Download AutoCAD Architecture 2008: Part I: Getting Started

Chapter 1
In Search of a Vision
Organizational Behavior in Education: Leadership and School Reform, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
In Search of a Vision


Organizational Behavior is the interplay between individuals and the
social environment in which they work.
You must play an active role in reading and understanding this book.

Internalize meanings by reading, questioning, and discussing with
others how concepts fit into the practical world of your work.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-2
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Assumptions, Beliefs, and
Behaviors




Every culture has basic assumptions about people.
From these assumptions flow values and beliefs.
From values and beliefs flow action.
Yet in society and organizations, our expressed assumptions do not
always lead to appropriate action.

Hypocrisy abounds in education and other organizations.
Examples?
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-3
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Paradigms in Education



Education has no overarching paradigm.
The last paradigm in education was progressive education.
The conservative social and political landscape is currently
attempting to force a scientific revolution as embodied in NCLB,
which does not have full support of the education community.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-4
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Impact of Behavioral Science-Psychology

Behaviorism—focus on extrinsic rewards and punishments to
explain and control behavior.
 B.F. Skinner
 Remains Influential in
 Curriculum and instruction
 Classroom management
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-5
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Psychology Paradigms
(continued)


Psychoanalytic Psychology—unconscious drives and internal
instincts motivate people and cause their behavior.
 Sigmund Freud and Bruno Bettelheim
Cognitive Psychology—mental processes including thinking,
reasoning, decision making underlie behavior (critical and
creative thinking).
 Jean Piaget most influential in affecting education.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-6
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Psychology Paradigms
(continued)

Social Psychology—the study of how individuals perceive,
influence and relate to others in the context of environment.
 Kurt Lewin
 B = f(p · environment), that is behavior is a function of
the interaction between the person and the environment.
 Organizations exist only as socially constructed reality.
 This has implications for leadership.
 B = f(p · environment) is the subject of this book.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-7
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Sociological and Psychological
Points of View



Sociologists and Psychologists generally agree on goals of schooling.
However, they differ on how to achieve those goals.

Psychologists tend to focus on the individual interactions and relationships.

Sociologists tend to focus on group interactions and organizational
characteristics.
Taken together, these points of view help us understand organizational
behavior.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-8
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Schools as Educative
Organizations



School are unique and should not mindlessly follow business approaches to
management.
Schools foster learning and personal growth of all participants, including the
adults as well as the children.
School should uniquely strive for Kaizen—the Japanese principle that “small
incremental steps” lead to continuous improvement.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-9
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Schools as Educative Organizations
(continued)


Organizational Theory helps us make more informed choices to attain our goals.
Theory enables us to describe what is going on, explain it, predict future events
under given circumstances.

This is essential to the professional practitioner so they may think about ways to
exercise control over events.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-10
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Two Major Perspectives on
Educational Organizations


Bureaucratic Theory—traditional and most common organizational theory
worldwide—the “factory model”.
Nonbureaucratic Theory– we call this the Human Resources Development view.

What follows are two examples of different approaches
to controlling and coordinating the behavior of people in
an organization.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-11
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Bureaucratic Views

Five mechanisms for dealing with controlling and coordinating the behavior of people in an
organization.





Maintain firm hierarchical control of authority and close supervision of those
in the lower ranks.
Establish and maintain adequate vertical communication.
Develop clear written rules and procedures to set standards and guide
actions.
Promulgate clear plans and schedules for participants to follow.
Add supervisory and administrative positions to the hierarchy of the
organization as necessary to meet problems that arise from changing
conditions confronted by the organization.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-12
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Bureaucratic Views
(continued)

In 1983, A Nation At Risk, and other reports brought recommendations that resulted
in:



Longer school days, focus on time on task, more homework, career ladders,
calls for stronger school leadership of the principal, “tougher” curriculum,
longer school calendar and others.
In essence, the bureaucratic model was at work: management decided what was to
be done, they directed the workers to do it, and supervised them closely.
Although this model was not effective, it still persists today.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-13
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Human Resources Development
Views



Human Resources Development (HRD) views the teacher as foremost in creating
instructional change.
HRD uses newer concepts such as loose coupling (allowing subunits autonomy)
and the power of organization culture to influence behavior.
HRD exercises coordination and control through socialization of participants to
the values and goals of the organization, rather then through written rules and
close supervision.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-14
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X rests on four assumptions that an administrator holds about people in
the organization.


They dislike work, must be supervised closely, will shirk responsibility
and seek formal direction, and have little ambition.
Theory Y embraces four very different assumptions administrators hold about
the nature of people at work.

They view work as satisfying, exercise initiative and self direction if
committed to the organization, learn to accept responsibility and seek
it, and have the ability to make good decisions.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-15
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Pattern A & Pattern B
Behavior

Chris Argyris explains how Theory X views give rise to Behavior Pattern A in
leaders:

Pattern A, Hard: characterized by no-nonsense, strongly directive
leadership, tight controls, and close supervision.

Pattern A, Soft: involves a good deal of persuading, “buying” compliance
from subordinates, benevolent paternalism, or so-called good (that is,
manipulative) human relations.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-16
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Pattern A & Pattern B Behavior
(continued)

Theory Y views lead to Behavior Pattern B:
 Characterized by a commitment to mutually shared
objectives, high levels of trust, respect, satisfaction from
work, and authentic, open relationships.
 Pattern A, Soft, is often mistaken for Behavior Pattern B.

See figure 1.1 for comparison of underlying
assumptions.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-17
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Rensis Likert Systems 1, 2, 3,
and 4

Based on studies of schools and other organizations, Likert identified four systems
describing management styles.





System 1 --Management is seen as having no trust in subordinates.
System 2 –Management has condescending confidence and trust in
subordinates.
System 3 –Management seen as having substantial but not complete trust
in subordinates.
System 4 --Subordinates make specific decisions at lower levels.
These ideas are supported by many well-known researchers.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-18
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
No Child Left Behind



The reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of
1965 (ESEA).
Signed by President George W. Bush on January 8, 2002.
Signified a clear shift in federal role toward policy maker and reformer.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-19
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
NCLB (continued)


Three goals of NCLB:

Closing the achievement gap for disadvantaged students.

Improving the preparation of teachers and increasing their compensation
so as to have every classroom in America staffed by a “highly qualified”
teacher by the end of the 2005–2006 school year.

Instituting closely monitored systems of accountability for students,
teachers, and schools.
NCLB mentions research 116 times, giving rise to controversy over the
operational definition of scientifically-based research.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-20
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Research Methods in
Education



Education research has not been held in high esteem in the research
community.
A scholarly discipline has a well-defined body of knowledge from theory
and research.
The “gold standard” for research are studies that use randomized selection
and assignment of participants into experimental and control groups.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-21
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Examples of Gold Standard
Research

Framingham Heart Study



Over 5,000 participants since 1948.
Cigarette smoking, cholesterol level, and hypertension increased
risk of heart disease.
Tennessee Student-Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR). Began in 1985 for
four years.

Over 7,000 students in 300 k-3 classes, randomly assigned.

Small classes (<18) improved student achievement and grade
retention;

Low SES students gained more than high SES students;

Large classes with aides were no better than large classes with no
aides.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-22
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Impact on School Leaders


In the wake of NCLB,
School leaders should be cognizant of what
constitutes “good research”.
NCLB has been highly criticized, not in its focus on scientifically-based research
or accountability, but in the over-reliance on high-stakes testing and mandates
whose costs are borne by the states.

Pontiac School District v. Spellings –defendant wins in US District Court.

Many educational leadership organizations are strong advocates for changes
in NCLB, such as AASA, NASSP, NAESP, NEA, CEC, and the National PTA.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-23
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Leadership as Coaching


Since 1980s, education literature on school reforms and school
leadership has been critical of leadership preparation.
Mortimer Adler’s three methods of teaching well:
 didactic instruction
 Socratic method
 coaching
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-24
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Leadership as Coaching
(continued)

Coaching is an effective method used in leadership.

Although techniques and leadership may differ, the metaphor of an athletic
coach, may be helpful.

This book uses the metaphor of a “game plan” to develop educational
leadership students’ theory of practice as leaders.

See discussion and suggestions for developing a theory of practice in the
Reflective Activities section of Chapter 1.
Organizational Behavior in Education, 10e
Robert G. Owens and Thomas C. Valesky
1-25
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.