Download 1 Gender

1 Gender
6
Male
Female
Male
Female
actor
actress
hunter
huntress
bachelor
spinster
husband
wife
boar
sow
king
queen
boy
girl
lion
lioness
bridegroom
bride
male
female
brother
sister
man
woman
buck
doe
master
mistress
bull
cow
mayor
mayoress
bull-elephant
cow-elephant
monk/priest
nun/priestess
cock
hen
Negro
Negress
colt
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nephew
niece
dog
bitch
papa
mama
drake
duck
priest
nun
drone
queen bee
ram
ewe
father
mother
sir
madam
friar
nun
son
daughter
gentleman
lady
stallion
mare
giant
giantess
steer
heifer
grandfather
grandmother
tom-cat
tabby-cat
grandson
granddaughter
uncle
aunt
he-bear
she-bear
waiter
waitress
heir
heiress
widower
widow
hero
heroine
wizard
witch
fox
vixen
tiger
tigress
goose
gander
peacock
peahen
stag
hind
bullock
heifer
billy goat
nanny goat
cob
penn
prince
princess
king
queen
lord
lady
shepherd
shepherdess
ambassador
ambassadress
baron
baroness
emperor
empress
murderer
murderess
Male
Female
Male
Female
Rajah
Ranee
turkey-cock
turkey-hen
sire
dam
sultan
sultana
deer
doe
bestman
bridesmaid
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earl
countess
duke
duchess
god
goddess
merman
mermaid
sire (horse)
dam (horse)
2 The young of animals
Grown-up
Young
Grown-up
Young
Sheep, ram, ewe
Lamb
Dog, bitch
Puppy, pup
Man, woman
Child, baby
Drake, duck
Duckling
Lion
Cub
Owl
Owlet
Bear
Cub
Horse, stallion
Foal, colt
Goat
Kid
Mare
Filly
Cat
Kitten
Fowl, cock, hen
Chicken
Cow
Calf
Pig
Piglet
Bird
Nestling
Goose
Gosling
Turkey
Poult
Eagle
Eaglet
Frog
Tadpole
Buck
Fawn
Donkey
Foal
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Caterpillar/larva
Eel
Elver
Fish
Fry
Kangaroo
Joey
Swan
Cygnet
Peacock
Pea-chick
Hen
Chicken
Cock
Cockerel
Oyster
Spat
Salmon
Grilse
Whale
Calf
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3 Diminutives
Big
Small
Big
Small
Crown
Coronet
Cigar
Cigarette
Bill
Billet
Aunt
Auntie
Brace
Bracelet
Book
Booklet
Corn
Kernel
Cover
Coverlet
Dear
Dearie/deary/
darling
Grain
Granule
Drop
Droplet
Ice
Icicle
Hill
Hillock
Lad
Laddie
Kitchen
Kitchenette
Leaf
/HDÁHW
Lamb
Lambkin
Maid
Maiden
Lock
Locket
Meteor
Meteorite
Man
Manikin/mannikin
Part
Particle
Park **
Paddock
Ring
Ringlet
Prince
Princeling
Root
Rootlet
River
Rivulet
Scythe
Sickle
Sack
Satchel
Spark
Sparklet
Seed
Seedling
Sphere
Spherule
Speck
Speckle
Stream
Streamlet
Statue
Statuette
Wagon
Wagonette
Throat
Throttle
Isle
Islet
Verse
Versicle, verset
Pan
Pannikin
Lass
Lassie
Village
Hamlet
Bird
Birdie
Dog
Doggy
Lecture
Lecturette
Branch
Twig
Tree
Sapling
**paddock - utilitarian (for use with animals)
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4 Sounds
The rumble of thunder/heavy vehicles
The beat of a drum
The snap of a twig
The pop of a cork being drawn
The rattle of cups/crockery/chains
The click of a latch
The rustle of leaves
Steam hisses
A school bell rings
The telephone rings
The screech of brakes
The clatter of horses’ hoofs
An aeroplane engine drones
A church bell tolls/peals
The crack of a whip
Frying sausages sizzle
The hoot of a car
The moan of the wind/the sea
A motorboat chugs
The tinkle of bells
The chime of a clock
The crunch of boots on gravel/gears
The patter of rain/feet
The wail of sirens
The clank of chains
The tick of a clock/chime of a clock
The whine/scream of a jet engine
The creak of hinges
The jingle of coins
The grinding of gears
The creak/slam of a door
The gurgle of a stream
The clink/tinkle of glasses
The babble of a brook
The buzz of conversation
The crackleRIÀUH
The honk of a horn
The gush of water in pipes
The boom of breakers
Water lapping against the side of a
boat
The chug of a tractor
Sounds of animals
Bees hum
Lambs bleat
Dogs bark/howl/growl/snarl
Calves low (cattle low)
Kittens mew
A bull bellows
Pigs grunt
Frogs croak
Lions roar
Elephants trumpet
Donkeys bray
Owls hoot
Beetles drone
Snakes hiss
Chickens peep
Sparrows chirp
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Mice squeak
Turkeys gobble
Monkeys chatter
Horses neigh/whinny
A cock crows
A cat purrs
A hen cackles / clucks
A bird twitters
A wolf howls
Apes gibber
Bears growl
Cows low
Crickets chirp
Deer bell
Ducks quack
Flies buzz
Geese gaggle, hiss
Eagles and hawks scream
Hyenas laugh
Jackals howl
Parrots talk, chatter
Pigeons coo
Ravens croak
Seagulls and vultures scream
5 Collective nouns
10
a row of houses
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a crop of vegetables
a bunch of grapes
a team of players
a range of mountains
a bevy of beauties
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a set of teeth (tools)
a batch of bread
a staff of servants
a bank of clouds
a hoard of treasure
a circle of friends
a pile of rubbish
a collection of stamps
a roll of bank notes
a battery of guns
a pack of dogs
a chest of tea
a party of men
a gang of workmen
a ream of paper
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a school of porpoises
a column of smoke
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a squadron of aeroplanes
a troop of monkeys
a brood of chickens
a skein of wool
a rope of pearls
a sheaf of corn
a swarm of locusts
a string of beads
a colony of ants
a cede of badgers
a parliament of owls
a watch of nightingales
a covey of partridges
a sloth of bears
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an army of caterpillars
a congregation of plovers
a muster of peacocks
a string of ponies
a drove of cattle
a clowder of cats
a peep of chickens
a nest of rabbits
a litter of puppies
a balding of ducks
a dule of doves
a murder of crows
a pod of seals/whales
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a crash of rhinoceroses
a dray of squirrels
a host of sparrows
a clutch of eggs
a cast of hawks
a husk of hares
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a mustering of storks
a gaggle of geese
a drove/stud/of horses
a siege of herons
a brood of hens
a rafter of turkeys
a hover of trout
a bevy of larks
a pod of dolphins
a kindle of kittens
a bundle of sticks
a bale of wool
a bale of turtles
a pack of wolves
a pride of lions
a leap of leopards
a galaxy of stars
a bench of judges
a descent of woodpeckers
a pack of cards
a stack of hay
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a batch of cakes
a crate of bananas
a group of people
a class of pupils
a crowd of people
a litter of pups
a tuft of grass
a pocket of oranges
a school of dolphins
a circle of friends
a brace of rabbits (shot)
a canteen of cutlery
a range of mountains
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a crop of vegetables
a set of teeth
a cluster of diamonds
a tray of peaches
a hive of bees
a posse of policemen
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a grove of orange trees
a set of golf clubs
a convoy of ships
a herd of cattle
a board of directors
a volley of gunshots
a drove of pigs
an audience in a theatre
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6 Comparisons
as black as coal (ink/ the
night)
as brave as a lion
as fat as a pig
as quick as lightning
as red as blood
as soft as butter
as busy as a bee
as cold as ice
as gentle as a lamb (a
as right as rain
as round as a ball
as strong as a lion (a
horse/an ox)
as deaf as a doorpost
as dead as a doornail
as green as grass
as safe as houses
as sick as a dog
as drunk as a lord
as faithful as a dog
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as slow as a snail
as sour as vinegar
as thin as a rake
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as good as gold
as stupid as a donkey (an
ox)
as happy as a king/lark
as loud as thunder
as straight as an arrow
as greedy as a pig
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as warm as toast
as rotten as dirt
as sweet as honey (sugar) as tall as a giant
as pale as death
as heavy as lead
as hungry as a hunter
as tender as a lamb
as tame as a sheep
as old as the hills
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as light as a feather
as white as snow (a sheet)
as slippery as an eel
as ugly as sin
as sure as fate
as black as a crow
as pretty as a picture
as poor as a church
mouse
as sly as a fox
as clear as crystal (day)
as swift as a hare
as tough as leather
as cool as a cucumber
as artful as a monkey
as fresh as a daisy
as cheap as dirt
as innocent as a lamb
as obstinate as a mule
as keen as mustard
as playful as a kitten
as hard as nails
as quiet as a mouse
as smooth as glass
as large as life
as proud as a peacock
as dry as dust (bone)
as crisp as a new bank
as bold as brass
as thick as thieves
as deep as a well/the sea
as steady as a rock
as talkative as a parrot
as salt as a herring
as blind as a bat
as sound as a bell
as plain as a pikestaff
as fair as a lily
as easy as winking
as clumsy as an elephant
as lively as a cricket
as mad as a hatter
as wise as Solomon
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as safe as a bank
as dirty as a sow
as sharp as a needle
as silly as a sheep/goose
as brown as a berry
as patient as Job
as dull as ditchwater
as crafty as a fox
as meek as a lamb
as brittle as glass
as easy as A B C
as sturdy as an oak
as hot as a furnace
as clean as a new pin
as stiff as a poker
as bitter as gall
as silent as the grave
as alike as two peas in a
pod
The following are also handy to know
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To act like a lunatic
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To sleep like a log
To tremble like a leaf
To cling like ivy
To grow like a weed
To climb like a monkey
To melt like snow
Her cheeks are like roses
News spreads like
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To fall like a log
To have eyes like saucers
Something shines like a
mirror
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He eats like a horse
To read someone like an
open book
To work like a Trojan
A boat leaks like a sieve
To sing like a bird/lark
To run for dear life
Degrees of comparison
There are three degrees of comparison.
Positive:
(relating to one person only)
Comparative: (relating to two persons only)
Superlative: (relating to more than two persons)
The small naughty girl.
The smaller naughtier girl.
The smallest naughtiest girl.
Degrees of comparison are formed in the following ways.
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-er and -est
short
slow
narrow
shorter
slower
narrower
shortest
slowest
narrowest
13
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more than two syllables, simply add the words more or most before the adjective.
hopeful
beautiful
attractive
more hopeful
more beautiful
more attractive
most hopeful
most beautiful
most attractive
3. Adjectives of two syllables ending with -ful and -re usually take more and most.
doubtful
more doubtful
most doubtful
obscure
more obscure
most obscure
4. Adjectives with two syllables ending in -er and -y or -ly usually take -er and -est.
clever
pretty
silly
cleverer
prettier
sillier
cleverest
prettiest
silliest
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quiet
pleasant
common
narrow
quieter
pleasanter
commoner
narrower
quietest
pleasantest
commonest
narrowest
6. Irregular degrees of comparison.
good
well
bad
little
near
near
much
many
far
far
late
late
old
better
better
worse
less
nearer
nearer
more
more
farther
further
later
latter
elder
best
best
worst
least
nearest
next
most
most
farthest
furthest
latest
last
eldest
a. Lesser is an archaic form that is used in only a few phrases.
To choose the lesser of two evils.
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b. Nearest refers to distance, the word next refers to order.
Where is the nearest town?
The next town is Standerton.
14
c. Farther generally refers to distance. Further can be used in the same context
but it usually has the specialised meaning of additional.
I cannot run any farther.
I’ll give you further details tomorrow.
I’ll need further assistance with these forms.
d. Latter means the second of two persons or objects and is the opposite of
former.
He studied French and German, the latter extensively.
Latest has the meaning of the most recent.
The latest best-seller.
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the previous.
He came last.
Last night I ....
e. The words elder and eldest are only used to describe people and then only for
members of the same family. They are often used attributively.
My elder sister is two years older than I.
Peter is my eldest brother.
The words older and oldest are used for people and objects.
Susie is older than Mary.
This is the oldest church in Bethal.
f. The words outer and outmost indicate the position from a central point.
The satellite is in orbit in outer space.
Cannibals were seen on the outmost islands of the South Seas.
The words utter and utmost are historically derived from “out”, but their
modern day meaning has completely changed.
He looked at the teacher with utter disbelief.
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7. Some adjectives cannot be compared at all!
Dead, perfect, unique, matchless, full, empty, square, round, circular, triangular,
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15
Degrees of comparison
16
Good
Better
Best
Bad
Worse
Worst
Little
Less
Least
Many
More
Most
Much
More
Most
Old
Older/ elder
Oldest/ eldest
Far
Farther/ further
Farthest/ furthest
Thick
Thicker
Thickest
Cold
Colder
Coldest
New
Newer
Newest
Young
Younger
Youngest
High
Higher
Highest
Wide
Wider
Widest
Wet
Wetter
Wettest
Tall
Taller
Tallest
Clever
Cleverer
Cleverest
Pretty
Prettier
Prettiest
Easy
Easier
Easiest
Heavy
Heavier
Heaviest
Noisy
Noisier
Noisiest
Happy
Happier
Happiest
Naughty
Naughtier
Naughtiest
Thirsty
Thirstier
Thirstiest
Beautiful
More beautiful
Most beautiful
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Pleasant
Pleasanter
Pleasantest
Careful
More careful
Most careful
Honest
More honest
Most honest
Careless
More careless
Most careless
Wonderful
More wonderful
Most wonderful
Handsome
More handsome
Most handsome
7 Containers
a tin of jam
a basket of fruit
a pocket of oranges
a plate of soup
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a bottle of medicine
a cup of tea
a bucket of water
a packet of candles
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a tube of toothpaste
a glass of lemonade
a pail of milk
a box of matches
a mug of coffee
a jug of milk
a drum of oil
a bag of mealies
a glass of milk
We call people who live in...
Japan ......................
Japanese
Greece ....................
Greeks
France .....................
French
Egypt ......................
Egyptians
Belgium ..................
Belgians
China ......................
Chinese
Siam ........................
Siamese
Norway ..................
Norwegians
Sweden ..................
Swedes
Scotland .................
Scots
Italy ........................
Italian
Germany ................
Germans
South Africa ..........
South Africans
England ..................
English
Israel .......................
Israelis
Canada ...................
Canadians
Russia .....................
Russians
Arabia ....................
Arabs
Europe ....................
Europeans
America .................
Americans
Asia .........................
Asians
Afghanistan ...........
Afghanis
Argentina ...............
Argentinians
Australia ................
Australians
Bolivia ....................
Bolivians
Brazil ......................
Brazilians
Congo .....................
Congolese
Cyprus ...................
Cypriots
Finland ...................
Finns
Iceland ....................
Icelanders
Iran .........................
Iranese
Ireland ....................
Irish
Kenya .....................
Kenyans
Madagascar ...........
Madagascans
Malta ......................
Maltese
Mexico ....................
Mexicans
Monaco ..................
Monacans
Marocco .................
Moroccans
17
18
Mozambique .........
Mozambicans
Namibia .................
Namibians
Nepal ......................
Nepalese
Netherlands ...........
Dutch
Pakistan .................
Pakistanis
Peru ........................
Peruvians
Poland ....................
Poles
Portugal .................
Portuguese
Rwanda ..................
Rwandese
Senegal ...................
Senegalese
Spain .......................
Spaniards
Swaziland ..............
Swazis
Syria .......................
Syrians
Taiwan ...................
Taiwanese
Sudan .....................
Sudanese
Togo .......................
Togolese
Switzerland ...........
Swiss
Vietnam .................
Vietnamese
Turkey ....................
Turks
Zimbabwe .............
Zimbabweans
Zambia ...................
Zambians
Durban ...................
Durbanites
Cape Town ............
Capetonians
Paris ........................
Parisians
Johannesburg ........
Johannesburgers
London ...................
Londoners
Hamburg ...............
Hamburgers
Berlin ....................... Berliners
Eton ........................
Etonians
8 Nouns
Names of people
A person who lives next door to you is your
neighbour
A man who carries luggage on a station is a
porter
A man who mends shoes is a
shoemaker, cobbler
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A lady who serves you in a cafe/restaurant is a
waitress
A person in charge of a library is a
librarian
A person who sells cloth and dress materials is a
draper
A person who writes books is an
author
A man who serves on a ship is a
sailor
A person who takes photographs is a
photographer
A man who uses a plough is called a
farmer/ploughman
A man who serves people at a table is called a
waiter
A man who uses handcuffs is called a
policeman
One who cares for the sick is a
nurse/sister
One who steals is a
thief
One who works for someone in the house is a
servant/domestic helper
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cannibal
One who has a shop is a
shopkeeper
One who buys things in a shop is a
customer
One who delivers milk is a
milkman
One who works in a garden is a
gardener
One who is sent to convert the heathen is a
missionary
One who breaks into a house to steal is a
burglar
One who is ill in hospital is a
patient
One who is received at another’s house is a
guest
The head of a hospital is a
matron/superintendent
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pilot
One who repairs cars is a
mechanic
One who works with wood is a
carpenter
One who works with water-pipes is a
plumber
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19
People who work together as a staff is a
personnel
A person in a wheelchair is
disabled
A person who crosses a street is a
pedestrian
The head of a school is a
principal/headmaster
A person who makes clothes is a
tailor/seamstress
A person who looks after prisoners in jail is a
warden
A person who directs a ship or aeroplane is a
navigator/pilot
A person who watches a game of rugby is a
spectator
One who goes on foot is a
pedestrian
People who attend a church service are the
congregation
A person who writes poetry is a
poet
A man who builds ships is a
shipwright
Names of places
20
Where dogs are kept
Kennel
Where fruit trees are grown
Orchard
Where religious services are held
Church
Where convicts are kept in cells
gaol/jail/prison
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Cinema
Where books may be borrowed
Library
Where the dead are buried
Cemetery
In which pigs are kept
Sty
Where grapes are grown
Vineyard
In which fowls are kept
Run
Where ships are docked
Harbour
In which bees are kept
Hive
In which a springhare lives
Burrow
In which horses are kept
Stable
Where motor-cars are kept
Garage
Where fruit and vegetables are sold
Greengrocer/Market
Where sick people are looked after
Hospital
Where money is kept
Bank
Where stamps may be bought
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Where an artist paints
Studio
Where children are taught
School
Where dishes are washed up
Scullery
Where sheep and cattle are sold
Stock-fair
Where things are manufactured
Factory
Where stuffed animals may be seen
Museum
A place where one can overnight
Hotel/Motel/Lodge
A place to enjoy a meal
Restaurant
Where cows are milked
Cowshed
Where calves sleep at night
Calf-pen
Where calves are kept during the day
Paddock
Where fodder is kept
Shed / barn
Where only boots, shoes are sold
Shoe-store
Where butter and cheese are made
Dairy
Where bread and cake are made
Bakery
Where mealies, wheat is ground
Mill
Where meat is sold
Butchery
Where wild animals are kept in cages
Zoo
Where bricks are made
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Where cases are heard by the magistrate
Court
Where plants are bought
Nursery
Where orphans live together
Orphanage
Where old people dwell together
Old age home
Where birds are kept
Aviary
A badger’s home
Sett
An eagle’s home
Eyrie
21
9 One word for...
22
Cups, plates, saucers
Crockery
Knives, forks, spoons, teaspoons
Cutlery
Sheets, pillows, pillow cases, blankets
Bedding
Carrots, potatoes, tomatoes, cabbage
Vegetables
Apples, oranges, lemons, mangoes
Fruit
Materials, lace, cotton
Drapery
Socks, stockings
Hosiery
Diamonds, gold, earrings, bangles
Jewellery
Pins, needles, cotton
Haberdashery
Jerseys, dresses, suits
Clothing
A tennis frock, rugby clothes
Sportswear
Grasshoppers, ants, beetles, bees
Insects
Buffaloes, lions, kudu, impala
Game
Snakes, lizard, tortoises, crocodile
Reptile
Horses, donkeys, cattle, sheep
Livestock
Rabbits, mice, hamsters
Rodents
Tables, chairs, beds
Furniture
Chicken, ducks, geese, turkeys
Poultry
Oranges, mandarin, pomelos
Citrus fruit
Mangoes, paw-paws, pineapples, bananas
Subtropical fruit
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Hardware
Spades, rake, hosepipe
Garden equipment
Paper, pens, books, cards
Stationery
10 Opposites
Absent
Present
Good
Bad
Accept
Refuse / Decline
Happy
Sad
Alive
Dead
Hard
Soft
Always
Never
Harmful
Harmless
Arrive
Depart
Hate
Love
Asleep
Awake
Heavy
Light
Back
Front
High
Low
Begin
End
Hit
Miss
Better
Worse
Honest
Dishonest
Busy
Idle
Inside
Outside
Buy
Sell
Joy
Sorrow
Calm
Stormy
Kind
Unkind
Careful
Careless
Laugh
Cry
Clean
Dirty
Left
Right
Clever
Stupid
Like
Dislike
Close
Open
Long
Short
Cold
Hot
Loud
Soft
Day
Night
Many
Few
Dear / Expensive
Cheap
Much
Little
Deep
Shallow
Naughty
Good
Dull
Bright
Neat
Untidy / Slovenly
Dwarf
Giant
Often
Seldom
Early
Late
Old
Young / New
Easy
'LIÀFXOW
Open
Shut
Far
Near
Pass
Fail
Fast
Slow
Peace
War
Fat
Thin
Possible
Impossible
Find
Lose
Question
Answer
First
Last
Quick
Slow
Fresh
Stale
Quiet
Noisy / Loud
Friend
Enemy
Raw
Cooked
Friendly
Unfriendly
Rich
Poor
Full
Empty
Right
Wrong
23
Ripe
Green / Unripe
Summer
Winter
Rise
Fall
Sweet
Sour
Rough
Smooth
Thick
Thin
Same
Different
Top
Bottom
Save
Spend
Ugly
Pretty / Beautiful
Sharp
Blunt
Well
Badly
Short
Tall
Wet
Dry
Start
Finish
Wide
Narrow
Straight
Crooked
Wild
Tame
Strong
Weak
Win
Lose
11 Idiomatic expressions
1. His bark is worse than his bite - A person who threatens, but seldom does
something.
2. To bear a grudge - Not to forgive someone for something.
3. Between you and me and the gate-post - To tell something in secrecy.
4. A bird’s-eye view - An overall view, taking in a lot of scenery / facts.
5. In black and white - It must be written down.
6. To make one’s blood boil - To get angry.
7. To rack your brains - To think very hard.
8. To build castles in the air - To imagine plans which seldom come true.
9. A wild goose chase - Plans which have no possibility of success.
24
10. $VWKHFURZÁLHV - A straight line through the air.
11. To look daggers - To show your annoyance (cross).
12. To have an eye on - To desire something / to watch a person.
13. 7RKDYHDÀQJHULQWKHSLH - To take part in something, usually in schemes.
14. To turn green with envy - To be jealous of someone / something.
15. To look down upon - To despise something / someone.
16. To hit the nail on the head - To say exactly the right thing / To show insight.
17. To turn over a new leaf - To try to live a better life, do things better.
18. In a nutshell - To say something in a few words / in brief.
19. Smell a rat - To be suspicious.
20. Know the ropes - To know things well.
21. Through thick and thin - Regardless.
22. On the tip of one’s tongue7RIDLOWRÀQGWKHZRUGRQHWKLQNVRQHUHPHPEHUV
23. To blow one’s own trumpet - To brag / To boast.
24. To rub up the wrong way - To irritate someone / To annoy someone.
25. To have words with someone - To quarrel with someone.
26. To carry weight7RKDYHLQÁXHQFH
27. To lose one’s head - To panic.
28. On the warpath - To look for trouble / To look for confrontation.
29. To beat about the bush - Doesn’t / Can’t come to a point.
30. To hit below the belt - An unfair strike.
31. %LUGVRIDIHDWKHUÁRFNWRJHWKHU - Persons of the same character and taste usually
keep company.
32. Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched'RQ·WEHRYHUFRQÀGHQWDQG
assume success before you know the outcome of a venture.
33. A stitch in time saves nine - Repair things at once, it saves time.
25
34. Where there’s a will there’s a way - If one is determined to succeed, one will
DOZD\VÀQGDZD\WRGRVR
35. Better late than never - It’s better to do something late than not to do it at all.
36. It never rains but it pours - Misfortunes come in numbers.
37. A friend in need is a friend indeed$IULHQGLQGLIÀFXOWWLPHVLVDUHDOIULHQG
38. You can take a horse to the water, but you can’t make it drink - You can give
someone opportunities, but you can’t make them take advantage of them.
39. Once bitten, twice shy - A person who has been disappointed or harmed once by
somebody won’t trust that person again.
40. The early bird catches the worm7KHSHUVRQZKRFRPHVÀUVWJHWVWKHEHVW
41. More haste, less speed - If you are in a hurry, you don’t do things properly.
42. Like father, like son - A child often resembles his parent’s ways in character or
doings.
43. To be above-board - To be honest.
44. To bite off more than you can chew - To take on more responsibilities than you
really can handle.
45. To make old bones - To become older.
46. To buy a pig in a poke - To buy something that really has no value at all.
47. To give the cold shoulder - To ignore someone.
48. To ride for a fall - Looking for trouble.
49. To keep a stiff upper lip - To remain calm and composed in the face of problems
or danger.
50. That’s where the shoe pinches - That’s where the trouble is.
51. To sell for a song - To sell something worth a lot, for almost nothing (cheaply).
52. A chip of the old block - To have the same characteristics as one’s parents.
26
12 Singular and plural
Rules for forming the plural
1. The most common way of forming the plural is to add –s, or –es to the singular,
e.g. week – weeks; vine – vines; brush – brushes.
2. Change –f or –fe into –ves, eg. wife – wives; thief - thieves.
([FHSWLRQVDUHWKHIROORZLQJZRUGVZKHUH\RXRQO\DGG²VWRWKHÀQDO²I
e.g. roof – roofs; chief – chiefs; cuff – cuffs; belief – beliefs; dwarf – dwarfs;
grief - griefs; brief – briefs; cliff – cliffs; reef – reefs; gulf – gulfs; puff – puffs;
handkerchief – handkerchiefs.
4. Add –s only to some nouns ending in –oo and –o, e.g. piano – pianos; radio radios, zoo - zoos, bamboo - bamboos.
5. But add –es to these nouns, e.g. potato – potatoes; hero – heroes; hobo – hoboes;
mosquito – mosquitoes; tomato – tomatoes, cargo - cargoes, echo - echoes.
6. Add –s to some nouns ending in –ay, -ey, –oy, e.g. joy –joys; key – keys;
play – plays.
&KDQJHWKH²\LQWR²LHVLQWKHVHÁ\²ÁLHVMHOO\²MHOOLHVFRXQWU\FRXQWULHV
8. Irregular plurals, some changing the vowel, e.g. mouse – mice; ox – oxen;
goose – geese; child – children; tooth - teeth, louse - lice.
9. Few nouns have the same form for singular and plural, e.g. buck – buck;
sheep – sheep; quail – quail; salmon – salmon; deer – deer; gross – gross;
ÀVK²ÀVKVZLQH²VZLQHFDWWOHSLQFHUVWURXVHUVMHDQV
10. Some nouns have no singular form, e.g. scissors, pliers, trousers, pants,
spectacles, news, measles and mumps.
11. Some nouns have no plural form, e.g. gold, furniture, fruit, luggage, game (wild
animals) , stock (sheep, cattle), information, advice, knowledge, ignorance,
nonsense, education, progress, wealth, poverty, luck, childhood, music, poetry,
biology, photography, economics, safety, violence, laughter, anger.
12. These can take a -s or change to -ves: hoof - hoofs - hooves; scarf - scarfs scarves; wharf - wharfs - wharves.
27
Singular/plural list
28
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
army
armies
dairy
dairies
ass
asses
daisy
daisies
atlas
atlases
dentist
dentists
avocado
avocados
dish
dishes
baby
babies
donkey
donkeys
bamboo
bamboos
dwarf
dwarfs
banjo
banjos
dairy
dairies
bench
benches
daisy
daisies
berry
berries
dentist
dentists
body
bodies
dish
dishes
box
boxes
donkey
donkeys
boy
boys
dress
dresses
branch
branches
dwarf
dwarfs
bridge
bridges
echo
echoes
brooch
brooches
enemy
enemies
brush
brushes
ewe
ewes
buck
buck
family
families
buffalo
buffaloes
ÀVK
ÀVK
bunch
bunches
Á\
ÁLHV
bush
bushes
foot
feet
bus
buses
fruit
fruit
calf
calves
guess
guesses
canary
canaries
game
game
cargo
cargoes
gas
gases
chief
chiefs
glass
glasses
child
children
goose
geese
church
churches
hair
hair
class
classes
half
halves
commando
commandos
handful
handfuls
cook
cooks
handle
handles
country
countries
heathen
heathen
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
hero
heroes
radio
radios
hoof
hoofs/hooves
roof
roofs
horse
horses
rope
ropes
house
houses
scarf
scarfs/scarves
knife
knives
self
selves
lady
ladies
sheaf
sheaves
leaf
leaves
sheep
sheep
life
lives
shelf
shelves
loaf
loaves
sky
skies
louse
lice
solo
solos
man
men
soprano
sopranos
mango
mangoes
story
stories
Mary
Mary’s
table
tables
monkey
monkeys
tax
taxes
mosquito
mosquitoes
thief
thieves
moth
moths
tie
ties
mouse
mice
tomato
tomatoes
mule
mules
tooth
teeth
ox
oxen
toy
toys
page
pages
two
two’s
party
parties
volcano
volcanoes
peach
peaches
watch
watches
photo
photos
weed
weed
piano
pianos
wife
wives
piece
pieces
wish
wishes
pony
ponies
wolf
wolves
potato
potatoes
woman
women
princess
princesses
wool
wool
proof
proofs
zoo
zoos
puff
puffs
puppy
puppies
29
13 Abbreviations
30
adj.
Adjective
AA
Alcoholics Anonymous / Automobile Association
a.m.
Before noon (Latin - ante meridiem)
a/c
Account
ad.
Advertisement
A.D.
Anno Domini (in the year of our Lord)
Adj.
Adjutant
ad lib.
Ad libitum (at pleasure)
Aids
$FTXLUHGLPPXQHGHÀFLHQF\V\QGURPH
ans.
Answer
ATM
Automatic teller machine
Ave.
Avenue
B.C.
Before Christ
Co.
Company
C.O.D.
Cash on delivery
D.I.Y.
Do-it-yourself
Dr.
Doctor
e.g.
For example
etc.
And others; and the rest (Latin - et cetera)
i.e.
That is (Latin - id est)
G.B.
Great Britain
g
Gram
kg
Kilogram
M.P.
Member of Parliament; Military Police
P.A.Y.E.
Pay as you earn
p.m.
After noon (Latin - post meridiem)
P.O.
3RVW2IÀFH
Rd
Road
S.A.
South Africa; Salvation Army
St
Street; saint
Std
Standard
S.A.P.S.
South African Police Service
T.V.
Television
U.S.A.
United States of America
V.A.T.
Value Added Tax
V.I.P.
Very important person
yr., yrs
Year, years
U.K.
United Kingdom
14 Words that are easily confused
Borrow and lend
(When you borrow, you receive; when you lend, you give)
e.g. I am not going to lend you my pen.
(lend to)
I want to borrow a book from you.
(borrow from someone)
Can and may
(can means to be able)
e.g. Teacher, may I please leave the room?
I can open the door.
Teach and learn
(The teacher teaches the children, but they learn)
e.g. What are you going to teach us today?
I shall have to learn harder this year.
Lie and lay
/LHWROLHÁDWRQDEHGOLHOD\ODLQ
Lie - to tell a lie (lie - lied - lied)
Lay - lay the table (laid - laid)
Lay - chickens lay eggs (laid - laid)
Much and many
(Many = countable)
e.g. many children; much time; much money;
many books; much sugar
Few and little
(Few = countable)
e.g. a few children; a little time
31
a few people; a little happiness
Between and among
(Between is used for 2 only)
e.g. Mother divided the sweets between my brother and me.
We divided all the fruit among us.
Their and there
Their: The boys are enjoying their game.
There: There are seven girls in the team.
In, into and to
1. The car ran into a telephone pole.
2. I live in Kroonstad.
:HUDQWRWKH3RVW2IÀFHWRSRVWWKHOHWWHUV
:H UDQ WR WKH 3RVW 2IÀFH WR SRVW WKH OHWWHUV
Quite and quiet
1. Keep quiet please!
2. He is quite well again after his illness.
Live and stay
(Live is permanent; stay is temporary)
e.g. I live in Krugersdorp.
I am staying in Durban for the holidays.
Rise and raise
(Rise means to move upwards; raise means to lift up something)
e.g. The smoke rises in the air.
John raised his head.
Fewer and less
(Fewer is less in number; less is less in quantity)
e.g. We have fewer cattle than they.
He had less money than I.
Older and elder
(Elder applies to relations only and is always used before the noun.)
e.g. Mary is older than Agnes.
My elder sister is in grade eight.
Passed and past
(Passed is always a verb; past is not a verb)
e.g. The holidays passed quickly.
32
We walked past the church.
Farther and further
)DUWKHUPHDQVPRUHGLVWDQWIXUWKHUPHDQVDGGLWLRQDORUUHIHUVWRÀJXUDWLYH
distance)
e.g. John ran much farther than I did.
I need further information.
15 Apostrophe
Note: The apostrophe is used for indicating possession (see 1 and 2 below) and for
contraction ( see 3 below).
1. We usually add a S and put the apostrophe before the S
e.g. Mary’s shoes
the baby’s arm
the cow’s tail
the cupboard’s shelf.
2. When the noun is plural and ends in S, we put the apostrophe after the S
e.g. the cows’ tails
the babies’ clothes
the cupboards’ shelves
3. An apostrophe is used to take place of letters that have been left out - contraction.
e.g. do not - don’t
does not - doesn’t
did not - didn’t
you are - you’re
he is - he’s
we have - we’ve
where is - where’s
will not - won’t
I am - I’m
should not - shouldn’t
Note: The apostrophe s (‘s) is not used to form the plural in English except in the
alphabet and numerals e.g. A’s, P’s, Q’s and two’s, three’s, ten’s
16 Parts of speech
Nouns
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing or quality.
e.g. dentist, teacher
- person
buck, goose
- animal
park, Durban
- place
33
rainbow, pencil
- thing
(common noun)
honesty, curiosity - quality (abstract noun)
Four main classes
• Common nouns - names given to ordinary, everyday people, places and things,
e.g. woman, doctor, king, town
• Proper nouns - names of particular people, places and things. Most begin with
capital letters, e.g. Albert, John, Durban, Cape Town
• Collective nouns - names of groups of people, places and things of the same kind
• Abstract nouns - names of qualities, feelings and actions which we cannot
actually see, hear, taste, touch or smell, e.g. kindness, sorrow, joy
17 Adjectives
• Add colour and interest to sentences by describing, or giving more information
about nouns.
• One can form adjectives from nouns, e.g. athlete - athletic; drama - dramatic;
RIÀFHRIÀFLDO
Comparison of adjectives
• There are three degrees of comparison
a. positive degree: refers to one thing
b. comparative degree: compares two things
c. superlative degree: describes the best or the most
• Most adjectives of one or two syllables form the comparative and superlative
degrees by adding -er and -est
E.g.
fast
funny
faster
funnier
fastest
funniest
• Other adjectives have to change to form the comparative and superlative degrees
E.g.
34
good
little
many
better
less
more
best
least
most
• Some adjectives cannot be compared
E.g.
dead, perfect, alive, married
• Longer adjectives form their comparative and superlative degrees with the help
of more and most
E.g.
interesting
painful
more interesting
more painful
most interesting
most painful
The position of adjectives
Adjectives may be used in one of two ways, attributively and predicatively.
Attributively
+HUHWKHDGMHFWLYHLVXVHGLQIURQWRIWKHQRXQWKDWLWGHVFULEHVRUTXDOLÀHV
$EHDXWLIXOÁRZHU $EDUNLQJGRJ
$KHDOWK\ER\
Predicatively
Here the adjective is placed some way away from the noun. It directly follows the
verb. Predicative adjectives are normally adjectives of quality. Adjectives are also
used predicatively after the verbs - be, become, seem, appear, feel, get, grow, keep,
look, make, smell, sound, taste, turn
The lily is beautiful.
Tom became rich.
Peter felt cold.
He looked calm.
The dog is barking.
Susan seems happy.
He grew impatient.
Some adjectives change their meaning when they are moved from attributive to
predicative
A small farmer.
The farmer is small.
(He has a small farm)
(He is a small man physically)
The adjectives chief, main, principal, sheer, utter are used before the noun
His chief concern was the safety of the children.
The main reason was .....
The principal point of his argument was ....
It was sheer madness to ....
He spoke utter rubbish.
Most adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively:
35
a. The following adjectives can be used only predicatively:
DVOHHSDIUDLGDZDNHDORQHDZDUHDOLYHDÁRDWDVKDPHGFRQWHQWH[HPSWDQG
unable
b. The following adjectives can only be used attributively
former, latter, inner, outer
c. Adjectives are used predicatively when used in a phrase that expresses
measurement
The Crocodile River is two hundred kilometres long.
A building is ten storeys high.
d. Adjectives are used predicatively when more than one are used with the noun
The mongrel was thin and mangy.
The judge was both witty and wise.
e. Adjectives are used predicatively when they are followed by a prepositional
phrase
We shared the sweets evenly amongst the four of us.
I ran quickly across the road.
Adjectives may be used in three different ways
a. One word: The young farmer. The empty house.
b. A phrase: The farmer with the beard is my brother.
c. A clause: The farmer, who is standing over there, is my brother.
Remember a phrase is a description of something that does not contain a verb; a
clause on the other hand always has a verb.
Adjectives can be formed in many ways
a. They can be formed by nouns: A stone wall bordered the house.
A leather belt is better.
A crime reporter.
b. They can be formed from verbs by making use of the participle (third column):
There were a lot of broken windows. (break)
The tired baby fell asleep. (tire)
F $GMHFWLYHVFDQEHIRUPHGIURPQRXQVDVZHOODVYHUEVE\DGGLQJVXIÀ[HV
36
-y
storm - stormy; cloud - cloudy; health - healthy
-ly
friend - friendly; father - fatherly
-ful
harm - harmful; hope - hopeful; hurt - hurtful
-less
harm - harmless; hope - hopeless; use - useless
-en
gold - golden; wood -wooden
-ous
danger - dangerous; fame - famous; fury - furious
-able
comfort - comfortable; honour - honourable
-ible
terror - terrible; horror - horrible
-some
trouble - troublesome; quarrel - quarrelsome
-ic
atom - atomic; Iceland - Icelandic
-ed
talent - talented; hate - hated; tire - tired
-like
child - childlike; god - godlike
-al
brute - brutal; accident - accidental
-ual
fact - factual, habit - habitual
-an
republic - republican; America - American
-ian
Shakespeare - Shakespearian
-ical
prophet - prophetically; economic - economical
-ish
child - childish; Jew - Jewish
-eous
instant - instantaneous; plenty - plenteous
-ive
rest - restive; correct - corrective; talk - talkative
-ing
love - loving; hate - hating; tire - tiring
d. The formation of the negatives of adjectives: these are formed by adding either
SUHÀ[HVRUVXIÀ[HV
un-
unhappy, unavailable, unfortunate
in-
inaccurate, incapable, inescapable
im-
impossible, immature, improbable
ir-
irregular, irresponsible, irresolute
il-
illegal, illegitimate, illegible
dis-
disobey, dishonest, disrespectful
-less
hopeless, homeless, useless
Difference between possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns
Possessive adjectives are always followed by a noun, e.g. This is my book
Possessive pronouns are used instead of the noun, e.g. The book is mine
37
18 Verbs
Verbs have two main functions in sentences
* They express actions
* They express a state of BEING
or existence - I am afraid; It is a ball
They are doing, being and having words
e.g. The dog barked.
It was raining.
They were having their breakfast.
(A verb can be one word or it can be more than one word.)
Regular verbs: The past tense and past participle of REGULAR VERBS are
formed by adding -ed,
eg. wash - washed; laugh - laughed
Irregular verbs: Change in the past tense and past participle, eg. go - went gone; eat - ate - eaten
,QÀQLWLYHIRUPRIWKHYHUE Doing/to do
Singing/to sing
The tense of the verb tells us when the action it expresses takes place.
Three main tenses
A. Present tense
I study the stars with my telescope
(action takes place regularly)
I go to school
B. Past tense
I studied the stars with my telescope (action is now completed)
C. Future tense
I shall study the stars with my telescope tonight (action has not yet taken place)
Each of these tenses has a simple, continuous and perfect form:
Present
38
Simple
Continuous
Perfect
I ride
I am riding
I have ridden
I rode
I was riding
I had ridden
I shall ride
I shall be riding
I shall have ridden
Past
Future
Auxiliary verbs
Help a verb to form a new tense.
Some commonly used auxiliary verbs are:
be, is, am, are, was, were, will, shall, would, should, could, has, had, can, may, might
and must.
Participles
• Verbs can consist of more than one word, e.g. am reporting, will have visited
• Reporting AND visited are parts of the verb called PARTICIPLES
• Participles are used with auxiliary verbs to form new tenses
Present participles
$UHWKDWSDUWRIWKHYHUEZKLFKHQGVLQLQJHJLVÁDVKLQJZHUHUHSRUWLQJ
Past participles
Are used with auxiliary verbs such as have, has, had, was and were to form new
tenses, e.g. have sighted; were seen; have been seen
• Most past participles end in -ed, -d, -en or -n, but others have irregular endings.
19 Adverbs
Adverbs add to the meaning of verbs. They tell how, when, where or why the action
takes place.
e.g. Anne spoke softly (how)
slowly; warmly; quickly
Soon it will be summer again (when)
already; always; often
She went into the shop, while I waited outside (where) there; outside; distantly
(Adverbs often end with -ly)
• They indicate when things happen or actions take place
when - Adverb of Time
39
• They indicate where things happen or actions take place
where - Adverb of Place
• They indicate how things happen or actions take place
how - Adverb of Manner
• Adverbs can be formed from adjectives
E.g. clever - cleverly; lazy - lazily
20 Pronouns
Pronouns allow us to refer to persons/things without naming them over and over.
e.g. Peter is twelve years old. - He is twelve years old.
Mr. Jones is calling Roger. - Mr. Jones is calling him.
It is Sam’s book. - It is his book.
A pronoun takes the place of a noun
ʕ Pronouns
3URQRXQV have
KDYH aD number
QXPEHU of
RI functions in a sentence
• Personal pronouns may replace a noun, which is the subject of a sentence I,
you, he, she, it, we
AND
may replace a noun which is the object of a sentence
e.g. me, you, him, her, it, us, them
• Possessive pronouns show belonging, and include words like my, mine,
yours, his, your, their, theirs, ours, its.
There are two ways of saying that something belongs to someone.
e.g. This is my new calculator.
The new calculator is mine.
These are your magazines.
These magazines are yours.
This is Adam’s bicycle.
This bicycle is Adam’s.
• 5HÁH[LYHSURQRXQV are words formed with -self, e.g. myself, himself,
ourselves, themselves
e.g.
I can look after myself.
He can look after himself.
They can look after themselves.
You can look after yourself.
We can look after ourselves.
• Interrogative pronouns is pronouns which ask questions
e.g. Who is coming to dinner?
What is the matter with Mary?
40
21 Prepositions
• Prepositions introduce phrases
‡ 7KH\
7KH\DUHVLPSOHOLWWOHZRUGVEXWWKH\KDYHDELJLQÁXHQFHRQWKHPHDQLQJRID
DUH VLPSOH OLWWOH ZRUGV EXW WKH\ KDYH D ELJ LQÁXHQFH RQ WKH PHDQLQJ RI D
sentence
• They can establish time relationships e.g. We have not seen him since April
• They can establish relationships in place
Common errors in the use of prepositions
•
We shared the sweets between the four of us
We shared the sweets amongst the four of us
X
9
•
It feels like it’s going to be hot
It feels as if it’s going to be hot
X
9
•
Will you come with?
Will you come with me?
X
9
List of prepositions
ON
Supper is on the table.
The prefect is on duty.
IN
I read it in the newspaper.
AT
I arrive at four o’clock.
BY
:HVDWE\WKHÀUH
We are leaving in the morning.
The stone was thrown at the
window.
We travelled by train.
OF
She is afraid of spiders.
He died of a heart attack.
OFF
The cup fell off the shelf.
He cleaned the chalk off the board.
TO
The soldiers stood to attention.
I reported the theft to the police.
WITH
Do you take sugar with your tea?
I play with my friend.
FOR
He is famous for his inventions.
Will you stay for supper?
FROM
It is a present from Brian.
The verse comes from the Bible.
INTO
The thieves broke into the shop.
We changed into dry clothes.
ACROSS We swam across the river.
Victor was named after his
AFTER
father.
My cousin lives across the street.
OVER
I jump over a stone.
The bicycle cost over R2 000
Father went out after supper.
41
22 Conjunctions
Rules for joining sentences by using conjunctions
After, when, before, as soon as
You may start a sentence with any of the above conjunctions in order to join two
sentences.
A conjunction sometimes causes a tense change
E.g.
They called the police. They waited for two hours.
After they had called the police, they waited for two hours.
:KHQWKHVHQWHQFHLVLQWKHSDVWWHQVHGHFLGHZKLFKDFWLRQLVÀUVW7KHÀUVWDFWLRQLV
ZULWWHQLQWKHSDVWSHUIHFWWHQVHDQGWKHVHFRQGDFWLRQLQWKHSDVWLQGHÀQLWHWHQVH
E.g.
She feels ill. She swallows a diamond.
She feels ill because she has swallowed a diamond.
:KHQWKHVHQWHQFHLVLQWKHSUHVHQWWHQVHGHFLGHZKLFKDFWLRQLVÀUVW7KHÀUVWDFWLRQ
LVZULWWHQLQWKHSUHVHQWSHUIHFWWHQVHDQGWKHVHFRQGDFWLRQLQWKHSUHVHQWLQGHÀQLWH
tense.
E.g.
She hides the diamond. The thief takes it.
Unless she hides the diamond, the thief will take it.
Using since:
If the sentence has only one verb, that verb must be in the perfect tense:
E.g.
Since Peter’s eye operation he has seen much better.
If the sentence contains two verbs, the verb following directly after since is in the
LQGHÀQLWHWHQVH7KHUHPDLQLQJYHUELVZULWWHQLQWKHSHUIHFWWHQVH
E.g.
42
Since last year Peter’s sight has improved a lot.
Since it rained, the grass has become very green
Conjunctions like but, because, although, and - join the sentences without changing
the tense.
Conjunctions
AS (because)
As you will not help me, I shall mend the puncture myself.
AS (when)
You must keep an eye on the ball as you play.
OR
Shall I phone you or will you phone me?
OR (else)
You must hurry or (else) you will be late.
THAN
Anne knows more about books than I do.
UNLESS
You will not play in the best team unless you practise hard.
AS SOON AS
I’ll let you know as soon as the mail arrives.
UNTIL
He kept on trying until he managed to do it.
AND (so)
The lift is not working (and) so you will have to use the stairs.
SO THAT
Hold your arm so that I can bandage it.
BUT
Jenny sings well, but Pam sings better.
ALTHOUGH
They won the match although it rained.
AFTER
After the bell had gone, we went home.
BEFORE
You ought not to buy a bike before you have tried it out.
WHEN
Take care when you turn a corner.
WHERE
He didn’t tell me where to look for the key.
IF
If you don’t feel well, stay in bed.
WHETHER
He wants to know whether they play rugby or not.
THAT
I’m sure that starting early is a good habit.
HOW MANY
Can you tell me how many books there are?
Interjections
Interjections show surprise. An interjection is used with an exclamation mark,
e.g. Wow! She is pretty. AND Ah, how wise!
Articles
Articles are words like a, an and the
43
23 Word building
Noun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
beauty
beautify
beautiful
beautifully
softness
soften
soft
softly
length
lengthen
long
lengthily
haste
hasten
hasty
hastily
cleanliness
cleanse
clean
cleanly
brightness
brighten
bright
brightly
sweetness
sweeten
sweet
sweetly
thirst
thirst
thirsty
thirstily
joy
enjoy
joyful
joyfully
width
widen
wide
widely
height
heighten
high
highly
loss
lose
lost
loosely
fat
fatten
fat
fatty
true
truly
truth
beggar
beg
beggarly
beggarly
death
die
dead
deathly
strength
strengthen
strong
strongly
happy
happily
happiness
largeness
enlarge
large
largely
simplicity
simplify
simple
simply
lucky
luckily
luck
44
movement
move
movable
movable
liar/lie
lie
lying
lying
ease
ease
easy
easily
riches
enrich
rich
richly
danger
endanger
dangerous
dangerously
usage
use
useful
usefully
poison
poison
poisonous
poisonously
blood
bleed
bloody
bloodily
breadth
broaden
broad
broadly
darkness
darken
dark
darkly
distance
outdistance
distant
distantly
Noun
Verb
Adjective
Adverb
fright
frighten
frightened
frightened
friendship
befriend
friendly
friendly
warmth
warm
warm
warmly
food
feed
foodless
foodless
freedom
free
free
freely
fatness
fatten
fattish
fattish
life
live
lively
lively
laughter
laugh
laughable
laughably
madness
madden
mad
madly
prison
imprison
imprisoned
imprisoned
pleasure
please
pleasant
pleasantly
redness
redden
reddish
redly
washing
wash
washable
washable
weakness
weaken
weak
weakly
24 Verb list
Present tense
Past tense
Have/has/had +
Past participle
Am, is, are
Was, were
Been
Beat(s)
Beat
Beaten
Become(s)
Became
Become
Begin(s)
Began
Begun
Bend(s)
Bent
Bent
Bite(s)
Bit
Bitten
Bleed(s)
Bled
Bled
45
46
Present tense
Past tense
Have/has/had +
Past participle
Break(s)
Broke
Broken
Bring(s)
Brought
Brought
Build(s)
Built
Built
Burn(s)
Burnt
Burnt
Burst(s)
Burst
Burst
Buy(s)
Bought
Bought
Catch/catches
Caught
Caught
Choose(s)
Chose
Chosen
Come(s)
Came
Come
Cling(s)
Clung
Clung
Cost(s)
Cost
Cost
Creep(s)
Crept
Crept
Cut(s)
Cut
Cut
Dig(s)
Dug
Dug
Do/does
Did
Done
Draw(s)
Drew
Drawn
Dream(s)
Dreamt
Dreamt (dreamed)
Drink(s)
Drank
Drunk
Drive(s)
Drove
Driven
Eat(s)
Ate
Eaten
Fall(s)
Fell
Fallen
Feed(s)
Fed
Fed
Feel(s)
Felt
Felt
Fight(s)
Fought
Fought
Find(s)
Found
Found
)O\ÁLHV
Flew
Flown
Forget(s)
Forgot
Forgotten
Freeze(s)
Froze
Frozen
Get(s)
Got
Got
Give(s)
Gave
Given
Go/goes
Went
Gone
Grow(s)
Grew
Grown
Present tense
Past tense
Have/has/had +
Past participle
Hang(s)
Hung(hanged)
Hung (hanged)
Hear(s)
Heard
Heard
Hide(s)
Hid
Hidden
Hit(s)
Hit
Hit
Hold(s)
Held
Held
Hurt(s)
Hurt
Hurt
Keep(s)
Kept
Kept
Kneel(s)
Knelt
Knelt
Know(s)
Knew
Known
Lay(s)
Laid
Laid
Lie(s)
Lay
Lain
Lie(s)
Lied
Lied
Lead(s)
Led
Led
Leave(s)
Left
Left
Light(s)
Lit (lighted)
Lit (lighted)
Lose(s)
Lost
Lost
Make(s)
Made
Made
Mean(s)
Meant
Meant
Meet(s)
Met
Met
Mow(s)
Mowed
Mown
Pay(s)
Paid
Paid
Put(s)
Put
Put
Read(s)
Read
Read
Ride(s)
Rode
Ridden
Ring(s)
Rang
Rung
Rise(s)
Rose
Risen
Run(s)
Ran
Run
Say(s)
Said
Said
See(s)
Saw
Seen
Sell(s)
Sold
Sold
Send(s)
Sent
Sent
Shake(s)
Shook
Shaken
Shine(s)
Shone
Shone
47
48
Present tense
Past tense
Past participle
have / has / had +
Show(s)
Showed
Shown
Shut(s)
Shut
Shut
Sing(s)
Sang
Sung
Sit(s)
Sat
Sat
Sleep(s)
Slept
Slept
Smell(s)
Smelt (smelled)
Smelt (smelled)
Sow(s)
Sowed
Sown
Speak(s)
Spoke
Spoken
Spell(s)
Spelt (spelled)
Spelt (spelled)
Spend(s)
Spent
Spent
Spread(s)
Spread
Spread
Stand(s)
Stood
Stood
Steal(s)
Stole
Stolen
Sting(s)
Stung
Stung
Swear(s)
Swore
Sworn
Sweep(s)
Swept
Swept
Swim(s)
Swam
Swum
Take(s)
Took
Taken
Teach/teaches
Taught
Taught
Tear(s)
Tore
Torn
Tell(s)
Told
Told
Think(s)
Thought
Thought
Throw(s)
Threw
Thrown
Wear(s)
Wore
Worn
Win(s)
Won
Won
Write(s)
Wrote
Written
Blow (s)
Blew
Blown
25 Concord of the verb
Rules of concord
1. A singular subject takes a singular verb; Plural subjects take plural verbs
The boy is here
He has a dog
I am reading a book
The boys are here
They have dogs
We are reading books
2. And
If two or more singular subjects are joined by AND, the verb is plural.
The boy and girl are here.
The cat and dog are crossing the bridge.
Exceptions of the rule
2.1
When two singular nouns, connected by the word and, form a single
idea or impression, then the verb is singular.
Bread and butter is nourishing.
Fish and chips
Bacon and eggs
Brandy and coke
2.2
When the words “the” or “a” are found only once in the sentence the
subject is singular and so the verb must be singular.
A black and white cow is in the stable, BUT
The black and the white cow are in the stable.
A wife and mother has a lot of work to do. BUT
A wife and a mother have a lot of work to do.
3. Both ... and ...
When two or more singular subjects are joined by the words “both … and”
then the verb is plural.
Both the cow and her calf are in the stable.
4. Or, either or, neither nor
Singular subjects that are joined by the words or, either or and neither nor, take a
singular verb.
Anne or Susan is in the class.
The horse or the cow is in the road.
However:
According to the Rule of Proximity when one subject is singular and the other
plural the verb will agree with the subject nearest to it. (Subject on the right.)
Either the cow or the very small calves are in the stable. BUT
49
Either the calves or the cow is in the stable.
Neither Peter nor his cousins are here. BUT
Neither the teachers nor the principal is here.
5. Not only ... but also ...
The rule of Proximity also applies to the words not only … but also …
Not only the cat but also the dog is in the kennel.
Not only the cat but also the kittens are in the basket.
Not only the kittens but also the cat is in the basket.
6. With, together with, as well as
The verb must agree with the subject that is found before the prepositions
with,
Together with and as well as, be it singular or plural. (to the left)
The cat, with the dog, is sitting on the porch. BUT
The cats, with the dog, are sitting on the porch.
The kittens, together with the cat, are here. BUT
The cat, together with the kittens, is here.
The donkey, as well as horses, is in the camp. BUT
The horses, as well as the donkey, are in the camp.
7. Each, every, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, no one, nothing, none,
anybody, anyone, anything ...
These pronouns all take a singular verb.
Every child is here.
No one knows…
Anybody is allowed…
Nobody is left out.
Each is to receive an apple
Everything is ready…
8. Subjects which are plural in form, but singular in meaning, are ruled by a
singular verb
The news is good.
Mathematics is easy.
Measles is a contagious disease.
Politics is a dirty game.
9. Nouns with a singular meaning (tools, clothing, etc., which consist of objects
that are formed by two parts) are ruled by a plural verb
Spectacles are
trousers are
pliers are
Tweezers are
pyjamas are
tongs are
10. A pair of ... is ruled by the singular verb
A pair of shoes is on display.
A pair of scissors is on the table.
50
11. Collective nouns
If all the people or animals or the things in the group do the same thing at the
same time in the same place, the name of the group is followed by a singular verb.
(Collective Nouns)
The crew has come to work.
The herd is grazing.
A swarm of bees is outside.
A family is visiting here.
12. Quantity
This tells you how much of things there is, or else that a thing is
uncountable: Much, a little, little, less. These all take a singular verb.
Sugar is
Much work is done.
There is so little to say.
Less is better.
Money is spent.
13. Number
This tells you how many of a thing there are. Countable things: Many, a few,
few. These are all ruled by a plural verb.
Guests are expected.
Many sweets are eaten.
Few of my friends are here.
Very few children like violence.
14. The nouns people, police, public, cattle and clergy are always ruled by a plural
verb
The police are here
The public are the best judges.
The cattle are in the kraal.
The clergy are in a meeting.
15. A number of
This is always followed by a plural verb
A number of children were caught smoking.
A number of books are gone.
16. The number of
This is followed by a singular verb.
The number of pupils has increased.
The number of accidents on this road is still far too high.
17. One of
This plus a plural noun takes a plural verb.
She is one of those girls who are always late.
He is one of those children that don’t know how to behave.
18. The only one
This is ruled by a singular verb
51
He is the only one in the class who has passed.
She is the only one of the girls who has a car.
19. A fraction followed by a plural noun takes a plural verb
Two-thirds of the children are here.
+DOIRIWKHELVFXLWVDUHÀQLVKHG
20. A fraction followed by a singular noun takes a singular verb
Two-thirds of the class is studying.
Half of the cake is eaten.
21. Numerals
,IDSOXUDOVHHPVWRIRUPWKHLGHDRIDÀ[HGVXPRUPDVVWKHQWKHYHUELVVLQJXODU
Fifty cents is too much for this sweet.
Five from seven leaves two.
Two hundred kilometres is a long way to walk.
22. Many a person
This is also followed by a singular verb.
Many a person has found to his cost that prevention is better than cure.
• Words such as EVERYTHING, ANYBODY, ANYTHING, EACH, EVERY,
EITHER, NEITHER, NOBODY, EVERYBODY, EVERYONE, SOMEONE take a
SINGULAR VERB
E.g. Everyone has take part in the competition.
Nobody wants to take part in the competition.
• Either ... or/Neither ... nor - The NOUN closer to the VERB determines whether it
will be a SINGULAR or a PLURAL verb
E.g. Neither Sue nor the boys want to go.
Neither the girls, nor Peter wants to go.
• As well as/together with/like/including/with - Look at the FIRST NOUN
E.g.
Hugh, as well as his parents, is a smoker.
The pupils, including their teacher, have started a music group.
• Collective nouns
Trousers, spectacles are ......
A pair of spectacles is .......
The class is excited (as one group)
The class are all excited (different individuals in one class)
• He, she, it .... SINGULAR form of the verb
• They, we, you ..... PLURAL form of the verb
52
26 Tenses
Present, past and future simple tenses
We use the simple tenses when
• something is always true, e.g. My father is a dentist
• something is done regularly or when something is a habit, e.g.
I visit my aunt every week
Present
Past
Future
I listen
You listen
He/She/It listens
We listen
You listen
They listen
I listened
You listened
He/She listened
We listened
You listened
They listened
I shall/will listen
You will listen
He/She will listen
We shall/will listen
You will listen
They will listen
Possible
time words
Usually, never, every
day/week/ month,
regularly, often, once
a week/month/
year
Yesterday last
night/week/ year/
month
Tomorrow, In the
future, Next week/
month/ year
The tense is
formed by
using
Present tense verb
(The concord of the
verb is important)
Paste tense verb
:LOOLQÀQLWLYH
Form of
the simple
tenses
Present, past and future perfect tenses
Present
Form of
the perfect
tenses
Past
Up to now she has
She improved after
read seven books
he had reprimanded
about sport stars.
her. After she had
6KHKDVMXVWÀQLVKHG seen a movie, she ate
her work.
supper.
When to use
this tense
For completed
actions in the present
When you want to
go back to an earlier
time when you are
already talking
about the past
Possible
time words
After/when/as soon
as/up to now/just/
already/since/for/
by/ now/ before
After/when/as
soon, previous/just/
already/ not yet/
ever/never, before/
always
Future
By this time
tomorrow, we will
KDYHÀQLVKHGWKH
work.
To talk about events
that will have been
completed by a
certain time in the
future.
By sunset/by 09:00/
by then/at this time
tomorrow/ when
the bell rings
53
The tense is
formed by
using
has/have + past
participle
had + past participle
shall/will + have +
past participle
Present, past and future continuous tenses
We use the continuous tense to
• express actions that are/were actually happening or
• progressing at a certain time, even actions that will take place in the future
Present
Past
Future
I am reading
You are reading
He/She is reading
We are reading
You are reading
They are reading
I was reading
You were reading
He/She was reading
We were reading
You were reading
They were reading
I shall/will be
reading
You will be reading
He/She will be
reading
We shall/will be
reading
You will be reading
They will be reading
Possible
time words
At this moment;
Again While/When
At that moment
When/While Five
years ago at a
VSHFLÀFWLPH
At a certain time/
Tomorrow at two
The tense is
formed by
using
Am/is/are + verb +
-ing
Was/were + verb +
-ing
Will/shall be + verb
+ -ing
Form of the
continuous
tenses
Present, past and future perfect continuous tenses
Present
Form of
the perfect
continuouse
tenses
54
He has been walking
for hours. They
have been walking
for hours now.
Past
Future
He had been
walking for hours
that morning
By this time
tomorrow he will
have been walking
for hours. By this
time tomorrow we
shall have been
walking for hours.
For actions that
started some time
ago and are still
continuing at the
moment.
For actions that
started some time
earlier and were still
continuing at a time
in the past.
Possible
time words
all morning/all day,
for hours/ now/
already
all day/all morning/
since early that
morning/for hours/
already
by this time next
week/by eight
o’clock tomorrow
The tense is
formed by
using
has/have + been +
verb + -ing
had + been + verb +
-ing
shall/will + have +
been + verb + -ing
When to use
this tense
For actions that will
start some time in
the future and will
still be continuing at
a certain time in the
future.
Questions and tags
When you ask a question, you can
ʕ use
XVH the
WKH verb
YHUE in
LQ the
WKH sentence
VHQWHQFH to
WR ask
DVN the
WKH question
TXHVWLRQ
ʕ use
XVH “help”
´KHOSµ words
ZRUGV (auxiliary
DX[LOLDU\ verbs)
YHUEV like
OLNH DO,
'2 DOES,
'2(6 WILL,
:,// DID
',' +
THE
7+( 9(5%
VERB
ʕ start
VWDUW with
ZLWK IS,
,6 ARE,
$5( WAS,
:$6 WERE
:(5(
ʕ use
XVH aD question
TXHVWLRQ word,
ZRUG like
OLNH WHO?,
:+2" WHAT?,
:+$7" :+(5("
WHERE?, +2:"
HOW?, :+(1"
WHEN?
ʕ make
PDNH aD statement
VWDWHPHQW and
DQG use
XVH aD tag
WDJ so
VR that
WKDW the
WKH whole
ZKROH sentence
VHQWHQFH appears
DSSHDUV like
OLNH aD question
TXHVWLRQ
Examples
Who were with you?
Does your father know that you did so well?
Will you be able to go with me?
Are you joking?
Using tags
We always eat take-aways on Saturdays, don’t we?
We don’t always eat take-aways on Saturdays, do we?
Remember
The tense is the same in the statement and in the tag.
If the statement is positive, the tag is negative.
If the statement is negative, the tag is positive.
55
27 Active and passive voice
If a sentence is in the active voice, the subject is doing the action, e.g. the dog chases
the cat.
If a sentence is in the passive voice, the object is doing the action, e.g. The cat is
chased by the dog.
Rules for changing active into passive voice
• Underline
Underli the verb of the sentence
• Decide which tense it is.
• Find the objectRIWKHVHQWHQFHÀQGWKHREMHFWE\XVLQJWKHVXEMHFWDQGWKHYHUE
and ask the question, what? e.g. The dog chases what? Answer: The cat)
• Start the sentence with the object
Active and passive voice
Present
Past
Future
3UHVHQW,QGHÀQLWH7HQVH
3DVW,QGHÀQLWH7HQVH
)XWXUH,QGHÀQLWH7HQVH
Karen sings a song.
A song is sung by Karen.
Formed by adding is/are +
past participle of verb
56
Karen sang a song.
A song was sung by
Karen.
Karen will sing a song.
A song will be sung by
Karen
Formed by adding was/were
+ past participle of verb
Will + be + past participle
Present Continuous
Tense
Past Continuous Tense
Future Continuous Tense
Karen is singing a song.
Karen was singing a song.
Karen will be singing a
song.
A song is being sung by
Karen.
A song was being sung by
Karen.
Formed by am/is/are +
being + past participle
Formed by was/were + being
+ past participle
Present Perfect Tense
Past Perfect Tense
Future Perfect Tense
Karen has sung a song.
Karen had sung a song.
Karen will have sung a
song.
A song has been sung by
Karen.
A song had been sung by
Karen.
Formed by has/have + been
+ past participle
Formed by has/have + been
+ past participle
A song will being sung by
Karen.
Formed by shall/will + being
+ past participle
A song will have been
sung by Karen.
Formed by will + have + been
+ past participle
28 Direct and indirect speech
Reported speech
When something is written into reported (indirect) speech, there are certain changes
that take place.
• No inverted commas (“...”) are used in reported speech
• If the introductory verb is in the PRESENT TENSE, (eg. He says/asks/tells) then
only the PRONOUNS in the sentence need to be changed (i.e. I/you becomes he/
she; We/you becomes they)
E.g. Peter: “I feel wonderful today.”
becomes Peter says that he feels wonderful today
• If the introductory verb is in the PAST TENSE (eg. He said/asked/stated) then
the following changes must also be made:
a. The verb (action or doing-word) has to move one step back in the past:
is ..................................................................................................................................was
are .............................................................................................................................were
look ........................................................................................................................looked
must .......................................................................................................................had to
will .........................................................................................................................would
was/were .........................................................................................................had been
liked ..................................................................................................................had liked
b. Words that indicate time and place also move, one step “further” away:
Today ........................................that day
now .......................................then
Yesterday....................the previous day
here .......................................there
Tomorrow ..................the following day
this/these......................that/those
Examples
Richard: “I went to the movies yesterday.”
Richard said that he had gone to the movies the previous day.
c. The inverted commas fall away
d. Start with: He said that/He asks if
57
More examples
Direct speech
Indirect speech
“I am wet.”
He/she says that he/she is wet.
He/she said that he/she was wet.
He says that I am wet. / He says you are
wet.
“You are wet.”
He said that I was wet. / He said you
were wet.
He said that we were wet.
“The plane is already over the sea.”
“I don’t really mean this.”
He says the plane is already over the sea.
He said the plane was already over the
sea.
She says she doesn’t really mean this.
She said she didn’t really mean that.
“Alex was in trouble.”
He says Alex was in trouble.
He said Alex had been in trouble.
29 Figures of speech
58
Term
Description
Example
Alliteration
The repetition of consonants in a
line or verse
The big brown beast.
Assonance
The repetition of vowel sounds in a
line or verse
The fat cat sat there.
Simile
A comparison of two things in
which the word like, so, or as is
used
“My love is like a red red
rose that’s newly sprung in
June.”
Metaphor
$QLPDJHLVLGHQWLÀHGZLWKDQRWKHU
because of a kind of similarity to
the writer. Two images are directly
compared, without using the word
like, so, or as.
“It is the east and Juliet is
the sun.” - Shakespeare
Onomatopoeia
Sounds are imitated for effect
The tip tap of rain on the
roof.
An object or animal is attributed
human characteristics
The sun smiled at us and
the wind whispered sweet
sounds in our ears.
Irony
The actual meaning of the words is
different than that which is stated
When your friend hasn’t
done his part of your
mutual assignment, you
say: “Great, this is just
what I need to keep me
busy during the weekend!”
Sarcasm
$IRUPRIZLW,WVLJQLÀHVDUHPDUN
that is the opposite to what it
appears to mean.
“You did a great job,”
she said to him after
examining the paint that
was peeling off her car.
3HUVRQLÀFDWLRQ
Homonyms - are words which are spelt the same but have different meanings, e.g.
He came second in the race. Every second there is a car accident.
Homophones - are words which sound alike but are spelt differently, e.g. threw through
Jargon - is the name we give to special words, terms and expressions used by a
profession, trade or exclusive group. People who do not operate in these specialised
ÀHOGVZLOORIWHQÀQGLWGLIÀFXOWWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHWHUPLQRORJ\
Neologisms - when new things are discovered or invented, we need to make up new
words to name them. These new words are called neologisms.
AcronymsDUHIRUPHGE\WDNLQJWKHÀUVWOHWWHUVRIDQXPEHURIZRUGVDQGFUHDWLQJ
a new and shorter word with them. Letters are not followed by full stops, eg: Famsa
- Family and Marriage Society of South Africa
Writing
• Story - introduction, development, conclusion (surprising or unusual)
• Mini-stories - all the ingredients of a longer story - introduction, development,
conclusion, but it is told in exactly ÀIW\ZRUGV
• Paragraphing
• Functional writing - it is - instructions, directions and explanations
• Essays
Writing poems
•
Free verse - no rhyming words are necessary and the length of the
lines can be varied to emphasize ideas or create a mood.
•
Syllable poems - is a form of writing in which each line has to consist of a certain
59
number of syllables, e.g.
* Haiku - this form of verse comes from Japan and is used to compose delicate,
rather sensitive word pictures about subjects taken from nature (could be
ZULWWHQRQDQ\VXEMHFW$KDLNXFRQVLVWVRIWKUHHOLQHV7KHÀUVWOLQHKDVÀYH
V\OODEOHVWKHVHFRQGVHYHQDQGWKHWKLUGÀYHPDNLQJDWRWDORIVHYHQWHHQLQ
all.
With a shriek of rage,
Twisting in pent-up fury;
Comes the tornado
Note: in a syllable poem, it is the number of syllables to the line
which is important, not the number of words.
•
Word cinquains
* A cinquainLVDSRHPFRQVLVWLQJRIÀYHOLQHV
* A word cinquain is written to the following pattern:
Line 1: names the subject in one word
/LQHGHÀQHVRUGHVFULEHVWKHVXEMHFWLQWZRZRUGV
Line 3: expresses action in three words
Line 4: expresses a personal opinion, or attitude, in four words
/LQHJLYHVDV\QRQ\PIRUWKHVXEMHFWRUVXPVXSWKHÀUVW
four lines, in one word
• Rhyming poems - Rhyming poems usually have a certain rhythm or tune. This
is called metre.
• Parodies - are amusing imitations of someone else’s work, like trying to imitate
the rhyming pattern and metre of a well-known poem.
• Nonsense poems - Limericks are amusing verses which all have the same
rhyming pattern and rhythm.
60
30 Punctuation
Punctuation marks make the written text easier to read and understand. Without
punctuation, writing would not make sense.
Capital letters
1.
Sentences always start with capital letters.
e.g. We bought popcorn because we liked it.
2. Proper nouns need capital letters.
e.g. We visited Mexico.
7LWOHVRIERRNVÀOPVRUSOD\VDUHZULWWHQLQFDSLWDOOHWWHUV
e.g. THE GENTLE DOLPHIN.
,IKRZHYHUWKHWLWOHLVXQGHUOLQHGRULQLQYHUWHGFRPPDVRQO\WKHÀUVWOHWWHURI
WKHÀUVWZRUGDQGDQ\SURSHUQRXQVZLOOEHLQFDSLWDOOHWWHUV
e.g. “The gentle dolphin” or My friend Flicka
Full stops
1. A full stop indicates the end of a sentence.
e.g. Remember to lock the door.
2. Full stops are found after certain abbreviations.
e.g. Prof. abbr. e.g.
Commas
1. We use commas to separate words or phrases in a list:
e.g. We bought books, pens, pencils and erasers for the new school year.
2. Commas indicate where one phrase or clause ends and another begins:
e.g. Piet van der Merwe won his tennis match, to the delight of the spectators.
3. Additional information may be separated from the rest of the sentence by
commas:
e.g. Mr Jenkins, the Principal, addressed the pupils and parents.
4. We place commas before and after words such as however and nevertheless:
e.g. She was, however, late for the appointment and this caused her to miss the
interview.
5. Introductory words or phrases are separated from the rest of the sentence with a
comma:
e.g. Once again, I was ignored by the panel of judges.
61
* Avoid using a comma between two main clauses. Rather use a full stop,
semi-colon or a conjunction.
* e.g. A census was taken, the government needed statistics. X
*
A census was taken. The government needed statistics. 9
Semi-colons (;)
1. The semi-colon is a long pause that balances two equally important, related or
parallel ideas
HJ6KHZHQWE\WUDLQVKHZRXOGUDWKHUKDYHÁRZQ
2. It also indicates opposite ideas (antithesis)
e.g. In summer she swims; in winter she skates.
3. It joins two main clauses where there is no conjunction
e.g. She worked hard for the examinations; she had nothing to fear.
4. A semi-colon may often be replaced by a full stop or by the conjunctions and, but,
so, for and although
e.g. She worked hard for the examinations so she had nothing to fear.
Colons (: )
1. The colon indicates that a list, an explanation or an idea is following
e.g. I need to buy the following items: lettuce, tomatoes, cucumbers and carrots.
2. It introduces a quotation
e.g. J.F. Kennedy’s famous words are: “Ask not what your country can do for
you. Ask what you can do for your country.”
3. In script writing (dialogue), a colon follows the speaker
e.g. Mrs. Brown: Are you going to the meeting?
&DWK\,I,ÀQGDIULHQG
Question marks
1. Question marks occur at the end of a question.
e.g. Who took up the collection?
2. Rhetorical questions end in question marks.
e.g. Why do we need an education?
Exclamation marks
1. Exclamation marks follow exclamations or interjections (interruptions).
e.g. Ouch!
I am scared!
62
2. They are used to accentuate and strengthen the tone of a statement.
e.g. The lieutenant yelled, ‘Attention!’
3. They are used after sentences, phrases or words containing emotions such as
anger, fear, happiness, anxiety, shock and misery.
HJ´,·PSHWULÀHGµZKLVSHUHGWKHIULJKWHQHGFKLOG
Note: Both the question mark and the exclamation mark contain a full stop, so you
do not need another full stop at the end of the sentence when either of these is used.
Quotation marks (inverted commas) (‘ ’) or (“ “)
1. Quotation marks are used to indicate direct speech.
e.g. Mr Thompson said, “There will be no homework over weekends.”
2. Quotation marks are used to quote (repeat) someone else’s words.
e.g. Martin Luther King said, “I have a dream!”
3. Quotation marks are used to ‘excuse’ oneself for using slang or foreign words.
e.g. Our new station wagon is used for ‘schlepping’ the soccer team around.
4. Quotation marks indicate metaphoric usage.
e.g. I am the ‘baby’ of the family.
* All punctuation must fall within the inverted commas.
Hyphen
$K\SKHQOLQNVSUHÀ[HVWRZRUGVRUOLQNVWZRZRUGVLQRUGHUWRIRUPFRPSRXQG
words.
e.g. anti-dandruff shampoo, pre-school, well-deserved, life-threatening
2. It helps to differentiate meanings.
e.g. She had to re-make the garment.
The remake of this dress is a success.
,QRUGHUWRIDFLOLWDWHVSHOOLQJDQGSURQXQFLDWLRQDK\SKHQLVLQVHUWHGLIDSUHÀ[
HQGVLQDYRZHODQGWKHZRUGMRLQHGWRWKHSUHÀ[EHJLQVZLWKWKHVDPHYRZHO
e.g. co-opt
re-examine
no-one
4. Words that cannot be completed on one line are linked to the next line with a
hyphen
* The hyphen may only be used at the end of a syllable.
63
Dash
* The dash line is slightly longer than the hyphen line.(—)
1. A dash serves a similar purpose to a comma, colon or a semi-colon. It separates
parts of a sentence and forces us to pause.
e.g. We had to make an exit — time was running out.
2. In order to give additional information, the dash can be used in the same way as
commas or brackets.
e.g. next week we are going to Port Elizabeth — the Windy City.
3. It separates a comment or afterthought from the rest of the sentence.
e.g. I checked and there was no-one there — or so I thought!
4. It creates a dramatic pause, leading to a climax or anti-climax.
e.g. I ran to the window; I looked out and saw — the cat!
Ellipsis (… )
1. The three ellipsis dots indicate that a sentence is incomplete or that something has
been omitted.
e.g. He walked to the edge of the cliff and … (To be continued …)
2. We can usually guess the meaning from the context of the sentence.
e.g. You had better tidy your room or else …
64