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FEM 3101 Psikologi Perkembangan Kanak-kanak & Remaja Prof Madya Dr. Mariani Mansor (Sem Kedua 2015-2016) DEFINITION OF CONCEPT What is Growth (Pertumbuhan)? What is Development (Perkembangan)? GROWTH Growth is a quantitative process of change Eg. changes in weight/height – i.e. changes in saiz and structure, physical and mental aspects. Changes can be measured & assess - from one stage to the other. Growth will reach its peak once a person mature. DEVELOPMENT Development refers to qualitative changes experienced by an individual. Life span (continuous) process from Conception till Death Changes can be observed compare a child ability/progress from the previous stage, e.g.: New born ability????? 5 months old infant ability????? 12 months old ability????? Thus….Child Development is…. Change in the child that occurs over time Changes follow an orderly pattern that moves toward greater complexity and enhances survival. a scientific study of understanding all aspects of human constancy and change from conception through adolescence a part of a larger discipline known as developmental psychology or human development, which includes all changes experienced throughout the lifespan The study of childhood: Basic Concepts Developmental Processes: Changes and Stability Quantitative change (growth) – Involve changes in size or amount, such as height, weight. Qualitative change – a change in types, structure, or organization, such as the ability for verbal communication, motor skill ability. Changes cannot be ‘measured’ but can be observed and compared with earlier development. E.g ability of a newborn & 5 months old baby Stability – constancy or enduring characteristics Changes in development is continues from one stage to the other but maintaining a pattern Specific characteristics Cephalacaudal, proximodistal, mass to specific TAHAP-TAHAP PERKEMBANGAN Pralahir (Prenatal period) Bayi (0-2 tahun) & Kanak-kanak Bertatih (2-3 tahun) [Infancy and toddlerhood] Kanak-kanak Awal (3-6 tahun) [Early childhood] Kanak-kanak Pertengahan (6-10 tahun) [Middle childhood] Remaja (11-19 tahun) [Adolescence] Awal (11-14 tahun) Pertengahan (15-17 tahun) Lewat (18-19 tahun) Dewasa (20 tahun ke atas) [Adulthood] Awal (20-30an) pertengahan (40-50an) Akhir (60 tahun ke atas) Domains Of Development Physical development (Biological/physiological) Body Size & Proportions, Appearance, Brain, Function Of Body Systems, Health, Perceptual & Motor Skills Cognitive development Intellectual Abilities, Learning, Memory, Language, Thinking, Moral Reasoning Psychosocial development (Socio-emotional Development) Personality, Emotions, Communication, Self-understanding, Knowledge About Others, Interpersonal Skills & Social Relationships, Moral Reasoning & Behavior All the domains are interrelated throughout development Influences on Development: Factors that can influence development are: Nature (sejadi) Warisan/baka/genetik Nurture (asuhan) Environment Nutrition Health Historical foundation: How the study of childhood has evolved? Early Approaches Medieval times The Reformation The Enlightenment John Locke John Jacques Rousseau Darwin Scientific Beginnings Baby biographies Charles Darwin G. Stanley Hall Normative Period of Child Study Mental Testing Movement Studying the lifespan Stanford Studies of Gifted Children – L. M. Terman Fels Research Institute Study Berkeley Growth & Guidance Studies Human development Conception to death Wide range of disciplines An emerging consensus All domains are interrelated. Normal development includes a wide range of individual differences. Children help to shape their own development and influence others’ responses to them. Historical and cultural contexts strongly influence development. Early experience is important, but children can be remarkably resilient. Development in childhood is connected to development throughout the rest of the lifespan. THEORIES What is a theory? A theory is a set of logically related concepts or statements, which seeks to describe and explain development and predict what kinds of behavior may occur under certain conditions. Hypotheses are tentative explanations or predictions that can be tested by research. Theory An orderly, integrated set of statements that Describes Explains behavior Predicts Benefits of theories in Developmental Psychology Explain the meaning of an event/facts Able to relate these facts Theories Psychoanalytic Psychosexual (S. Freud) Psychosocial (E. Erickson) Learning Behavioral Learning Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Social Learning (A. Bandura) Social Cognitive Learning (A. Bandura) Cognitive Cognitive Developmental Theory (J. Piaget) Socio-cultural (L. Vygotsky) Moral Development (Reasoning) (Kohlberg) Human Ecology System (U. Bronfenbrenner) Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic theory proposes that morality develops through humans' conflict between their instinctual drives and the demands of society. Freud identified three parts of the personality that become integrated during five stages of development ID (unconscious element) - the largest portion is the source of basic biological needs and desires. EGO (pre-conscious element) - partly conscious and partly unconscious rational part of the personality, emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways SUPEREGO (partly conscious & mostly unconscious - function on the basis of morality) - the conscience that develops between ages 3 - 6 through interactions with parents, who insist that the child conform to the values of society. Psychoanalytic Psychosexual (S. Freud) *Psychosexual stages •Oral stage •Anal stage •Phallic •Latency •Genital Psychosocial (E. Erickson) * 8 stages of dev. • • • • • • • • Trust versus mistrust (0-1) Autonomy vs shame (1-2) Initiative vs guilt (3-5) Industry vs Inferiority (6-11) Identity vs Identity Confusion (12-19) Intimacy versus isolation (20’s-30’s) Generativity vs stagnation (40’s-50’s) Integrity vs despair (60 above) Erikson’s Psychosocial stages Late Adulthood (60 above) Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s) Young Adulthood (20 -30’s) Adolescent (12-19) Integrity vs Despair Generativity vs Stagnation Intimacy vs Isolation Identity vs Role Confusion Middle childhood (6-11) Industry vs Inferiority Early Childhood (3-5) Initiative vs Guilt Toddler (1-2) Infancy (0-1) Autonomy vs Shame/doubt Trust vs Distrust BEHAVIORISM Behaviorism & Social Learning Development results from learning Behaviorism – a mechanistic theory Continuous change Quantitative change Importance of the environment Associative learning Behaviorism Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Stimulus – Response Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Reinforcers (Reward) and Punishments Social Learning (Bandura) Modeling Social Cognitive Learning (Bandura) Modeling, Self Efficacy (Personal+Behavior+ Environment) Behavioral Theory Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) Ivan Pavlov • Stimulus & Response Learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. • Learning based on reinforcement or punishment • Positive reinforcement • Negative reinforcement • Punishment • Behavior modification Behavioral Theory Albert Bandura SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY Derived from Social Observe Copy Modelling (Role model) Behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models Observational learning Models Importance of values and thoughts in imitating behavior of a model learning theory. Emphasis on individual self efficacy Learning - interaction between person, environment and behavior. COGNITIVE Cognitive Theory Socio-Cultural Theory Jean Piaget L. Vygotsky Cognitive Development • Sensory motor (0-2) • Preoperational (2-6) • Concrete Operational (6-11) • Formal Operation (11-adulthood) • Community & culture influence on development Focus is the social, cultural, and historical complex of which the child is part. • Social interaction necessary to learn culture • Social Interaction • Zone of proximal development – The difference between what a child can do alone and with help • Scaffolding – Temporary support to help a child master a task. Cognitive Theory Moral Development Kohlberg Paras 1: Moraliti Pra- konvensional (4-9 tahun) Orientasi dendaan dan patuh/taat Hedonisme Instrumental/Orientasi Egoistik Paras 2:Peringkat Konvensional (10-15 tahun) Moraliti “budak baik” Moraliti mengekalkan susunan sosial & autoriti Paras 3:Peringkat Pasca Konvensional Moraliti kontrak, hak individu dan undang-undang secara demokrasi Orientasi prinsip-prinsip moral yang universal dan beretika SYSTEM THE ECOLOGICAL-SYSTEMS APPROACH Human Ecological System U. Bronfenbrenner View of development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context: Micro system Meso system Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem Bio-ecological theory/The Process–Person–Context–Time Model (PPCT) Gene-environment interactions in human development i.e. understanding the processes and contexts of development Placed greater emphasis on processes and the role of the biological person. RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDYING CHILDREN How theory and research work together Which theory is generally accepted today? What is the relationship between theory and research? Research methods Qualitative and quantitative research Scientific method – system of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry Identifying a problem Problem statement - justify Objective Formulating hypotheses Methodology Data Collection (research design/sampling/method/tools) Data analysis Conclusion Disseminating findings Sampling Groups of participants chosen to represent the entire population The sample should adequately represent the population under study Generalization Random selection Methods Naturalistic and laboratory observations Survey Parental self-reports Clinical interview Open-ended interview Structured interview Questionnaire Psychophysiological Methods Systematic Observation Observe respondent Naturalistic Observation In the “field” or natural environment where behavior happens Structured observation Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of interest All participants have equal chance to display behavior Participant observation Incognito Record data Audio Video Manual Interviews Clinical Interview Flexible, conversational style Probes for participant’s point of view Structured Interview Each participant is asked same questions in same way May use questionnaires, get answers from groups Psychophysiological Methods Measures of autonomic nervous system activity Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupils, stress hormones Measures of Brain Function EEG Functional brain imaging (fMRI) Basic research designs Case studies Collect various information about a subject to be studied (people/event) Make a conclusion about subject understudied. Ethnographic studies Participant observation Correlational studies – To examine the relationship between 2 variables (independent and dependent variables) Research intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between two variables exists Problems of control and interpretation of causality Survey - A study on respondent’s views on certain issues Use Questionnaires/Structured interview schedule Experimental studies To examine the cause & effect of a phenomena understudied Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. Independent variable - the condition over which the experimenter has direct control Dependent variable - the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable Experimental group and control group Independent and Dependent Variables Independent Experimenter changes, or manipulates Expected to cause changes in another variable. Dependent Experimenter measures, but does not manipulate Expected to be influenced by the independent variable Modified Experiments Field Experiments Use rare opportunities for natural assignment in natural settings Natural Experiment Compare differences in treatment that already exist Groups chosen to match characteristics as much as possible Designs for Studying Development Longitudinal Same participants studied repeatedly at different ages Cross-sectional People of differing ages all studied at the same time LongitudinalCross-sectional Same groups of different-aged people studied repeatedly as they change ages. Microgenetic Same participant studied repeatedly over a short period as they master a task