Download Persia and Pan

Pan-Hellenism and
Relations between States
February 8th, 2012
General Remarks

Polis system divided Greece politically.

Greece divided along linguistic/ethnic lines
(i.e. Aiolians, Dorians, Ionians).

An agonal culture.

Unity rare.
Review: Pan-Hellenic Institutions in
Archaic Greece

The Oracle at Delphi.

The Olympic Games.

Colonization.

The Persian Wars.

Pan-Hellenism overstated; Athenian and Spartan
propaganda first disseminated by Herodotus (ca. 430
BCE).
Herodotus of Halicarnassus
(ca. 485-425 BCE)

B. at Halicarnassus (South-Western Turkey) ca. 485
BCE

Considered to be the first historian

Wrote The Histories in ca. 430 BCE

The Histories = an account of the Persian Wars (490
BCE; 480-79 BCE)

Problems?
Life of Herodotus

Halicarnassus = a multi-cultural town in the 5th century BCE (i.e. Greek, Carian,
Persian intermarriage)

Herodotus’ family exiled during Persian Wars – Lived on Samos until a young
man.

Traveled extensively through Eastern Mediterranean and the Near East (esp.
Egypt).

Recited his writings to audiences throughout the Greek-speaking world including
Athens.

Probably stitched together disparate writings to form The Histories.

Joined an Athenian colonization expedition to Thurii (Southern Italy).

Probably died in Thurii in or shortly after 425 BCE.
The Histories

Charts the causes and course of events for the Persian
Wars.

Comprises a total of 9 books (artificial division imposed
by later scholars).

Amalgamation of myth, folklore, empirical fact, new
forms of learning/knowledge.

Seminal text in the development of Pan-Hellenic ideals.
Herodotus’ Objectives

To instruct his audience.

To entertain his audience.

To commemorate the Persian Wars.

Problems?
Problems With Herodotean Method

Historians must rely on Herodotus for much of the Archaic period.

Crucial to be aware of his quirks.

Was not present.

Frequently narrates events for which he has no direct evidence (i.e.
events in the distant past; events in distant places).

Concerned with oracles and religious matters.

Speeches and private conversations.

Unreliable on figures (i.e. 1,700,000 Persian soldiers in 480/79
BCE!).
Herodotus’ Sources

Reports from Greek eye-witnesses.

Reports from Persian and other non-Greek eyewitnesses.

Inscriptions, trophies, monuments.

Local histories.

Legends.
The Expansion of Persia

Cyrus the Great, became ruler of the Persians in 557 BCE

550 BCE – Cyrus overthrows Astayages, king of the Medes

549 BCE – Unites Persians and Medes into one kingdom – forges a
multicultural empire

546 BCE – Cyrus captures Lydia

540 BCE – Captured all mainland Greek cities of Asia Minor

538 BCE – Cyrus captures Babylon

529 BCE – Cyrus dies and is succeeded by his son Cambyses II

Cambyses rules Persian Empire until 522 BCE – Conquers Egypt in 525 BCE

Succeeded by Darius I (522 BCE – 486 BCE)

Darius adds Thrace and Macedon to Persian control
The Persian Empire (ca. 490 BCE)
http://www.ucalgary.ca/~eslinger/img/content.gifs/maps/maps.abin/PersianEmpire.gif
Two Phases of the Persian Wars

490 BCE – Darius I.

480/79 BCE – Xerxes.

Both ended in Persian defeat.
What were the primary causes of
the Persian Wars?
Events Leading to Hostilities

510 BCE – Expulsion of Hippias, tyrant of Athens
(Indirectly)

500 BCE – The Revolt of Aristagoras of
Miletus (Herodotus, 5.30-40) (Indirectly)

499 BCE – The Ionian Revolt (Directly)

498 BCE – The Burning of Sardis (Directly)

Darius seeks revenge
The Revolt of Aristagoras of Miletus
(500 BCE)

Stasis on Naxos – Aristagoras of Miletus asked for help

Miletus under Persian hegemony

Aristagoras agreed, hoping to become tyrant of Naxos

Intrigued with the Persian satrap, Artaphernes – offers
all the Cyclades to the Persians

The campaign failed – Aristagoras could not fulfill his
promise

Aristagoras resolved on revolt from Persian control
Aristagoras of Miletus

So Aristagoras was unable to keep his
promise to Artaphrenes; he was at the
same time in difficulties because of the
demand for the cost of the army, and
afraid because of the failure of the
expedition and his quarrel with its
commander, and apprehensive of losing
his position in Miletos. With all these
worries, he began to plot revolt….”
(Herodotus, 5.35. Trans. M. Crawford & D. Whitehead, Doc. 102).
The Results of Aristagoras’ Efforts

Aristagoras rejected in Sparta.

Help promised by Athens and Eretria (Athens feared a
return of Hippias).

499 BCE: Ionian Greeks revolt – Sardis burned.

499 – 494 BCE – Darius crushes the Ionian revolt.

490 BCE – Darius sends an army by sea to seek revenge
on Athens and restore Hippias.
The Persians Advance

“It was the beginning of spring that the King dismissed his other strategoi
and Mardonios the son of Gobryes came down to the sea, bringing with him
a large force….Mardonios arrived in Ionia and there something remarkable
happened, at least I think so….for Mardonios put down all the tyrants of the
Ionians and established democracies in the poleis….Having done this he
hastened on to the Hellespontos. And as soon as a large fleet and a large
force of infantry had been assembled, they crossed the Hellespontos in the
ships and began to march through Europe, heading for Eretria and Athens.
These places at any rate were the pretext for the expedition, but it was in
their minds to subdue as many as possible of the Greek poleis; so with the
fleet they took Thasos, without meeting any resistance, and with the army
they added the Makedonians to the subjects they already had; for all the
people up to the Makedonians had already come under their sway….After
this Dareios attempted to find out what was in the minds of the Greeks,
whether they would go to war with him or surrender. So he sent heralds
hither and thither throughout Greece, bidding them ask for earth and water
for the King. At the same time as he sent these men to Greece he sent
others to the poleis by the sea which paid tribute to him, bidding them
prepare warships and horse transports. While they were in the process of
making these preparations, the heralds were in Greece; many of the
mainlanders gave what the Persians demanded and all the islanders whom
they visited with their request, including the Aiginetans.” (Herodotus 6.4349.1. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 107)
Anxiety for Athens

“The Athenians and the Aiginetans were thus at
war with each other; meanwhile the King of
Persia was at work. His servants regularly
reminded Dareios ‘Remember the Athenians’,
and the Peisistratids were at hand to traduce
them; at the same time Dareios wished to take
advantage of this pretext to subdue those
peoples in Greece who had not given him earth
and water.” (Herodotus, 6.94. Crawford &
Whitehead, Doc. 108).
The Major Battles of the Persian Wars

Marathon (1st Campaign).

Artemisium (2nd Campaign).

Thermopylae (2nd Campaign).

Salamis (2nd Campaign).

Platea (2nd Campaign).

Mykale and Sestos (2nd Campaign).
The Battle of Marathon
(490 BCE)
www.livius.org/he-hg/herodotus/logos6_19.html
The Landing at Marathon (490 BCE)
and the Stakes for Democratic Athens

“Led by Hippias the son of Peisistratos, the
expedition landed at Marathon. As soon as the
Athenians heard this, they too set off for
Marathon to oppose the Persians, commanded
by the ten strategoi; one of the ten was
Miltiades….A message to Sparta brought a
promise of help after the full moon; meanwhile
the Athenians at Marathon were joined by the
Plataians.” (Herodotus 6.103-117. Crawford &
Whitehead, Doc. 108).
The Strategy at Marathon

“Now as they marshaled their army on the field at Marathon, in order that
the Athenian front might be of equal length with the Persian, the ranks of
the center were diminished, and it became the weakest part of the line,
while the wings were both made strong with a depth of many ranks….The
two armies fought together on the plain of Marathon for a long time, and in
the middle of the battle, where the Persians themselves and the Sacae had
their place, the barbarians were victorious, and broke and pursued the
Greeks into the inner country. On the two wings, however, the Athenians
and the Plataeans defeated the enemy. Having done so, they allowed the
routed barbarians to flee, joined their two wings into one and fell on those
who had broken their own center, and defeated them.” (Herodotus,
Histories -.111-117. Nagle & Burstein, 2007. pp.80-1)

In the battle at Marathon about 6,400 of the barbaroi were killed and 192
of the Athenians.” (Herodotus 6.103-117. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc.
108).
The Athenian Strategy at Marathon
Events After the Battle at
Marathon

“After the Athenian and Plataian victory, the Persian
force boarded the ships and sailed around Cape Sounion,
aiming to arrive at the city (astu) before the Athenians;
among the Athenians, the Alkmaionidai were blamed for
a plot which suggested this plan to them; they were
believed to have come to an agreement with the
Persians and to have raised a shield (as a signal) when
they were again aboard ship. Anyway, they sailed
around Cape Sounion; but the Athenians came to the
rescue of the city (astu) as fast as they could and got
there before the barbaroi arrived.” (Herodotus 6.103117. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 108).
Preparations for a Renewed Offensive

Darius returns to Persia; immediately prepares for a new
invasion (490-487 BCE).

486 BCE – Egypt revolts from Persian control.

485 BCE – Death of Darius; succeeded by son, Xerxes.

484-482 BCE - Xerxes continues preparations; sends out
heralds to demand earth and water.

481 BCE – The congress at Corinth and the Hellenic
League.
Xerxes Demands Earth and Water

“Of those who gave earth and water there were the following,
Thessalians, Dolopians, Ainianes, Perraibians, Lokrians, Magnetes,
Malians, Achaians of Phthiotis and Thebans and other Boiotians
except for the Thespians and Plataians. The Greeks who were
proposing to make war on the barbaroi swore an oath against them,
that any Greeks who gave themselves up to the Persians without
being compelled to should be required to give up a tenth of their
property to the god of Delphi, if things went well for the Greeks.
This was the oath which the Greeks swore. As for Athens and
Sparta, Xerxes did not send heralds there to ask for earth, because
when Dareios had sent for this very purpose, the former had thrown
the messengers into a pit, the latter into a well, bidding them take
earth and water thence to the king.” (Herodotus 7.132-133.1,
Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 109C).
The Hellenic League Calls for
Greek Loyalty

“The Greeks who were loyal to the Greek cause now met and
exchanged promises and guarantees, and concluded in their
discussion that the most important thing of all was to patch up their
quarrels and put an end to the wars between them; there were a
number of wars going on, but the most serious was that between
Athens and Aigina. Later, when they heard that Xerxes and his army
was at Sardis, they decided to send spies to Asia to find out what
the king was doing and envoys to Argos to conclude an alliance
against the Persians; they also decided to send envoys to Sicily to
Gelon the son of Deinomenes, and others to Kerkyra and others to
Crete, to bid them come to the rescue of Greece. They hoped in fact
that the Greek world would be united and that everyone would join
together and pursue the same course of action, since the same
dangers threatened all Greeks alike. The power of Gelon was said to
be very great, greater than that of all the other Greeks.” (Herodotus
7.145. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 110B).
The Battle of Artemisium (480 BCE)
www.livius.org/he-hg/herodotus/logos8_23.html
The Battle of Artemisium (480 BCE)

Naval battle; spread out over 3 days.

Persian fleet attempting to maintain contact with Persian land
forces.

Under Spartan leadership (Eurybiades in command); majority of
fleet Athenian.

Largely a delaying tactic.

Large part of the Persian fleet destroyed by a storm.

Greek fleet outmaneuvers Persian fleet but end with a draw.
Thermopylae
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Battle_of_Th...
Battle of Thermopylae (Summer 480 BCE)

Delaying tactic for the evacuation of Athens; time for Greek forces to
muster.

Narrow road through Thermopylae the only path into central Greece (only 2
metres wide).

Greek forces = 4000 men (incl. 300 Spartans) under the command of
Leonidas.

Persian numerical advantage eliminated by: 1. The terrain. 2. Equipment.

The betrayal of Ephialtes.

Leonidas dismisses his troops (Only 300 Spartans and 400 Thebans
remain).

Spartans and Leonidas destroyed; battle a success – Athens given time to
evacuate.
Salamis
www.livius.org/he-hg/herodotus/logos8_24.html
Battle of Salamis (Sept. 480 BCE)

Athens evacuated; Difference of opinion on strategy after
Thermopylae.

Spartans want to fortify the Isthmus of Corinth and face the
Persians on land.

Athenian fleet stationed at Salamis; Athens demands a naval
engagement at Salamis; Themistocles threatens Athenian
withdrawal (Themistocles and the Oracle of Delphi).

Stand made in narrow straits at Salamis; Persian numerical
advantage eliminated by: 1. Narrow straits. 2. Greek advantage in
ship design (Tactical counterpart to Thermopylae).

Persian fleet destroyed; Xerxes flees with remnants of Persian fleet;
Persian army left behind under Mardonius.
Battle of Platea (479 BCE)
www.livius.org/he-hg/herodotus/logos8_24.html
Battle of Platea (479 BCE)

After Salamis (Sept. 480 BCE), Persian army remains in Greece
under Mardonius.

Greek forces march north toward Platea after Salamis; under
command of Spartan, Pausanias.

Persian supplies running out; Greek forces beginning to gather and
grow.

Spartan contingent absorbs the Persian attack; Mardonius is killed;
Persian remnants retreat.

Greek forces move north to the city of Thebes and attack it
(Medizers); traitors arrested and tortured to death.

Persian defeat is total.
Greek Unity?

“These fought the war – Lakedaimonians, Athenians, Corinthians,
Tegeates, Sikyonians, Aiginetans, Megarians, Epidaurians,
Orchomenians, Pleiasians, Troizenians, Hermionians, Tirynthians,
Plataians, Thespians, Mykenaians, Keians, Melians, Tenians,
Naxians, Eretrians, Chalkidians, Scyrians, Eleians, Poteidaians,
Leukadians, Anaktorians, Kythnians, Siphnians, Amprakiots,
Lepreates.” (Meiggs and Lewis no. 27. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc.
115B).

“Now the Phokians were the only ones of the peoples hereabouts
who did not medise; their only reason, I infer, was their hatred of
the Thessalians; if the Thessalians had joined the Greek ranks, in
my opinion the Phokians would have medised. As it was, when the
Thessalians made the proposal, they declined to give any money
and said that they could medise as well as the Thessalians, if they
were so minded; but they would not of their own volition betray the
Greek cause.” (Herodotus 8.30. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 117).
Consequences of the Persian Wars

Change in the Greek view of Persia and of
themselves.

Greece drawn into Near Eastern politics.

The rise of Athenian confidence and
power.