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Outline: Mitosis and the Cell Cycle
1. Why we need cell division
2. Stages of the cell cycle
3. How bacteria are different
4. Regulating the cell cycle – how does a
cell know when to go to the next stage?
5. Cancer – what happens when the cell
cycle is unregulated
Fig. 12-2
Cell division is important for:
100 µm
(a) Reproduction
20 µm
200 µm
(b) Growth and
development
(c) Tissue renewal
Cell division results in genetically
identical daughter cells
• Most cell division (mitosis) results in daughter
cells with identical genetic information, DNA
• A special type of division (meiosis) produces
nonidentical daughter cells (gametes, or sperm
and egg cells). These cells have half as much
DNA as cells made by mitosis.
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Overview: Cell Division
• 2 ways to divide the cell’s DNA: mitosis and
meiosis
Mitosis
Meiosis
Makes new somatic (body) cells
Makes reproductive cells (eggs and
sperm)
Purpose: Growth, development,
repair
Purpose: Reproduction
New daughter cells have the same
number of chromosomes as the
parent cell
New daughter cells have half as many
chromosomes as the parent cell
“My toes are made by mitosis, my ova are made by meiosis.”
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Organization of the Genetic Material
• All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cell’s
genome
• A genome can consist of a single DNA molecule
(common in prokaryotic cells) or a number of
DNA molecules (common in eukaryotic cells)
• DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into
chromosomes, which are DNA molecules
wrapped around proteins called histones.
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-3
20 µm
• Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic
number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus
• Somatic cells (nonreproductive cells) have two
sets of chromosomes (1 from mom, 1 from dad)
• Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and eggs)
have half as many chromosomes as somatic
cells
• Eukaryotic chromosomes are made condensed
chromatin, a material made of DNA and protein
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Human Gamete Cell
Chromosomes
Human Somatic Cell
Chromosomes
Each chromosome is part of a pair
of 2 homologous chromosomes
Each chromosome is by itself –
doesn’t have a homologous
chromosome
Distribution of Chromosomes During
Eukaryotic Cell Division
• In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated
and the chromosomes condense
• Each duplicated chromosome has two identical
sister chromatids, which separate during cell
division
• The centromere is the narrow “waist” of the
duplicated chromosome, where the two
chromatids are most closely attached
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-UN3
Fig. 12-4
0.5 µm
Chromosomes
Chromosome arm
DNA molecules
Chromosome
duplication
(including DNA
synthesis)
Centromere
Sister
chromatids
Separation of
sister chromatids
Centromere
Sister chromatids
• Eukaryotic cell division consists of:
– Mitosis, the division of the nucleus
– Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm
• Gametes are produced by a variation of cell
division called meiosis
• Meiosis yields nonidentical daughter cells that
have only one set of chromosomes, half as
many as the parent cell
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Outline: Mitosis and the Cell Cycle
1. Why we need cell division
2. Stages of the cell cycle
3. How bacteria are different
4. Regulating the cell cycle – how does a
cell know when to go to the next stage?
5. Cancer – what happens when the cell
cycle is unregulated
Phases of the Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle consists of
– Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis)
• Mitosis has 5 subphases
– Interphase (cell growth and copying of
chromosomes in preparation for cell division)
• Interphase has 3 subphases
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can be
divided into subphases:
– G1 phase (“first gap”)
– S phase (“synthesis”)
– G2 phase (“second gap”)
• The cell grows during all three phases, but
chromosomes are duplicated only during the S
phase
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-5
G1
S
(DNA synthesis)
G2
G1 + S + G2 = Interphase
M phase = Mitosis
• Mitosis is conventionally divided into five
phases:
– Prophase
– Prometaphase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase
• Cytokinesis is well underway by late telophase
BioFlix: Mitosis
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-UN1
G1
S
Cytokinesis
Mitosis
G2
MITOTIC (M) PHASE
Prophase
Telophase and
Cytokinesis
Prometaphase
Anaphase
Metaphase
Fig. 12-6a
G2 of Interphase
Prophase
Prometaphase
Fig. 12-6b
G2 of Interphase
Chromatin
Centrosomes
(with centriole (duplicated)
pairs)
Prophase
Early mitotic Aster
spindle
Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma
envelope membrane
Prometaphase
Centromere
Chromosome, consisting
of two sister chromatids
Fragments
of nuclear
envelope
Kinetochore
Nonkinetochore
microtubules
Kinetochore
microtubule
The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look
• The mitotic spindle is an apparatus of
microtubules that controls chromosome
movement during mitosis
• During prophase, assembly of spindle
microtubules begins in the centrosome, the
microtubule organizing center
• The centrosome replicates, forming two
centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of
the cell, as spindle microtubules grow out from
them
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• An aster (a radial array of short microtubules)
extends from each centrosome
• The spindle includes the centrosomes, the
spindle microtubules, and the asters
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• During prometaphase, some spindle
microtubules attach to the kinetochores (parts
of the centromere that attach to the spindle
fibers) of chromosomes and begin to move the
chromosomes
• At metaphase, the chromosomes are all lined up
at the metaphase plate, the midway point
between the spindle’s two poles
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-7
Aster
Centrosome
Sister
chromatids
Microtubules
Chromosomes
Metaphase
plate
Kinetochores
Centrosome
1 µm
Overlapping
nonkinetochore
microtubules
Kinetochore
microtubules
0.5 µm
Fig. 12-UN4
Fig. 12-6c
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase and Cytokinesis
Fig. 12-6d
Metaphase
Anaphase
Metaphase
plate
Spindle
Centrosome at
one spindle pole
Telophase and Cytokinesis
Cleavage
furrow
Daughter
chromosomes
Nuclear
envelope
forming
Nucleolus
forming
• In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and
move along the kinetochore microtubules
toward opposite ends of the cell
• The microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at
their kinetochore ends
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• Nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite
poles overlap and push against each other,
elongating the cell
• In telophase, genetically identical daughter
nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Cytokinesis: A Closer Look
• In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process
known as cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow
• In plant cells, a cell plate forms during
cytokinesis
Animation: Cytokinesis
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-9a
100 µm
Cleavage furrow
Contractile ring of
microfilaments
Daughter cells
(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)
Fig. 12-9b
Vesicles
forming
cell plate
Wall of
parent cell
Cell plate
1 µm
New cell wall
Daughter cells
(b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM)
Fig. 12-10a
Nucleus
Nucleolus
1 Prophase
Chromatin
condensing
Fig. 12-10b
Chromosomes
2 Prometaphase
Fig. 12-10c
3 Metaphase
Fig. 12-10d
4 Anaphase
Fig. 12-10e
Cell plate
5 Telophase
10 µm
Fig. 12-UN5
Outline: Mitosis and the Cell Cycle
1. Why we need cell division
2. Stages of the cell cycle
3. How bacteria are different
4. Regulating the cell cycle – how does a
cell know when to go to the next stage?
5. Cancer – what happens when the cell
cycle is unregulated
Binary Fission
• Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce
by a type of cell division called binary fission
• In binary fission, the chromosome replicates
(beginning at the origin of replication), and the
two daughter chromosomes actively move apart
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-11-1
Cell wall
Origin of
replication
E. coli cell
Two copies
of origin
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome
Fig. 12-11-2
Cell wall
Origin of
replication
E. coli cell
Two copies
of origin
Origin
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome
Origin
Fig. 12-11-3
Cell wall
Origin of
replication
E. coli cell
Two copies
of origin
Origin
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome
Origin
Fig. 12-11-4
Cell wall
Origin of
replication
E. coli cell
Two copies
of origin
Origin
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome
Origin
The Evolution of Mitosis
• Since prokaryotes evolved before eukaryotes,
mitosis probably evolved from binary fission
• Certain protists exhibit types of cell division that
seem intermediate between binary fission and
mitosis
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-12
Bacterial
chromosome
(a) Bacteria
Chromosomes
Microtubules
Intact nuclear
envelope
(b) Dinoflagellates
Kinetochore
microtubule
Intact nuclear
envelope
(c) Diatoms and yeasts
Kinetochore
microtubule
Fragments of
nuclear envelope
(d) Most eukaryotes
Outline: Mitosis and the Cell Cycle
1. Why we need cell division
2. Stages of the cell cycle
3. How bacteria are different
4. Regulating the cell cycle – how does a
cell know when to go to the next stage?
5. Cancer – what happens when the cell
cycle is unregulated
The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by
a molecular control system
• The frequency of cell division varies with the
type of cell – some cells stop dividing altogether
• These cell cycle differences result from
regulation due to signaling molecules
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Evidence for Cytoplasmic Signals
• The cell cycle appears to be driven by specific
chemical signals present in the cytoplasm
• We know this because if you put cytoplasm
from one cell into a different cell, it can move
that cell ahead in the cell cycle
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-13
EXPERIMENT
Experiment 1
S
G1
Experiment 2
M
G1
RESULTS
S
S
When a cell in the
S phase was fused
with a cell in G1, the G1
nucleus immediately
entered the S
phase—DNA was
synthesized.
M
M
When a cell in the
M phase was fused with
a cell in G1, the G1
nucleus immediately
began mitosis—a
spindle formed and
chromatin condensed,
even though the
chromosome had not
been duplicated.
The Cell Cycle Control System
• The events of the cell cycle are directed by a cell
cycle control system, which is similar to a clock
• The cell cycle control system is regulated by
internal and external controls
• The clock has specific checkpoints where the
cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal (one of
those molecules in the cytoplasm) is received
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-14
G1 checkpoint
Control
system
G1
M
G2
M checkpoint
G2 checkpoint
S
• For many cells, the G1 checkpoint seems to be
the most important one
• If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1
checkpoint, it will usually complete the S, G2,
and M phases and divide
• If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal,
it will exit the cycle, switching into a nondividing
state called the G0 phase
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-15
G0
G1 checkpoint
G1
(a) Cell receives a go-ahead
signal
G1
(b) Cell does not receive a
go-ahead signal
The Cell Cycle Clock: Cyclins and
Cyclin-Dependent Kinases
• Two types of regulatory proteins are involved in cell
cycle control: cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases
(Cdks)
• The concentration of cyclins varies throughout the
cell cycle
• Cdks are dependent on cyclins, which activate them
• When cyclin and Cdk bind together, they form the
active molecule MPF that triggers a cell’s passage
past the G2 checkpoint into the M phase
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-16
RESULTS
5
30
4
20
3
2
10
1
0
100
200
300
Time (min)
400
0
500
Fig. 12-17b
Degraded
cyclin
G2
Cdk
checkpoint
Cyclin is
degraded
MPF
Cyclin
(b) Molecular mechanisms that help regulate the cell cycle
Cyclin accumulation
Cdk
Stop and Go Signs: Internal and External
Signals at the Checkpoints
• Cyclins and cdks are proteins that can be made
by ribosomes with instructions from DNA
• You have genes in your DNA that give
instructions for how to make these proteins
• Gene expression is regulated – each gene can be
turned on (causing that protein to be made) or
off at different times
• Internal and external signals lead to the genes
for cyclins and cdks being turned on or off.
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Examples of signals
• An example of an internal signal (comes from
inside the cell) is that kinetochores not attached
to spindle microtubules could send a molecular
signal that delays anaphase
• Some external signals (come from outside the
cell) are growth factors, proteins released by
certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide
• For example, platelet-derived growth factor
(PDGF) stimulates the division of human
fibroblast cells in culture
Fig. 12-18
Scalpels
Petri
plate
Without PDGF
cells fail to divide
With PDGF
cells proliferate
Cultured fibroblasts
10 µm
Outline: Mitosis and the Cell Cycle
1. Why we need cell division
2. Stages of the cell cycle
3. How bacteria are different
4. Regulating the cell cycle – how does a
cell know when to go to the next stage?
5. Cancer – what happens when the cell
cycle is unregulated
• Another example of external signals is densitydependent inhibition, in which crowded cells stop
dividing
• Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage dependence,
in which they must be attached to a stable surface in
order to divide
• Normal cells make a protein called p53 to stop the cell
cycle if there is a problem. In extreme cases, p53 can
cause a damaged cell to die (apoptosis)
• Cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent
inhibition nor anchorage dependence, and mutations
in the gene for p53 are the most common mutations
leading to cancer
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-19
Anchorage dependence
Density-dependent inhibition
Density-dependent inhibition
25 µm
25 µm
(a) Normal mammalian cells
(b) Cancer cells
Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer
Cells
• Cancer cells do not respond normally to the
body’s control mechanisms; they grow and
divide out of control
• Cancer cells may not need growth factors to
grow and divide:
– They may make their own growth factor
– They may convey a growth factor’s signal without
the presence of the growth factor
– They may have an abnormal cell cycle control
system
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell by a
process called transformation
– Happens due to mutations that change the DNA, making
the cell ignore regulatory checkpoints and measures.
Mutations in p53 are the most common.
• Cancer cells form tumors, masses of abnormal cells
within otherwise normal tissue
• The lump is called a benign tumor if the cancer
cells remain in the same place
• Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and
can metastasize, exporting cancer cells to other
parts of the body, where they may form secondary
tumors
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 12-20
Lymph
vessel
Tumor
Blood
vessel
Cancer
cell
Metastatic
tumor
Glandular
tissue
1 A tumor grows
from a single
cancer cell.
2 Cancer cells
invade neighboring tissue.
3 Cancer cells spread
to other parts of
the body.
4 Cancer cells may
survive and
establish a new
tumor in another
part of the body.