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France
An Outline of History
Denis C. Meyer
School of Modern Languages and Cultures
The University of Hong Kong
© DC Meyer - 2008
France, an Outline of History
CONTENTS
Introduction : France’s identity as a nation
1. Antiquity and Early Middle Ages (500 BC to 1000 AD)
- The Gauls and the Pax Romana
- The great Invasions and the Frankish Empire
2. Late Middle Ages (1000 AD to 1500 AD)
- The early Capetians
- The growth of the French monarchy
- The Anglo-French War (1337–1453)
- Joan of Arc (1412-1431) and the reconstruction
3. The “Ancien Regime” (16th – 18th centuries)
- Renaissance (16th c.)
- The Wars of Religion
- Towards absolute monarchy (17th c.)
- The Enlightenment (18th c.)
- The Revolution (1789-1799)
4. The 19th century
- The First Empire (1805-1814)
- The Restoration (1814-1830) and the Monarchy of July
(1830-1848)
- Second Revolution of 1848 and the Second Empire (18521870)
- The Third Republic (1870-1940)
5. The 20th century
- World War I (1914-1918)
- The Interwar (1918-1939)
- World War II (1939-1945)
- The post-war era (1945-1958)
- The Fifth Republic (1958-present)
Chronology of French history
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France, an Outline of History
Introduction
France’s identity as a nation
The birth of France (literally: the land of the Franks) as a nation is
by no means easy to pinpoint and has been the focus of debate
among social historians. One can argue for instance that France
came into being in 496 AD, when Clovis, king of the Franks,
converted to Christianity and realized under his reign a political
and cultural unity never seen on this land since the early GalloRoman period (-52 BC to 476 AD). One can also suggest the year
843, when Charles the Bald became the king of Francia
Occidentalis, after the collapse of the Frankish empire led by his
grand-father the emperor Charlemagne. It could also be 987, date
of the coronation of Hugh Capet, founder of the Capetian dynasty,
which was to reign, through its various branches, for nine
hundred years, right to the 19th century. One can also argue that
the kingdom of France was only truly constituted when the French
realised their political unity under the reign of Louis XI (14611483), as the English were driven out of France and most of the
provices joined the crown. Or, much closer to present days,
France may have born in 1789, the year of the Revolution in
which France declared itself a nation, as well as a State.
Indeed, these five stages in history are equally important in the
process of building France’s identity. However, to add to the
confusion, the French look at the Gauls (and not at the Germanic
Franks) as their ancestors, that is a people of Celtic origin who
arrived massively and lived on the territory from 500 BC onwards
to be later subjected to Roman rule until the 5th century.
The difficulty of pointing a date for the birth of France reflects the
long and complex process that took place to shape a land of thick
forests inhabited by various Celtic tribes some 2,500 years ago.
This territory underwent profound transformations due to external
and internal pressures to eventually become a unified nation, with
defined borders, a common language, organized by a constitution
and rules, led by a government and institutions. This process
involved countless wars, key events, for the country which is now
called France developed gradually and absorbed many different
influences into its identity.
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France, an Outline of History
1. Antiquity and Early Middle Ages (500 BC to 1000 AD)
The Gauls and the Pax Romana
The most ancient man found in France is
Homo Erectus, who lived around 950,000 B.C.
Much later, after the Neolithic period (4,0002,500 BC) Celtic tribes started to settle in
France, and around 400 BC, they were known
as the Gauls by the Romans. The Gauls were
agrarian people, iron workers and also feared
warriors; in 390, led by their chief Brennos,
the Gauls besieged the city of Rome and retreated only after
receiving a large ransom from the city. Step by step, Rome
organized their resistance against the Gauls and by 125 B.C., the
Romans already dominated southern Gaul. In 51 BC, the Gauls
were eventually defeated by the armies of Julius Caesar, in Alesia
(Burgundy): after several years of combat, Vercingetorix, leader of
the Gauls, had to surrender to better organized and equipped
Romans. As a result of this surrender, the Romans were able to
occupy the entire land.
The two-century long period of relative peace and prosperity that
followed Caesar’s conquest of Gaul is known as the Pax Romana
(Roman peace). The country was divided into three provinces and
Lyon was elected as the capital. During the 2nd century, Romans
brought Christianity into Gaul, roads and bridges were built,
prosperous cities such as Lyon, Lutece (Paris), Marseille and
Bordeaux attested a vibrant economy and a refined culture. From
a composite mosaic of celtic tribes, the Gauls evolved into a
sophisticated people – the Gallo-Romans – whose elite spoke Latin,
served in the administration and adopted Roman culture.
Throughout the country, vast agricultural domains were created
controlled by powerful landlords who prefigured the ruling class
which would later dominate throughout the Middle Ages. However,
by the 3rd century, the Roman Empire had already begun its
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France, an Outline of History
decline, the Roman control over the country loosened. Taking
advantage of the increased weakness of its borders, Germanic
tribes from Northern and Western Europe started frequent
incursions in Gaul by the middle of the 4th century. These warriors
were Franks, Vandals, Allamanni or Goths, they were known to
the Romans as the Barbarians, since they did not speak Latin and
were not Christian. The Gallo-Roman civilization, a long period of
relative political, economic and cultural unity brought by the Pax
Romana, was about to collapse.
The great Invasions and the Frankish Empire
By the beginning of the 5th century, huge
movements of population began to pour into
Gaul, coming from the East and North-East.
These people were pushed to the West by the
advance of tribes of warriors coming from
central Asia, such as the ferocious Huns led
by Attila. Among them were the Franks, the
Vandals and the Visigoths. These tribes
settled in various parts of Gaul, the Franks in
particular gathered in the North of the country, while the
Visigoths ended in the South-West, and beyond the Pyrenees, in
Spain. By the end of the 5th century, the Franks expanded their
authority beyond the northern regions, winning decisive battles
against their enemies in the Centre and West as well as along the
Rhine corridor. The Franks elected Paris as the capital of their
kingdom, and their king Clovis, founder of the Merovingian
dynasty, converted to Christianity in 496, following his marriage
to Clotilde, a Burgonde. In some ways, Clovis' reign (481-511)
brought about a new stability and unity to France, by bringing
together the old Gallo-Roman civilization with the Germanic
cultures of the Franks and other Germanic peoples. After Clovis’
death however, the kingdom was subjected to partition by his
successors, but despite the fragmentation of the Merovingian
kingdom, from this point on, and for the next three centuries, the
Franks would assert themselves as the dominating force in France.
A new dynasty - the Carolingians, emerged in the first half of the
8th century, led by Charles Martel, the chief of north-western
province of Neustria, who managed to stop the Muslims advance
invading from the South. Charles Martel defeated the Arabs in
Poitiers in 732, and this victory had the effect of unifying various
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France, an Outline of History
other provinces under his commandment. His son Pepin II the
Short expanded this influence and was eventually crowned king of
the Franks in 752, in the city of Soissons, in the presence of all
the nobility of the kingdom. The new king also received the
blessing of the bishops, adding much significance to the event.
Three years later, Pepin II was sacred by the pope himself in Paris.
From this period, the long lasting association between the royal
dynasties and the church proved efficient to ascertain their power
and influence on the French society and people.
Charlemagne, the son of Pepin II, expanded
the kingdom of the Franks to form a vast
empire encompassing most of Europe. His
reign was marked by his close relationship
with the papacy in Rome, to whom he offered
protection against the Lombards, in Northern
Italy. In exchange, the Catholic church gave
him its blessing and Pope Leo crowned
Charlemagne Imperator in Rome in 800. The
long reign of Charlemagne (768-814), an able
military leader and administrator, brought
significant reforms to the Frankish kingdom. The administration
was severely streamlined, delegating provincial powers to barons
and bishops faithful to their leader; throughout the provinces,
religious schools were created, thus giving Charlemagne his
reputation as promoter of the arts, education and culture. This
period is known as the Carolingian renaissance, the brightest
period of the early Middle-Ages.
Louis the Pious, the only son of Charlemagne who survived,
inherited the kingdom and managed to keep it more or less intact
for thirty more years. However, after Louis’ death, the kingdom
was divided among his three sons. Following the treaty of Verdun
in 843, Louis the German inherited the eastern part (Francia
Orientalis), Charles the Bald the western part (Francia
Occidentalis), while Lothar had to be content with the central part
(Lothinragia), a composite land of various rebellious provinces
which would soon become the terrain of repeated battles between
Louis and Charles as well as their successors. With the treaty of
Mersen (870), the intermediate kingdom of Lothinragia was finally
absorbed into the eastern and western kingdoms of the Frankish
empire. Meanwhile, by the end of the 9th century, the Vikings,
coming from Northern Europe and Scandinavia, had started their
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France, an Outline of History
incursions in many parts of Europe, using their drakkars
(longboats) to move quickly along the rivers, besieging cities like
Paris, in 885. The Vikings finally settled in Northern France
around the turn of the 10th century, their land became in 911 the
Duchy of Normandy, when their chief Rollon signed a treaty with
Charles III, king of Francia Occidentalis. Following the custom,
Charles III offered his daughter to Rollon as a token of friendship
and to consolidate the alliance. Rollon has an illustrious
descendant, William of Normandy, who conquered England in
1066 at the battle of Hastings to become the first king of England.
The Carolingian empire ended in 987, as the last Frankish king
Louis V died. His successor inaugurated a new dynasty and a new
era for the kingdom of France, still a very fragmented one,
culturally, socially and politically.
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France, an Outline of History
2. Late Middle Ages (1000 AD to 1500 AD)
The early Capetians
The election and crowning by the nobles of their new king of
France Hugh Capet marks the birth of the Capetian dynasty, a
royal lineage which, through its various branches, will dominate
France until the 19th century. Although the royal domain of
Hughes Capet was small, located south of Paris and extending to
the city of Orleans, the kingdom he supposedly ruled was more or
less comparable to modern France. However, most of the feudal
counties were fiercely independent and the king had only limited
power over them. It is only very gradually that the Capetian
monarchs, who were initially weaker than their vassals, extended
their control over the great nobles who resisted centralization. One
of the factors that strengthened the Capetian monarchs was that
during the 300 years of their direct lineage, and with the help of
the Church which supported the monarchy as a sacred office, they
insured that the crown remained within the family, the eldest son
inheriting the throne without failing. Also, the Capetians
reinforced the system of lord-vassal relationship, already in use
under the Carolingians, by which the lord offers protection to his
vassal (subordinate), in exchange of his fealty (loyalty). This loyalty
is rewarded by a fief (a piece of land) given to the vassal by the
lord. This system, broadly defining social politics during the feudal
period, placed the king on the top, and step by step asserted the
prestige and power of the monarchy, assisted by the Church. The
10th and 11th centuries mark the development of romanic
architecture across France and Europe, a style inspired by the
ancient roman buildings and characterized by thick walls, round
arches, vaults, large towers and decorative arcading. Throughout
the country countless churches, abbeys and monasteries were
built to reflect the rising influence of Christianity.
The First Crusade took place in 1095, at the end of the 11th
century. This expedition to Jerusalem, and the seven other
crusades to follow in the 12th and 13th centuries, initially aiming at
“liberating” the city from the Muslim occupants, contributed to
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France, an Outline of History
create a sense of Christian identity and an unprecedented feeling
of unity among the Western world, thus reinforcing the papacy’s
influence in Rome over the Christian lands. The Capetian rule
hardened under Louis VI the Fat (1108-1137), who extended the
royal domain by crushing neighboring vassals in Ile de France.
Just before his death, he arranged with the duke of Aquitaine the
marriage of his son Louis VII with Eleanor of Aquitaine, who was
only 16. The marriage did not last however, it was nullified 15
years later (1152) on suspicion of Eleanor’s infidelity to Louis the
Pious. Eleanor would have reportedly admitted that she “expected
to marry a king, not a monk”. The beautiful and art loving Eleanor
remarried almost immediately with Henri Plantagenet, a young
and powerful vassal who controlled most of the western part of the
kingdom. With the addition of Aquitaine (south-west), Henri was
the master of almost half and France. Two years after his marriage
to Eleanor, in 1154, and at the age of 22, Henri became king of
England, controlling most of the kingdom of France. The Aquitaine,
lost by France through a bad marriage, will remain under
England’s domination for the next three centuries.
The growth of the French monarchy
The first great expansion of the royal domain came from the work
of Philip II Augustus (1180-1223), during whose reign the French
king for the first time became more powerful than any of his
vassals. Philip took Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Touraine from
the Plantagenets, thereby tripling the size of the French royal
domain. Philip also greatly strengthened the royal administrative
system by devising new methods to collect revenue from his
vassals. He also created a parliament, a supreme court of justice
and a royal treasury.
The great Capetian king of the 13th century is Philip Augustus’
grand son, Louis IX (1226-1270), better known as Saint Louis. His
reign started as he was only 12, and lasted more than forty years.
Saint Louis was both loved and feared by the people, he had a
high sense of his duties as a king and wanted his reign to be
marked by justice and integrity. He created for instance a system
whereby each citizen had an opportunity to lodge a complaint
against officials directly to the court of justice. Saint Louis was
also a pious Christian, as his canonization in 1297 demonstrates.
He saw himself as only responsible to God, who had put him on
the throne to lead his subjects and to ensure their well-being and
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France, an Outline of History
that their life was free of sins. In this way he contributed greatly to
create the myth of the divine nature of the French kings, a myth
that would culminate under king Louis XIV (1654-1715) and be
challenged in the 18th century. Saint Louis ordered the creation of
numerous hospitals and schools, among them a college in Paris,
La Sorbonne, which was to become one of the great centres of
knowledge in Europe. His reign is also marked by the Gothic
flamboyance of new cathedrals flourishing in various parts of the
kingdom, such as in Paris, Reims, Chartres and Amiens.
By lack of a male heir to the throne, the Capetians of direct
lineage lapsed in 1328, following the death of their last king,
Charles VI, one of the grand-grandsons of Saint Louis. The crown
of France was thus passed to the Valois, a related family.
The Anglo-French War (1337–1453)
The change of dynasty coincides with the
beginning of one of the darkest periods of
France’s history. As Philippe VI attempted to
drive the English out of France, the French
registered humiliating defeats in Crecy (1346)
and Calais (1347) which decimated the army
elite and surrendered a number of cities of
Normandy to the enemy. At the same time, an
epidemic of black plague occurred in Marseille
and spread soon all throughout the kingdom,
killing millions of people, an estimated third of
the population. The disease provoked irrational behavior from the
population, such as the massacre of Jews of Strasbourg (1349),
who were suspected to have started the outbreak. More epidemics
will occur in the 14th century, triggering an economic and
demographic catastrophe.
The Hundred Years’ War between France and England
materialized into a series of conflicts between the French and the
English monarchs and drained the treasuries of both
countries. These wars were interrupted, now-and-again, by
numerous truces and treaties over a period of 116 years. Under
the reign of Charles V (1364–1380), the French seemed to regain
the upper-hand against the enemy and the English were left only
with a few possessions and cities, such as Bordeaux, Brest, Calais
et Cherbourg, but by the time of his successor Charles VI (1380-
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France, an Outline of History
1422), the situation deteriorated again. Two essential factors
contributed to this situation : the mental illness of Charles VI
which worsened by the end of his reign, leaving him unable to
govern, and the alliance with the English of the powerful
Burgundy region (south-east). This alliance cost dearly to the
Valois, and a terrible defeat of the French army occurred in
Azincourt (1415), where more than 5,000 French soldiers and
officers perished. This defeat triggered more defeats and king of
England Henry V maneuvered to take advantage of the French
weakness to assert the English claims on the French throne. In
1420, the treaty of Troyes was signed, by which Charles VI had to
destitute his son and declare Henry V the heir to the French
throne. He had also the obligation to marry his daughter Isabelle
to the king of England. This Treaty meant that the kingdom of
France was in effect surrendered to the English. However, Henry’s
death occurred only two years later, in 1422, but by that time, he
and his ally, the Duke of Burgundy, had conquered the entire
northern half of France. The same year, Charles VI passed the way
as well, but his son the dauphin Charles has no claim to the
throne, the kingdom of the French Valois is on the brink of
disintegration.
Joan of Arc (1412-1431) and the reconstruction
In this context of dire turmoil, the role and symbolism of a young
woman who went on to save France from the hands of her enemies
cannot be underestimated. Joan of Arc remains a central
character in French history and her story is crucial in the
construct of the French national identity. Her story is a mixture of
heroism and magic : the daughter of a modest family of farmers
from eastern France, Joan asserted that she had visions from God
that told her to recover her homeland from the English. In 1429,
at only 17, she managed to convince the uncrowned Charles VII of
her holy mission and was sent with a small army to the siege at
Orléans, then occupied by the English. Although initially
dismissed by her fellow veteran commanders and wounded in a
battle, she gained prominence when she overcame the enemy and
lifted the siege in only nine days. Following this crucial victory,
Joan helped to several more victories that eventually led to
Charles VII coronation at Reims and settled the disputed
succession to the throne. Captured by the Burgundians in 1430,
Joan was sold one year later to the English and tried for heresy.
Joan was found guilty and burned at the stake in the city of
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Rouen at the age of 19. Her ashes and remains were cast in the
Seine river.
The execution of Joan of Arc did not stop the process of
reconquest of the French. In 1435 at Arras, the two former
enemies, king Charles VII and Philippe the Good, duke of
Burgundy, struck an alliance to combat the English, who are
subsequently driven out of several northern provinces, including
Normandy in 1450. By 1453, most of the Aquitaine, which the
English had held for nearly three centuries, is also recovered.
These victories put an end the Anglo-French War.
The kingdom’s unity is eventually achieved by Louis XI, the
successor of Charles VII in 1461. The new crowned king
immediately engages the Valois in a war against the rival
Burgundians, the former allies of England, who remain a
formidable threat to the French crown. For the next ten years,
Louis XI and Burgundy’s Charles the Bold will wage battles after
battles until the death of Charles in 1477 settles the score. His
death marks the end of the Burgundian State, which becomes
part of the French kingdom. When Louis XI dies in 1483, several
other provinces, including Provence, have also joined the French
crown.
The 15th century was a period of profound turmoil for France, but
by the turn of the new century, the kingdom is configured as it
has never been before and has achieved an unprecedented unity.
France is now the most powerful kingdom in Europe and the
country is about to enter a new age of deep social and cultural
transformation.
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France, an Outline of History
3. The “Ancien Regime” (16th – 18th centuries)
Renaissance (16th c.)
economic
and
political
Mediterranean world.
By the end of the 15th century,
the Kingdom of France had
achieved a remarkable unity
under
Louis
XI
and
his
successor Charles VIII who,
through his marriage with Anne
de Bretagne, managed to attach
to the French Crown the fiercely
independent province of Brittany,
in western France. However, the
French monarchs, now the most
powerful in Europe, looked
southwards to extend their
influence,
and
seek
new
opportunities
within
the
rich
The Wars of Italy, started in 1495 by Louis XI on the pretext of
recovering lost territories, would last until 1559 and would greatly
contribute to the cultural transformation of France in this period.
Indeed, in the process of waging these wars against its southern
neighbor, supported by Austria and the renegade province of
Burgundy, the French political and intellectual elites were also
discovering a wealth of treasures: architectural wonders and
sculptures from the great Roman past and the present,
extraordinary paintings, elegant furniture, refined music and
many other works of art brought about by the finest artists of the
Italian renaissance of the 15th century. Francis I, crowned King of
France in 1515, wanted to think of himself as the protector of the
arts and sciences, and strongly encouraged French artists to
develop their craft and emulate their Italian counterparts. During
his reign, he invited many Italian artists, scholars, architects to
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France, an Outline of History
come to France, among them Leonardo de Vinci, who allegedly
died into the arms of Francis I in 1519. Along the Loire River,
sumptuous chateaux, such as Blois and Amboise, were built as
testimony of the cultural rebirth of France.
The French Renaissance is also a vibrant period for the French
literature. While Francis I issued a decree in 1539 that made
French (and non longer Latin) the official language of the
administration, and with the fast rising printing industry (50,000
books are printed in Lyon and Paris in the course of the 16th
century), writers such as Clément Marot (1496-1544), Marguerite
de Navarre (1492-1549), Rabelais (1494-1553), Ronsard (15241585), du Bellay (1522-1560) define new literary norms and
genres which will set the standards for the centuries to come. In
1580, Michel de Montaigne (1533-1594) publishes his Essays, a
unique masterpiece which encapsulates the humanist spirit of the
Renaissance: tolerance, defiance towards dogmas, cultivation of
knowledge, cultural relativism founded on the recognition and
acceptance of difference. These ideas expressed by the philosopher
of Bordeaux will deeply influence the future generations of
thinkers.
The Wars of Religion
By the beginning of the 16th century, the
Church of Rome enters a deep crisis and
its leadership is being challenged all across
Europe. The works of the German Luther
(1488-1546) and the Swiss Calvin (15091564), both denouncing the excesses of
Rome, have a huge impact among the
French nobility and create a split between
Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots).
The partisans of the Reformation demand a
return to the authentic faith of the Gospels,
accusing the Roman Catholic Church of
corruption and superstition. The Catholics,
supporting the papacy in Rome, charge the
Protestants of heresy. In 1562, an assault
on a group of Protestants triggered a civil
war that culminated with the massacre of several thousand of
Protestants in Paris on Saint Bartholomew Day (24 August 1572).
Further confrontations occurred in the following months, causing
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France, an Outline of History
the death of tens of thousands of Protestants across France.
However, after his coronation in 1594, Henri IV, a former
Huguenot converted to Catholicism, issued an edict in 1598 (Edict
of Nantes) that granted to the Protestants freedom of cult and the
restoration of their civil rights. The reign of Henri IV was not only
marked by religious tolerance, the new King also showed
compassion to the poor and triggered economic growth through
controlled spending and regulated administration. Nicknamed
Henri the Great, or Good King Henri, he was assassinated by a
religious fanatic in 1610.
Towards absolute monarchy (17th c.)
Louis XIII, successor to the throne of Henri IV, was too young to
govern and his mother Catherine de Medicis appointed clergyman
Richelieu in 1624 to act as chief minister to the young King. The
alliance between the King and the cardinal lasted for nearly 20
years, until Richelieu’s death, in 1642. Richelieu worked hard to
strengthen the monarch’s standing, with increased centralized
power around his person and diminishing nobility’s influence by
increasing their obligations to the king. On the other hand, the
freedom granted to the Protestants under Henri IV was seriously
eroded, while their freedom of cult remained more or less intact,
their control over certain French cities was abolished. Richelieu
was also keen to extend French influence over new lands. With
generous subsidies granted to the naval force, the French settled
colonies in northern America, around the Saint-Laurent river (now
Quebec), as well as in Africa, and Madagascar. Internally,
Richelieu organized the collection of taxes to secure steady income
to the State’s finances which in turn helped the country’s economy
through the development of industrial and agricultural projects.
Richelieu made himself famous for his patronage of the arts: he
created in 1636 the Academie Francaise, an official and
prestigious body in charge of overseeing matters pertaining to the
French language. The Academy remains today one of the most
prestigious national institutions. Arts and letters flourished under
the reign of Louis XIII (1617-1643), with playwrights such as
Pierre Corneille (1606-1684), notorious for his tragedies inspired
by legends and stories of the Middle Ages and the Antiquity (Le Cid,
1637; Horace, 1640; Polyeucte, 1642). It is also in 1637 that
philosopher Rene Descartes published his Discourse of the Method,
a work which was to influence deeply the development of the
sciences and rationalist thought in the centuries to come.
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France, an Outline of History
The 17th century is known as the classic age in France and King
Louis XIV, nicknamed the King Sun, or Louis the Great,
epitomizes the unparalleled grandeur of the French monarchy in
this period. Louis was only 5 years old when his father Louis XIII
passed (1643) and the young heir had to wait until his majority in
1652 to access to the Throne of France. Still, Louis XIV started his
reign under the supervision of Richelieu’s successor, Chief
Minister Mazarin, who triggered a lot of discontent among the
French nobility. However, in 1661, following the death of his
unpopular Minister, Louis XIV decided to assume full control of
the State. The King of France was only 24, and this decision was
emblematic of Louis’ style, who conceived the monarch’s authority
as a divine right and the King as the pure embodiment of God.
Louis XIV, as absolute monarch, was also keen
to associate to his rule brilliant people, such as
Colbert (Marine and Finances), Louvois
(Military and War), Vauban (Engineering and
Fortifications), who all contributed massively to
Louis XIV’s ambitions and successes: during
the 55 years of Louis XIV personal reign,
France spent some 30 years at war. France’s
key victories over Holland and Spain in 1681
allowed the country to aggregate to the Crown
eastern and northern territories (Alsace,
Lorraine, Franche-Comté). But the glorious
period of Louis XIV, which lasted until 1685,
was not only about winning battles, the King
Sun wanted the arts to reflect the grandeur of
his rule. In the wake of the baroque style that developed across
Europe since the 16th century, French classical art rested on
values such as simplicity, balance, clarity as well as meticulous
rules. Together with architecture and painting, French literature
reached unprecedented standards with authors such as Molière
(1622-1673), Racine (1639-1699), Boileau (1636-1711), La
Fontaine (1668-1696), Madame de la Fayette (1634-1693) and de
La Rochefoucauld (1613-1680).
For such a king, a formidable palace had to be built. Versailles,
conveniently situated far from the hazardous Paris centre, took
nearly half a century to complete and was the most gigantic
architectural work ever undertaken in France. Louis XIV and his
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France, an Outline of History
court moved to Versailles in 1684, starting a life of high-spending
and lavish ceremonies, draining the country’s finances, already
under serious strain. From this point on, discontent grew among
the population at large, further aggravated by the economic crisis
triggered by the Edict of Fontainebleau (1685), by which all rights
granted to the Protestants a century ago were nullified. This
decision of Louis XIV, who never tolerated the partisans of
Reformation, provoked the exodus of hundreds of thousands
Huguenots, taking with them their wealth and riches across the
border. This exodus, as well as the heavy cost of continuous wars
from 1688 to 1697 against France’s neighbors, and later against
Spain from 1702 to 1714, threw the State’s finances into a
desperate situation. By the end of the reign of Louis the Great in
1715, France was close to bankruptcy and had to abandon vast
territories in North America to the British partly to recover its
losses.
The Enlightenment (18th c.)
In 1728, Louis XV, the great-grandson of the Sun King inherits the
throne, after reaching his majority. The financial situation of the
State is disastrous, legacy of the previous regime. On the other
hand, a new class of wealthy citizens has emerged, thanks to the
hefty dividends derived from overseas trade and commercial
outposts in various parts of the world: Canada, French Guiana
and West Indies, Africa, Mauritius (Indian Ocean) and India. The
slave trade between Africa and the New World also provides a
source of huge income for this new commercial bourgeoisie
enriched by the colonial expansion. When Louis XV’s Chief
Controller of Finances attempts in 1749 to levy a new tax on
wealthy citizens, the Parliament rejects the proposal in a
humiliating defeat for the State. This episode reflects the widening
gap between Versailles and the rest of the country, as well as the
paradoxical situation of a cash trapped government unable to
exert control on an increasingly assertive industrial and
commercial front protecting its own interests.
In this period, France is the most populous country in Europe, the
French culture is influential and serves as reference, French
scholars are highly regarded, French artists are on demand. The
French language is the diplomatic language across the continent,
and the European elite speak French, from London to Vienna,
from Madrid to Utrecht. The brilliance of French intellectuals
17
France, an Outline of History
culminates with the publication of the 28 volumes of the
Encyclopedia, from 1751 to 1772. The work, edited by Denis
Diderot, a philosopher, and d’Alembert, a mathematician, is
defined as an attempt to collect all possible knowledge in virtually
all aspects of the sciences, history and the arts. This monumental
endeavor, which would remain a major reference tool for the
following century, is emblematic of the spirit of the Enlightenment,
advocating that knowledge leads to progress, and that progress
paves the way for better justice and societies.
Diderot and d’Alembert are not the only
authors to promote new ideas, other
intellectuals
question
the
political
establishment of the monarchy, and its long
association with the Catholic Church: In
1748, Montesquieu (1689-1755) publishes
the Spirit of the Laws, advocating tolerance
and the advent of the secular state, with
independent
and
separate
legislature,
executive and judiciary. This work will
deeply influence the future American
Constitution (1787) and of course the soonto-be first French Constitution in 1791. Voltaire (1694-1778),
another prolific writer and prominent intellectual, prosecuted by
the French authorities, publishes in 1756 his most influential
work, Essay on the Manners and Spirit of the Nations, a vast
description of global history, where he affirms his faith in mankind,
enlightened by Reason. As for Rousseau (1712-1778), one of his
major works, The Social Contract (1762), develops the idea of the
democratic nation, founded on equality, justice, and devoted to
the well-being of its people.
The long reign of Louis XV comes to an end in 1774, as the King
succumbs to smallpox, a disease that kills hundreds of thousands
of people in France each year. His grandson will take the
succession. Louis XVI inherits a country with disastrous finances,
a growing discontent across all classes of the society, from the
poor who cannot afford to pay their taxes to the rich who don’t
want to share their capital. In this tense context, France is about
to implode.
18
France, an Outline of History
The Revolution (1789-1799)
The Revolution is one of the most
significant moments in French
history. Within ten years, the
events taking place will change the
country deeply and for ever. These
events will also have a profound
impact on Europe and on the rest
of the world. For the first time in
modern history, the citizens of a
country rise up to take their own fate into their hands in the name
of simple concepts such as freedom, equality, solidarity that
should be enshrined into laws and a constitutional framework. In
short, democracy, the rule of the people, is being experimented at
the scale of a nation, which has been dominated for centuries by
one single class, the aristocracy, and its ally, the clergy.
The causes of the Revolution are multiple: widespread poverty,
high taxation, widening gap between the State and the civil society,
economic and financial crisis, new political ideas, anticlericalism,
resentment of the class privileges enjoyed by the nobility, all these
factors and many other contributed to the upheaval of 1789. What
pulled the trigger though was an attempt by Louis XVI to push
new taxes to ease the disastrous financial situation of the State.
As the legislation was turned down, the King had to convene in
May 1789 at Versailles the Estates General, an assembly
representing the three orders of the society, i.e., the clergy, the
nobility and the Third Estate (the people). However, disputes arose
over the genuine representation of the people’s wishes and soon
the Third Estate deputies proclaimed themselves a National
Assembly with constitutional powers. On July 14, the citizens of
Paris stormed the Invalides, where they found weapons and
canons, then attacked the Bastille, a huge prison in the heart of
the city, seen by the revolutionaries as the symbol of the
repressive monarchy. Within hours, the Parisians were in control
of the city and the provinces quickly followed. Major changes were
on the march and will be unstoppable.
Initially, the revolutionaries conceived that a constitutional
monarchy would provide the best system is these times of changes.
According to the new constitution, the King would remain Head of
State, but the Assembly would retain its influence on the executive
19
France, an Outline of History
and legislative powers. The new national flag reflected this
compromise, the colors of the city of Paris (blue and red) combined
with that of the monarchy (white). In August 1789, the declaration
of the Rights of Man and the Citizen set out the basis for such a
political framework. The text declared boldly that all citizens
should enjoy the same privileges and equality of rights.
In 1792, France entered a war against
Austria, backed by a coalition of countries.
The French revolutionary army however
registered a key victory against the enemy in
Valmy, Eastern France. This victory gave a
new momentum to the Revolution, and the
new Convention proclaimed the First
Republic, which constitution was based on
the Declaration of 1789. Louis XVI,
suspected of plotting with the enemy, was
executed in January 1793 and a few months
later began the darkest period of the French
revolution, as the country tilted into a civil
war, involving thousands of executions
through the infamous guillotine. This episode, known as the Terror,
ended in 1795, as the Directory took over from the Convention.
The new regime however became quickly unpopular, stained by
rampant corruption, political maneuvering and heavy-handed
repression of dissent. Taking advantage of the situation, a young
general named Bonaparte, already famous following several
successful military campaigns, made his way quickly to the top to
stage a coup d’état in 1799. This event effectively put an end to
the Revolution and under the new Consulate, Bonaparte created
the position of First Consul, thus securing for himself entire
control of the country.
20
France, an Outline of History
4. The 19th century
The 19th century in France is a
period of deep changes and political
instability, testing various regimes
(empire, republic, monarchy). It is
only in the last quarter of the
century that the Republican ideals
conceived by the revolutionaries of
1789 were achieved. Indeed, the
heritage left by the Ancien Regime is
heavy, and with the industrial
revolution, a new social layer
emerges, the working class, dwelling
in the cities. In the meantime, the bourgeoisie becomes the
dominant class, stimulating the commerce and the industry, while
imposing its moral and social values.
The First Empire (1805-1814)
Bonaparte’s ambitions for France were great and his priority was
to bring the country back to its feet after decades of financial
mismanagement and political turmoil. Under his rule were created
many lasting institutions: the Bank of France was set up to
ensure monetary stability; the Civil Code gave to the judiciary and
society a solid foundation where to anchor decisions of justice and
it is still the basis of civil law in France today; several prestigious
schools were created to secure the training of the elite in the
administration and the military; he also reinforced the central
government by creating the positions of prefects to administer the
departments created in 1790. Napoleon, while carrying on with
the Revolution’s ideal of a laic state, was also favoring a
rapprochement with the Catholic Church, which had been evicted
from power control in 1789 and .
21
France, an Outline of History
But these ambitions ran even beyond the borders of France: five
years after his coup d’état, in 1804, he crowned himself Emperor
of the French (1804) under the name of Napoleon 1 and soon sent
the French armies marching across Europe. At its peak in 1811,
the Napoleonic Empire dominated most of the continent, with the
exception of England. Napoleon saw himself as a liberator, rather
than a mere conqueror, and under his firm rule, he purported to
build a federation of free peoples in Europe who could unite
around liberal governments articulated to a democratic
constitution, committed to civil law, fostering education, science
and the arts and combating feudalism.
However, the disastrous attempt to invade Russia in 1812 marked
a turning point in Napoleon’s success. The following year, a
coalition of six states defeated the French army and invaded
France, forcing Napoleon’s abdication in 1814. Exiled in Elba (Italy)
for almost a year, Napoleon made an extraordinary comeback to
regain for hundred days the control of the nation. However, the
French armies were defeated again in June 1815, ending this time
and for good Napoleon’s reign, who was deported on the island of
St. Helena in the middle of the Atlantic. He died there six years
later.
The Restoration (1814-1830) and the Monarchy of July (1830-1848)
The fall of the First Empire coincides with the end of the
revolutionary period in France, after more than 20 years of wars
and conflicts that have caused the death of more than 3 millions
people across Europe. In 1815, France is economically weak and
deeply divided. In Europe, a coalition is formed, the St. Alliance, to
respond immediately to new attempts by France to initiate new
conflicts. However, with the monarchy restored and the accession
to the throne of Louis XVIII, grandson of Louis XV, the conditions
for a new equilibrium seemed to be reunited. The new king could
not ignore 25 years of profound changes in the country, and at the
same time he needed to provide assurance to the conservative
forces that the country was safe for the many refugees to return.
In 1814, the Chart was adopted, a sort of constitution that allowed
the formation of political parties and an advisory bi-cameral
assembly with little power. The chambers were elected by voters
who could afford to pay a hefty poll tax, which effectively limited
the number of voters to a few thousands, and among the
wealthiest. The political spectrum was then divided into three
22
France, an Outline of History
streams: the liberals, who advocated a return to the fundamentals
of the Revolution; the Constitutionals, who wanted to associate a
proper constitution to the royal regime; and the ultra-royalists,
who wanted to see a return to absolute monarchy. The reign of
Louis XVIII, with all its weaknesses, marked a period of relative
peace and economic prosperity in France, and in many respects,
allowed much more freedom of expression than the Napoleonic
regime ever did.
Charles X ascended to the throne in 1825, following the death of
Louis XVIII. The new king had a totally different agenda which
became apparent as soon as his coronation, which took place in
the cathedral of Reims, according to the Ancient Regime tradition.
Charles X wanted to pass power to the ultra-royalist and did his
best to weaken the prerogatives granted by the Chart to the
Liberals. In 1830, Charles X committed the French troops to the
invasion of Algeria, effectively starting the colonization process in
which will be engaged for the decades to come. The same year, he
dissolved the Assembly, hoping to return a favorable majority, but
the plan failed. Following another attempt to dissolve the new
Assembly, the Parisians staged an insurrection on the 27, 28 and
29 July, known as the Three Glorious Days. Charles X was forced
to abdicate and flee the country.
The Assembly chose the duke of Orleans as the next king of
France, a descendant of Louis XIII. The new king assumed power
under the name of Louis-Philippe for 18 years, the longest reign
since Louis XV. Louis-Philippe was initially popular among the
masses for his liberal views, and his reign seemed to mark a
return to constitutional monarchy, the Chart being enforced and
somehow widened in its scope. These measures however, which
included a cheaper poll tax, still favored mostly the wealthy middle
class and very soon, in the wake of an assassination attempt on
the king in 1835, the freedom of the press was severely curtained.
Important social changes took place in the period, through the
increasing industrialization of the country (coal mines, foundries,
textile factories, railways), a new working class emerged in the
cities. Theorists such St Simon and Fourier laid the foundations of
a critical appraisal of the capitalist order, and their writings would
inspire generations of politicians to come.
23
France, an Outline of History
Second Revolution of 1848 and the Second Empire (1852-1870)
The abdication in 1848 of Louis-Philippe was
precipitated by an economic crisis which
started the year before, owing to bad harvests.
Again, the people commanded the flow of
events as demonstrators took to the streets of
Paris to protest against unemployment, poor
living conditions and to demand civil and
political rights. This second revolution led to
the declaration of the Second Republic by the
Assembly. The blue, white and red flag was
raised again, after nearly 35 years of being
folded under the restoration of the monarchy.
The new Republic, led by the Socialist Louis Blanc, had generous
intentions: the universal suffrage was adopted, although this
measure excluded the women; the mandatory creation of “National
Workshops”, meant to guarantee the availability of jobs and
income for the working classes. However, the political inexperience
of the revolutionaries of 1848, their poor political basis in the
provinces among the peasantry, could not contain a conservative
backlash at the next Assembly elections. Step by step, the new
rights gained by the workers were eroded or cancelled. In 1851,
Louis Napoleon, the popular president of the Republic and nephew
of Napoleon Bonaparte, took advantage of the weakness of the
Republicans to stage a coup d’état and illegally dissolve the
Assembly. The following year, he declared himself Emperor
Napoleon III. The Second Republic had been short-lived.
The new Emperor started his reign by imposing a firm hand on the
country and dissent. The press, the citizens were closely watched
and opposition members were deported or, such as Victor Hugo,
forced to exile. For nearly a decade, France lived under the rule of
a dictator with zero tolerance. Things turned to the worse after an
assassination attempt against the Emperor staged in 1858 by an
Italian anarchist. As a result, a security law was issued to
authorize the deportation of any suspect without trial. This tight
political context however favored economic growth and prosperity,
as capital holders and banks were more willing to invest for new
projects. In the meantime, scientific progress helped the industrial
and urban development of the country. Under Napoleon III, Paris
underwent a radical change led by Baron Haussmann, who
24
France, an Outline of History
redesigned the crowded capital with large arteries and landmark
buildings.
The Second Empire was also a period of rapid colonial expansion
for France, a process already initiated under Louis-Philippe.
Competing with England, the French overseas colonies were both
a source of raw materials to feed the domestic industry and
consumption market and a convenient outlet for products made in
the metropolis. Significant territorial gains were made in West and
Central Africa, in Indochina (Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos) as well
as in the South-Pacific. In 1869, the Suez Canal was finally
opened after a decade of works conducted under the supervision
of French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps. The canal dealt a
significant blow in British domination of the region and opened a
new route to the East that cut traveling time by half.
In the 1860’s, amid an economic downturn, failed foreign policy
and growing discontent towards his authoritarian regime,
Napoleon III’s credibility and popularity started to dwindle, even
among the bourgeoisie who would not forgive him the signing of a
treaty that allowed British goods to be freely marketed in France.
In response, the ageing and ailing Emperor eased his grip on the
media and relaxed political rights, such as the freedom of strike
and parliamentarian representation. These changes favored the
massive return of Republicans to the Assembly in 1870. The same
year, Napoleon III, in the hope of retaining power, agreed to a new
constitution providing full parliamentary legislative regime to the
country. However, the Franco-Prussian war broke out, and with
the French armies mobilized in Western France and the Emperor
captured by the Germans, the Republican deputies in Paris took
advantage of the situation to topple the Second Empire and install
a new provisional government.
The Third Republic (1870-1940)
Soon after their seizing of power, the new government proclaimed
the Third Republic, a bicameral parliamentarian democracy that
will resist many crises during the next 70 years, until the invasion
of France by Germany at the onset of the Second World War. The
new republic emerged while Paris was still under the siege of the
German troops, ready to invade the capital. The siege was to last
for four months, until a treaty was signed, by which France had to
pay heavy war reparations and to abandon to Prussia its eastern
25
France, an Outline of History
provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. The loss of these provinces was
to leave a deep scar into the French psyche, until their eventual
recovery some 50 years later, after the First World War.
However, the young republic had not
seen the end of its troubles: in March
1871, a civil insurrection, known as La
Commune, broke out in the capital.
Overwhelmed by the events, the
government led by Thiers was forced to
retreat to Versailles to prepare the
counter-attack.
The
Communards,
which will become a source of
inspiration
for
many
Communist
revolutionaries worldwide, adopted the
red flag, formed a freely elected
government and implemented radical measures in favor of the
working class, among them free and laic education. By May 1871
however, the loyalist troops of Versailles stormed the capital and
crushed the insurrection, leaving at least 25,000 men, women and
children dead in one of the bloodiest repression in French history.
Countless other citizens suspected of supporting the insurrection
were deported or imprisoned. The short-lived Commune was the
last gasp of the French Revolution that changed France’s history
almost one century earlier.
By 1875, the “Republic without Republicans” went through a
range of constitutional reforms and appointed its first president,
the general Mac-Mahon, a monarchist, who had led the repression
against the Communards. The government adopted a strict policy
based on moral values, while closely watching for a possible
rebirth of the workers’ movement. In 1879 however, Mac-Mahon
was forced to stand down, following parliamentary elections that
returned a majority of Republicans to the legislative Assembly.
From then on, a truly democratic regime was put into place,
controlled by liberal members of parliament who only
distinguished themselves by either their moderate or radical
affiliation to democratic values. The moderate camp however
dominated the Chamber and from 1881 onwards, Jules Ferry, one
of the most revered politicians in French history pushed a package
of long-awaited legislation: the free, mandatory and secular
education for all children until the age of 13 and the complete
freedom of the press. Further laws enshrined the right to belong to
26
France, an Outline of History
trade unions and helped to regulate the work of women and
children. To celebrate the memory of the French Revolution as well
as the industrial prowess of the country, it was decided to build a
gigantic tower in the heart of Paris. The Tour Eiffel was unveiled in
1889 at the Exposition Universelle and would remain thereon as
one of the universal icons of the French nation.
Meanwhile, the colonial policy was actively pursued with further
gains on the African continent and south-east Asia. The French
colonial empire was then 16 times larger than France itself and
second in size to the British empire. Beyond its commercial and
strategic rationale, the French government justified colonialism as
a way of bringing “civilization” to the “backward peoples” under its
rule. As such, colonialism was seen as a duty performed by the
Western industrial countries for the good of the rest of the world.
The French were also present in China, in the Yunnan province in
particular, contiguous to its possessions in Indochina, as well as
through commercial concessions in Canton and Shanghai. In
1900, the French participated in an international military
expedition that was sent to Tianjing and Peking to help crush the
Boxers rebellion.
In the late 1890s and early 1900s, in the wake of a bitter dispute
over the Dreyfus affair that had uncovered the extent of antiSemitism and political divisions in France, the radical Republicans
progressively took the upper-hand over the moderate wing in what
is called the “anti-clerical Republic”. The Catholic Church, seen as
the main ally of the conservative forces, became the main target of
the radical Republicans. In 1904, the French government severed
its diplomatic ties with the Vatican and the following year, in 1905,
a bill was issued to formally separate the Church from the affairs
of the state. In practice, while Catholicism was still recognized as
the national religion, the government was no longer required to
subsidize the Church’s activities, including the salaries of its
personnel. The significance of this legislation was symbolically farreaching, inasmuch as it translated into law the secularism of a
democratic nation that has been associated with Christianity since
the Gallo-Roman period.
27
France, an Outline of History
5. The 20th century
During the first decade of
the 20th century France
enjoyed a period of upbeat
mood and optimism to the
point that this time is
remembered as ”la Belle
Epoque”.
The
country
produced and benefitted
from many of the scientific
and technical innovations of
the
second
industrial
revolution:
photography,
gramophone, electricity, automobile, bicycle and the prototypes of
aerial machines on which Blériot realized the first 30-km flight
across the channel (1909), from Calais to Dover. Marie Curie
experienced the radioactivity in her laboratory and was awarded
two Nobel prizes (1903 and 1911). In the capital Paris, the first
metro line opened on 14 July 1900 and changed the face of urban
transport for ever. France enjoyed considerable international
prestige: it had the second-largest colonial empire in the world,
played a leading role in international diplomacy and was at the
forefront in the realms of art, culture and science.
World War I (1914-1918)
From 1910 onwards, the tension between France and Germany
increased, the lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine remaining at
the heart of the dispute. In spite of the opposition of French
Socialists led by Jean Jaurès to an armed conflict with Germany,
the preparations gained pace. Following the assassination in June
1914 at Sarajevo of Franz Ferdinand, archduke of Austria,
Germany formed a alliance with Austria-Hungary (the Central
Powers) while France responded by seeking an alliance with
England and Russia (the Triple Alliance). When Germany declared
28
France, an Outline of History
war to Russia and France in August, a “sacred union” of the
French political class favored the warmongers. France entered the
conflict assuming that the war would be short and limited in
scope. However, this war would last four years and for the first
time in history, would take a global dimension.
Even though the conflict involved countries as far as the US and
Japan, the main battlefield took place in eastern France. The
German troops stationed on French soil attempted several times to
seize Paris while the French troops resisted and tried hard to push
the Germans back behind the border. In February 1916, the
Battle de Verdun started and for nearly one year, French and
German troops fought each other from the entrenched positions in
appalling conditions. Amid diseases, food shortages, artillery and
chemical warfare, hundreds of thousands soldiers from each side
lost their lives, and many more were seriously wounded. The
trenches of Verdun would soon become a symbol of the “Great
War”. By 1917, the United States who had adopted so far an
isolationist stand entered the conflict to reinforce the triple
Alliance, in the wake of the destruction of American ships by the
Germans. However, in December 1917, as the Bolshevik
Revolution broke out, the Russians left the Triple Alliance, a move
that allowed the Germans to redeploy on the Western front in
France.
In March 1918, the German troops were
within 30 km of Paris and bombarded the
capital with long-distance canons. But the
arrival of fresh American troops in August
gave a new twist to the battle. The
Germans were finally forced to retreat and
with the capitulation of Turkey and
Austria-Hungary
in
November,
the
Germans have no choice but to face defeat.
The armistice is signed on November 11,
1918, near Paris. The war has caused the
death of 8 millions people across Europe.
One year later, Germany will pay a heavy
price : according to the Treaty of Versailles,
Germany would surrender Alsace and
Lorraine back to France; pay war reparations for up to 132 billions
of marks; the bordering provinces of Rhenania and Sarre would
remain occupied and demilitarized; the country would also be
29
France, an Outline of History
prevented to develop weaponry and an army of more than 100,000
men. Finally, all the German colonies in the Pacific and Africa are
distributed among Australia, Japan, Belgium, England and France.
This treaty will have a profound psychological, social and
economical impact on Germany, it will also change drastically the
political map of Europe, exacerbating nationalist feelings in many
regions.
The Interwar (1918-1939)
Right after the war, the conservative Republicans are back in
control in France, with Raymond Poincaré heading the
government. Poincaré advocated a tough policy against Germany
and in 1923, the French troops are sent to occupy the Ruhr region.
This decision sent waves of panic across financial markets. In
order to protect the French currency against heavy speculation,
Poincaré took the step of increasing taxes by 20%, a very
unpopular decision that cost the Republicans the general elections
of 1924, won by the Radicals and Socialists. The first decision of
the new left-wing government led by the Radical Herriot was to
design a new tax capital tax, which resulted in a fresh monetary
crisis as a massive flow of capital left the country. Herriot was
then forced to step down and Poincaré was called again to form a
coalition government. Thanks to a firm economic policy, the
finances were soon back on track, which allowed the Republicans
to win the next general elections in 1928.
The period right after the war was not only about
financial crises however. The 20s were also a
period of deep cultural changes amidst a society
which slowly recovered from the great damages
of the First World War. After the Belle Epoque of
the first decade, the 20s were named the
“Années Folles” (the Mad Years). Women played
an essential role in these years: during the war,
they replaced men in many sectors of economic
and social activities. In many instances, they
also acquired the status of “head of family”
creating for themselves much room for
independence. The birth rate was also in sharp
decrease, allowing more freedom to women, who
were no longer confined to motherhood role.
Coco Chanel, the first female designer, revolutionized the way
30
France, an Outline of History
women dressed and thought about themselves. The writer Colette,
provocative and carefree, sketched the profile of a new
emancipated woman in her immensely popular novels. On the
other hand, André Breton and a group of young intellectuals and
artists brought about the Surrealist Revolution in a Manifesto
published in 1924. In this new vision of the arts (literature,
painting, sculpture), freedom, invention and spontaneity were the
keys to approach new creative forms, more attuned to the inner
impulses of the Unconscious, just recently uncovered by Sigmund
Freud.
In 1930, in a relatively healthy economic context, the conservative
government led by André Tardieu introduced welfare measures
directed to the less wealthy which would thereafter become a
landmark of France’s social State: public works, social insurance,
and free secondary schooling. His government also undertook the
construction of the Maginot line, a series of concrete fortifications
and bunkers along its borders to Germany and Italy, in order to
foil a surprise attack from the enemy, as it had happened in 1914.
By 1932 however, France started to feel the pinch of the Wall
Street Crash of 1929, with an increasing number of unemployed
and disgruntled people. In the meantime, Adolf Hitler had
ascended to power in Germany with a tough propaganda around
the theme of revenge, in particular against France. The fascist
treat across Europe (Germany, Spain, Italy) contributed to unite
left-wing parties in France who managed to win the general
elections of 1936 under a broad coalition, the Front Populaire
(Popular Front). The government led by Leon Blum, which for the
first time included women ministers, immediately passed
spectacular social measures: workers’ right to strike; mandatory
12 days (2 weeks) of paid vacations; workweek limited to 40 hours;
wages raises. Blum also dissolved the fascist leagues who had
become very active in France.
Blum’s government however was short-lived. Budgetary deficit,
disputes among the coalition on the question of the civil war in
Spain, opposition of the Senate forced Blum to step down after
only one year at the helm of the government. The new president of
the Council, Edouard Daladier, initially believed, as the British did,
that by making concessions to Hitler at Munich in 1938 over the
eastern part Czechoslovakia would make it possible to avoid
hostilities. However, on 3 September 1939, shortly after the
31
France, an Outline of History
German’s invasion of Poland, the Head of government committed
France to the Second World War, alongside the British.
World War II (1939-1945)
The German’s armies, backed by powerful
tanks and air forces cut across French
borders north of the Maginot line, where they
were not expected and after a long period of
waiting, in May 1940. They quickly reached
Normandy and in six weeks the French
armies are crushed. The Germans entered
Paris on June 14 and a week later the
armistice was signed at Rethondes, in the
very place Germany conceded defeat on
November 1918. On June 18, the General de Gaulle speaking on
radio from London, launched his historic appeal to the French to
resist to the invaders. According to the terms of the armistice, the
Germans annexed again the Alsace and Lorraine, the northern
part of the country and the Atlantic coast were put under German
control, while the south was declared “free zone” and administered
from the city of Vichy by a “French State” led by the Marechal
Petain who pledged allegiance to the occupant.
The « government of collaboration » as it will be called, took
immediate measures to reform the Constitution and to silence the
opposition: the President was given full authority, political parties
and trade unions were suspended, the right to strike was annulled
and the nation’s policy articulated after three principles: work,
family and fatherland. This new order represented in fact a
complete negation of all democratic and social progress made in
France since the Revolution. The former political leaders
(including Blum and Daladier) were arrested and prosecuted. The
French government also assisted and organized the arrest and
deportation of resident Jews to Germany’s concentration camps.
By 1943, the Vichy government urged the youth and workers to go
to Germany to help in the industries and farm estates. The
greatest ambition of Petain’s government was to become the
second economic and industrial power in Europe after Germany.
Between the Nazi occupant and the Vichy government, the
Resistance managed to organize itself, notably with Jean Moulin, a
young civil servant who escaped France to join de Gaulle in
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France, an Outline of History
London. Soon back to France, Moulin organized the resistant
networks to help the passages of resistants into the Free Zone,
perform sabotage operations, provide help to persecuted Jews. In
November 1942, the Germans, worried by the growing threat of a
new war front in North Africa, decided to deploy their troops in the
Free Zone. The general de Gaulle had set up in Algeria a
provisional government of France and organized resistance from
there. When Moulin was arrested in June 1943, tortured and died
from his wounds, the Resistance was already a powerful
organization that would play a major role in the preparation of the
gigantic Allied landing of Normandy the year after, in June 1944.
In spite of enormous human loss, the landing was successful and
on August 25, the French and allied troops marched victorious
into the streets of the capital Paris. The country was free at last,
and the General de Gaulle took the lead of the provisional
government.
The French Resistance may not have been a key factor in the
Allied victory over Nazism, but its role was crucial for France in
that it convinced the British, American and Soviet politicians that
France should be considered one of the victorious Allies, rather
than an enemy whose territory should be occupied. France was
thus able to participate fully in the victory and was present at the
signing of Germany’s capitulation on 8 May 1945 in Reims. In this
sense, it is fair to say that it was the Resistance, personified by de
Gaulle, which allowed France to hold on to its international
position despite having suffered a military defeat.
The post-war era (1945-1958)
In the months following the liberation of the country, the level of
euphoria was high and proportionate to the degree of trauma and
hardship endured by the French during the 4-year Nazi
occupation. This euphoria translated into a cultural Renaissance
of which the Saint-Germain district on the left bank in Paris was
the main focus. There in the jazz clubs, the trendy cafés, the
Parisian youth celebrated their newly found freedom. A new
generation of artists and intellectuals emerged, such as Boris Vian
and Juliette Greco, and on the literary scene, Jean-Paul Sartre,
thinker of Existentialism and Simone de Beauvoir, prominent
feminist and author of the celebrated “Second Sex”. Meanwhile, a
climate of revenge – known as l’épuration - settled in, with
spontaneous settling of scores and summary executions of
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France, an Outline of History
thousands of “collabos”. Formal trials were also held to press
charges against and prosecute the collaborators, among them
Pierre Laval, former associate of Marechal Pétain, the writer and
intellectual Robert Brasillach, and Louis Renault, head of the car
maker company. However, economic collaborators were largely
spared, as the country needed its entrepreneurs and captains of
industry for the postwar reconstruction. In August 1945, Pétain
was sentenced to death but on the ground of his old age, the
sentence was commuted to life-long imprisonment. Overall, the
French were torn between the glorification of the Resistance and
the desire to bury the shameful collaborationist State which
helped the deportation of 76,000 Jews from France to Germany’s
extermination camps.
As soon as 1945, the provisional
government, while working on a new
Constitution which would soon give birth
to the Fourth Republic, engaged into
radical
reforms,
such
as
the
nationalization of banks and large
companies (energy, transport, insurances),
the creation of the Social Security, the
right of vote for women. However, de
Gaulle stepped down in 1946, dissociating
himself with the reforms of the government,
in particular those regarding constitutional
amendments. De Gaulle, who advocated a
presidential regime and strong executive
leadership, could not be satisfied with a
new constitution which basically prolonged the former
parliamentary regime. Despite the Communist opposition, France
soon became a member of the Atlantic Alliance (NATO) in April
1949. In addition, after Germany was divided, France opted for a
policy of entente with West Germany which was to lay the
foundations of the European Community. Jean Monnet, Robert
Schuman and Chancellor Konrad Adenauer were instrumental in
bringing the two countries closer together - a strategy which
resulted, in 1951, in the creation of the European Coal and Steel
Community (ECSC), a first milestone on the road to a united
Europe.
But the troubles envisioned by de Gaulle for the new Republic
inaugurated in 1947 didn’t come only from inner struggles on the
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France, an Outline of History
French political scene: the French Empire was also on the brink of
collapsing and the colonies abroad were actively seeking their
independence, following the global trend after the war, which
greatly weakened the colonial powers. Indochina thus became the
central focus of foreign policy for the new Republic: Vietnam, in
the wake of its liberation from Japanese occupation, had declared
its independence in 1945, a move that France was not ready to
accept. Hô Chi Minh, leader of the Vietnam Liberation Front,
backed by the Soviet Union and Communist China, organized the
resistance from the North against the French troops. After many
years of a “dirty war” where 100,000 French troops were killed,
the French defeat at Diên Biên Phu in May 1954 precipitated the
capitulation of France as well as the fall of the government. Pierre
Mendes France, head of the new socialist government, signed in
July 1954 the Geneva Accords, which recognized the
independence of Laos and Cambodia, as well as the split of
Vietnam into two zones.
As peace was gained on the Indochina front, war erupted in
Algeria, the oldest French colony, conquered in 1830. While other
French colonies like Tunisia and Morocco, as well as most
territories in sub-Saharan Africa won their independence in the
late 50s and early 60s without armed conflict, the case of Algeria
was different. The ties linking France with this country were deep
and complex, economic and emotional, and many French settlers
had been living on this land for generations. France was reluctant
to make this ultimate concession on her lost empire. In 1954, the
first insurrections by the National Liberation Front are harshly
suppressed. Pierre Mendes-France, who favored conciliation, was
forced to step down in 1955 after only seven months in power.
Under the various governments which followed, the Algerian war
became the focus of French politics, the conflict became more and
more unpopular among public opinion. In 1958, the French
residents of Algeria, backed by the Army of General Massu and the
local authorities, threatened to stage a coup and form an
insurgent government unless the Constitution was amended and
the General de Gaulle installed into power. The pressure
succeeded. De Gaulle was called by President René Coty to lead
the government. He initiated the drafting of a new Constitution,
which was to lay down the future modus operandi of the French
institutions. On 28 September 1958, the Constitution of the Fifth
Republic was adopted by referendum. It gave the President of the
Republic much broader authority. On 21 December 1958, de
35
France, an Outline of History
Gaulle was elected President by a college of deputies, senators and
local elected representatives.
The Fifth Republic (1958-present)
The new constitution didn’t stop the war, but
serious disturbances both in mainland
France and in Algeria, and a putsch by
generals in Algiers on 22 April 1961, led to an
acceleration of the negotiations with the
provisional government of the Algerian
Republic which culminated in the Evian
agreements, overwhelmingly approved by
referendum on 8 April 1962. Algeria gained
independence
and
a
million
French
inhabitants had to return to mainland France
and a new life. The General de Gaulle, seen
as the liberator of France in 1944, had again freed his country,
but this time from its own colonial past. At the same time, the new
regime conceived by de Gaulle could now be tested in a period of
stability, after 22 years of continuous conflicts since the beginning
of WW2. On 28 October 1962, de Gaulle called a referendum
which approved election of the head of State by direct universal
suffrage. He would be elected president on 19 December 1965.
As soon as the following year, de Gaulle undertook to demonstrate
what he had in mind for France: based on a thriving economy
boosted by post-war reconstruction and a booming demography,
de Gaulle wanted a France which would affirm its independence
from the two superpowers of the Cold War and strongly anchored
in Europe. In January 1963, de Gaulle opposed the entry of Great
Britain into EEC, as he judged that the British entertained too
strong ties with the US. However, a week later, de Gaulle and
Adenauer laid the foundations of a deeper partnership with
Germany with the signature of the Franco-German Treaty of
Friendship. A few months later, France – which had developed a
nuclear arsenal, declared its military independence, thus
preparing its actual withdrawal from NATO which would
eventually materialize in 1966. Finally, in January 1964, just as
though he wanted to seal his huge unpopularity among the US
and British leaders, de Gaulle became the first Western Head of
State to initiate diplomatic links with the Popular Republic of
China, then led by Mao Tse Tung.
36
France, an Outline of History
However, the first signs of a crisis of confidence towards Gaullist
politics became manifest as the younger generation, who hadn’t
known the war and its immediate aftermath grew disillusioned of
the consumerist society in which France had engaged during the
« Thirty Glorious Years » since the end of the war. The youth of the
late 60s wanted a society based on different values than those of
their parents and the politicians that had led the country in the
reconstruction phase and the colonial wars. The 1968 uprising
started in March in a Parisian university, and quickly spread
throughout the country in the following weeks. The students on
strike at first demanded reforms of the education system, but soon
their demands concerned a large spectrum of aspects of the
society, such as workers’ rights, freedom of expression, political
censorship. In May, the students confronted the police in the
streets, elevating barricades in violent clashes. The workers joined
the movement and by May 24, 10 millions people across France
were on strike, bringing the country to a halt. Faced with this
unprecedented unrest and with France on the brink of anarchy,
de Gaulle called for general elections to take place by June end.
The ballot boxes returned a large majority in favor of the Gaullist
government. The upheaval died down as quickly as it started, de
Gaulle emerged victorious, and the “National Hero” had won
another battle, on the social front this time.
The protesters of May '68 may not have
achieved the ideal society they wanted to
promote in the course of their revolt, but the
events would have a deep social impact on
the country in the longer term. The
conservative values of the “old state”, based
on morality, religion, patriotism, respect of
authority had been seriously challenged and
a clear shift towards more liberal views, such
as equality, sexual liberation, human rights,
defiance towards capitalism, concerns for the
environment would from now on dominate
French society.
De Gaulle stepped down in 1969 as he suffered a rebuke in a
referendum on constitutional affairs. Georges Pompidou, a former
Prime Minister, was elected soon afterwards. Pompidou adopted a
more pragmatic economic policy and distanced himself from
37
France, an Outline of History
Gaullism. Under his presidency, France lifted its veto on Britain’s
entry into the European Economic Community (EEC). The EEC
was also subsequently opened to Ireland and Denmark, taking the
number of members to nine in 1973. But Pompidou’s mandate
was interrupted by his death from illness in 1974. In the
presidential elections that followed, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, a
former Finance Minister under de Gaulle and Pompidou, was
elected. Under the backdrop of the first oil crisis that threatened
the global economy, the young president was keen to present
himself as a promoter of a new style of government with a
“centrist” approach. Giscard introduced bold reforms, such as the
lowering of the age of majority to 18, the legalization of abortion,
and the end of censorship of films and TV broadcasting. He also
initiated meetings of the G7 (“Group of Seven” most industrialized
countries) and, together with the German Chancellor Helmut
Schmidt, was instrumental in setting up the European Monetary
System (EMS) and the election of Members of the European
Parliament by universal suffrage. However, with the second oil
crisis that struck France in 1979, the economic situation
worsened, with notably a sharp increase of the number of jobless
people, which would remain the main issue in French politics for
the decades to come.
Weakened by poor economic result and a
plunging popularity due to scandals that had
cast doubts on his personal integrity, Giscard
d’Estaing lost the presidential elections in
May 1981 to the Socialist François
Mitterrand, who had been the leading figure
of the opposition since the inception of the
Fifth Republic. The election of the first
Socialist President was historical, in a
country which had always been dominated by
Conservative parties. In some respect, France
was ready to take this step and the revolt of May 68 had certainly
played a major role in the maturation process. With a comfortable
majority of left-wing MPs gained in the subsequent general
elections, Mitterrand had an open field ahead of him to implement
the policies of the Left he had promised to deliver. The first
measures taken by the government represented just that: abolition
of the death penalty; nationalization of major industrial groups
and banks; a series of laws on decentralization, allowing greater
autonomy to the regions and local governments. On the social and
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France, an Outline of History
economic levels, in a spirit reminiscent of the Popular Front in
1936, the minimum wage was increased, the working week was
lowered to 39 hours (from 40 hours), the amount of paid leave was
brought to five weeks (from four), the retirement age was set at 60,
and a solidarity tax on wealth was created to help the poorest,
along with a range of various social measures in direction of the
workers. The objective was to boost economic activity by creating
more demand, but the plot failed. By 1983, the government had to
adopt a set of austerity measures to combat inflation and ever
rising unemployment.
The euphoria of 1981 was overturned by disappointment and the
general elections of 1986 showed that the generous Left of
Mitterrand had not been more able to address the economic
difficulties facing France than the Liberal Right of Giscard
d’Estaing. As the ballots returned a Conservative majority to the
National Assembly, Mitterrand was forced to “cohabit” with
Jacques Chirac, a Gaullist Prime Minister, for the next remaining
two years of his presidential mandate. In a sense, this
unprecedented cohabitation of two political opponents at the helm
of the State provided a perfect test for the institutions of the Fifth
Republic and the French people seemed to be happy with this
sharing of power. Under the Constitution of the Fifth Republic, the
distribution of the roles was clear: the President led the Nation
(Defense and Foreign policy) while the Prime Minister led the
government. In 1988, François Mitterrand was reelected for a
second 7-year mandate, and following the dissolution of the
National Assembly, the left-wing parties managed to hold a narrow
majority. Overall, the second mandate was no more successful in
solving the economic problems of France, but it was in his second
term that Mitterrand engaged in major architectural projects
which would become the legacy of his presidency: the Louvre
Pyramid, the Channel Tunnel linking France and Britain, the
Grande Arche of the Defense, the Bastille Opera, the Finance
Ministry in Bercy, the National Library of France, the Institute of
the Arab World. In 1993, after the Socialists lost for a second time
in the general elections, François Mitterrand was again forced to
cohabit with a Conservative cabinet led by Edouard Balladur.
Mitterrand’s second and last term ended in 1995, and Jacques
Chirac was elected new President of France.
39
France, an Outline of History
History of France - A Chronology
Antiquity
1,200 BC –
500 AD
Middle Ages
500 - 1500
1,200 BC –
500 BC
600 BC
500 BC
390 BC
122 BC
52 BC
253-275 AD
406
476
481
496
732
751
768
800
843
885
911
987
1066
1095
1154
1229
1337
1420
Renaissance
16th century
1429
1429
1453
1477
1495
1515
1572
1594
1598
1610
First settlements of Celtic populations in Gaul
Foundation of Marseille by the Greeks
Massive arrival of Celtic populations in Gaul
The Gauls besiege Rome
First Roman colonies in Southern Gaul
The Gauls are defeated by the Romans.
Foundation of Lutece (Paris). Beginning of Pax
Romana.
First wave of Barbarian invaders
Second wave of Barbarian invaders
End of Roman Empire
Clovis, King of the Franks, Merovingian Dynasty
Conversion of Clovis to Christianism
Charles Martel defeats Arab invasion in Poitiers
Pepin the Short, King of the Franks, Carolingian
Dynasty
Charlemagne, King of the Franks
Charlemagne, Emperor of the Franks
Charles the Bald, King of Francia Occidentalis
Vikings besiege Paris
Creation of the Duché of Normandy
Hugh Capet, first Capetian King
William of Normandy, King of England
First Crusade
Henri II Plantagenet, King of England
Saint Louis, King of France
Beginning of the Anglo-French War
Treaty of Troyes, the French crown goes to
England’s Henry II
Joan of Arc defeats the English at Orleans
Coronation of Charles VII
End of the Anglo-French War
Burgundy joins the French Crown
Beginning of the Italian Wars
Francis I, King of France
Massacre of the Protestants on St Barthelemy
Day
Henri IV, King of France
Edict of Nantes
Henri IV assassination
40
France, an Outline of History
Classical Age
17th century
Enlightenment
18th century
1617
1624-1642
1636
1639-1699
1648
1652
1684
1685
1715
1728
1748
1751
1756
1762
1763
Revolution
1789-1799
1774
1789
1792-1795
1793
1793-1794
19th century
1795-1799
1799
1804
1805-1814
1814
1815
1815-1830
1824
1830
1830-1848
1848
1852-1870
1857
1870-1871
1870
1871
Louis XIII, King of France
Richelieu, Chief Minister
Foundation of French Academy
Life of Jean Racine, playwright
Treaty of Westphalia
Louis XIV, King of France
The King Sun moves into Versailles palace
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes
Death of Louis XIV
Louis XV, King of France
Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws
Publication of the first volume of Diderot’s
Encyclopaedia
Voltaire, Essay on Manners and Spirit of
Nations
Rousseau, The Social Contract
Treaty of Paris: France concedes Canada and
India to England
Louis XVI, King of France
Storming of the Bastille (July 14). Declaration
of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (Aug. 26)
National Convention. Proclamation of the
Republic (Sept. 11, 1792)
Execution of Louis XVI (Jan. 21)
The Reign of Terror, Robespierre’s Committee
of Public Safety
The Directory, first bicameral legislature
Coup d’Etat of Bonaparte; Consulate
Napoléon I Bonaparte, Emperor. Civil Code.
Bank of France
Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon defeated at Leipzig
(1814) and deported at Elba Island
Louis XVIII, King of France
The Hundred Days of Napoleon. Defeat at
Waterloo. Napoleon is exiled at St Helene.
The Restoration
Charles X, King of France
The Three Glorious Days
Monarchy of July – Louis Philippe, King of
France
Second Republic
Second Empire - Napoleon III
Algeria becomes French colony
Franco-German War
Third Republic
Insurrection of la Commune of Paris (Feb.).
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France, an Outline of History
20th century
1882
1887
1900
1905
1914-1918
1919
1931-1935
1936
1939-1945
1940
1940-1944
1942
1944
1946-1948
1954
1957
1958
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
1969
1969-1974
1973
1974-1981
1981-1995
1995-2007
2007
Treaty of Francfort (May): France surrenders
eastern provinces Alsace and Lorraine to the
Germans
Decree Jules Ferry, free education for all
Protectorate of France over Indochina
France intervenes against the Boxers in China
Separation of the Church and the State
First World War
Treaty of Versailles; France recovers Alsace
and Lorraine
Economic recession
Popular Front of Leon Blum
Second World War
Nazis occupy northern France
Petain, Chief of Vichy Government; de Gaulle
leads Resistance
Southern France occupied by the Nazis
Allies land in Normandy (June); Liberation of
Paris (August)
Fourth Republic
French defeated at Dien Bien Phû (Vietnam);
Beginning of the Algerian War
Creation of the European Economic Community
Fifth Republic. De Gaulle elected president
France’s first nuclear test
End of Algeria War
France establishes diplomatic ties with China
France withdraws from NATO integrated
military command
Social unrest and student movement (May)
De Gaulle resigns
Georges Pompidou, president of the Republic
First oil crisis
Giscard d’Estaing, president of the Republic
François Mitterrand, president of the Republic
Jacques Chirac, president of the Republic
Nicolas Sarkozy elected president of the
Republic
42
France, an Outline of History
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© 2008 - D.C. Meyer – The University of Hong Kong
All rights reserved
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