum. In humans and other omnivores, the cecum is smaller and
referred to as the appendix.
the colon and contains a variety of bacteria to aid in digestion.
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small intestine and leads to the anus. The final stage of digestion and water absorption occurs in
66
8. Locate the large intestine which is the large, possibly greenish tube that extends from the
9. Locate the rectum which is the short, terminal section of the colon between the descending
colon and anus. The rectum temporarily stores feces before they are expelled from the body.
Part Four: Circulatory System
The general structure of the circulatory system of the rabbit is almost identical to that of humans.
Pulmonary circulation carries blood through the lungs for oxygenation and then back to the
heart. Systematic circulation moves oxygenated blood through the body after it has left the heart
1. Observe the interior of the rabbit for any veins and arteries. Veins carry used blood (blue)
back to the heart and lungs. Arteries carry oxygenated blood to the muscles and organs that need
it. The arteries in your rabbit should be stained red for easy identification. Use Figures 3 and 4
to help you locate the major veins and arteries.
2. Locate the heart which is covered in a thin, tough membrane called the pericardium.
67
Figure 2: Circulatory System - Arteries
Page
Figure 1: Circulatory System - Veins
3. Proceed slowly and cautiously with this next step. Remove the heart from the pericardial sac.
You will need to sever the arteries and veins connecting the heart to the circulatory system.
Leave as many of the veins and arteries attached to the heart
as possible.
4. Identify the aorta, the superior vena cava and pulmonary
artery.
5. Cut the heart in half through the frontal plane using a sharp
blade. The heart is composed of four chambers. Use Figure 5
to help you locate the 2 atria and 2 ventricles. You may also
notice the septum. It is the structure that separabbites the two
ventricles.
Part Five: Urogenital System
Figure 3: Cross Section of a Heart
This section is a study of the urogenital system. “Uro” stand for the urinary system; “genital”
stands for the reproductive system. The urinary/excretory system and genital system are
structurally related.
1. Locate the kidneys which are the primary organs of the excretory system. These organs are
large bean shaped structures located towards the back of the abdominal cavity on either side of
the spine.
2. Remove one of the kidneys and cut it lengthwise. Notice the very fine veins and arteries
within. Locate the cortex and medulla on one half of the kidneys.
3. Locate the adrenal glands which are the small yellow glands embedded in the fat on top of the
kidneys. They secrete adrenaline into the blood during times of stress (ie. fight or flight)
For male rabbits:
a) The major reproductive organs of the male rabbit are the testes (singular: testis) which are
located in the scrotal sac. Cut through the sac carefully to reveal the testis. On the surface of the
testis is a coiled tube called the epididymis which collects and stores sperm cells. The tubular
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penis and out the body.
68
vas deferens moves sperm from the epididymis to the urethra, which carries sperm through the
b) The lumpy brown glands located to the left and right of the urinary bladder are the seminal
vesicles. The gland below the bladder is the prostate gland and it is partially wrapped around the
penis. The seminal vesicles and the prostate gland secrete materials that form the seminal fluid
(semen).
For female rabbits:
a) The short gray tube lying dorsal to the urinary bladder is the vagina. The vagina divides into
two uterine horns that extend toward the kidneys. This duplex uterus is common in some animals
and will accommodate multiple embryos (a litter). In contrast, a uterus found in humans has a
single chamber for the development of a single embryo.
b) At the tops of the uterine horns are small lumpy glands called ovaries, which are connected to
the uterine horns via oviducts. The oviducts are extremely tiny and may be difficult to find
without a dissecting scope.
*NOTE: You are responsible for know the individual components of both the male and
female reproductive systems. Be sure to observe a rabbit which is the opposite sex of
yours!!!
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69
Figure 4: Male Rabbit (left) and Female Rabbit (right) Reproductive Organs
Part Seven: Clean-up
1. With soap, wash all the utensils you used except for the scalpel. The instructor will collect all
blades at the end of the dissection.
2. Wash and thoroughly rinse the dissecting pan.
3. Dispose of the rabbit according to your instructor’s directions.
4. Return all materials to their appropriate bin.
5. Clear and wipe down your workspace.
Check each box as you identify the
Corresponding organ/structure:
Respiratory System
 Trachea
 Diaphragm
 Lungs
 Bronchi
Digestive System
 Liver
 Large Intestine
 Esophagus
 Rectum
 Stomach
 Spleen
 Pancreas
 Cecum
 Small Intestine
Circulatory System
 Heart
Excretory/Reproductive System
 Superior Vena Cava
 Kidneys
 Pulmonary Artery
 Adrenal Glands
 Aorta/Aortic Arch
 Ovaries (female only)
 Right/left Atrium
 Testes (male only)
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70
 Right/left Ventricle
Lab report
Put the name of each organs in the pictures above
1
3
5
7
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names on them.
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Capture at least 4 pictures for your dissected animal, and put the organs'
References:
 Biology Campbell (Jane B.Reece), university of California, 9 editions.
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/General_Biology
http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20101/bio_1_m
enu.htm
http://histology.med.umich.edu/medical/
http://www.biologycorner.com
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