Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Hologenome theory of evolution wikipedia , lookup
Sexual selection wikipedia , lookup
Genetics and the Origin of Species wikipedia , lookup
Saltation (biology) wikipedia , lookup
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals wikipedia , lookup
Natural selection wikipedia , lookup
Genetic drift wikipedia , lookup
The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex wikipedia , lookup
Genetics and Environment We’ve learned about DNA, a genotype gives you a phenotype… But why do we all have different DNA? Why did you have a postcaudal tail as an embryo? Why don’t most of us have the allele for Huntington’s disease? Why are some alleles more common in people from one continent? Why is more than 99.9% of your DNA the SAME as everybody else in the world? Why is 80% of your DNA the same as a cow’s? Why is 50% of your DNA the same as a banana tree’s? Genetics and Environment Certainly the single most foundational idea in all of biology, and perhaps the greatest biological discovery… All life is connected. What is Evolution? Evolution changes in living organisms over time explains how modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms, and continue to change today Evolution explains two significant questions unity of life Why do all living things share fundamental similarities? diversity of life Why, in spite of fundamental similarities, are living things so different? DNA Early Ideas on Evolution Darwin was influenced by: Lyell and Hutton: geologists who said that the Earth was very old and described uniformitarianism: explaining that the geological structures changed continuously over time Malthus: if the human population continued to grow unchecked, sooner or later there would be insufficient living space and food for everyone. Earlier ideas on Evolution LaMarck “acquired characteristics” creatures developed traits during their lifetime in response to need and activity give those traits to their offspring example “in reaching higher leaves giraffes stretch their necks & give the acquired longer neck to offspring” Refuting Lamarck Experiment: Cut off a mouse’s tail Allow mouse to breed, see if offspring are born tailless …They are not. Conclusion: Acquired traits are not responsible for change. ? Voyage of the HMS Beagle Charles Darwin invited to travel around the world 1831-1836 (22 years old!) makes many observations of nature main mission of the Beagle was to chart South American coastline Robert Fitzroy Voyage of the HMS Beagle Stopped in Galapagos Islands 500 miles off coast of Ecuador Galapagos Recently formed volcanic islands. Most of animals on the Galápagos live nowhere else in world, but they look like species living on South American mainland. 800 km west of Ecuador Darwin found…many unique species Many of Darwin’s observations made him wonder… Why? Darwin asked: Why were these creatures found only on the Galapagos Islands? Darwin found…clues in the fossils Darwin found: Evidence that creatures have changed over time present day Armadillos Darwin asked: ancient Armadillo Why should extinct armadillos & modern armadillos be found on same continent? Darwin found: Different shells on tortoises on different islands Darwin asked: Is there a relationship between the environment & what an animal looks like? Darwin found… birds Darwin found: Many different birds on the Galapagos Islands. He thought he found Finch? very different kinds… Woodpecker? Sparrow? Warbler? But Darwin found… a lot of finches Darwin was amazed to find out: All 14 species of birds were finches… But there is only one species of finch on the mainland! Large ground Finch? finch Small ground Sparrow? finch Darwin asked: If the Galapagos finches came from the mainland, why are they so different now? Warbler finch Woodpecker? Tree finch Warbler? Darwin’s view of Evolution Darwin giraffes that already have long necks survive better leave more offspring who inherit their long necks “Equation” Variation +Inheritance +Struggle for life Differential reproductive success +Time Evolution – Change over time Darwin’s “Ingredients”: Variation Variation is the raw material for natural selection there have to be differences within population some individuals must be more fit than others Where does Variation come from? random changes to DNA Wet year Beak depth Mutation Dry year Dry year Dry year errors in mitosis & meiosis 1977 environmental damage (rare) mixing of alleles Independent assortment recombination of alleles new arrangements in every offspring 1982 1984 11 Beak depth of offspring (mm) Sexual Reproduction 1980 10 9 8 Medium ground finch 8 9 10 11 Mean beak depth of parents (mm) Variation of Traits in a Population Within a population individuals vary in traits Measuring the frequency of most traits will produce a bell curve graph. This shows that few individuals have the extreme phenotype Most individuals have the average or medium phenotype Darwin’s “Ingredients”: Inheritance Evolution-vulnerable traits have a genetic basis Gene Pool: Total genetic information available in a population Allele Frequency: how common an allele is within a gene pool of a population Determined by dividing the number of a certain allele by the total number of alleles of all types Darwin’s “Ingredients”: Struggle for Life A pair of barn swallows arrived at my house in summer 1983. Barn swallows have an average of 10 chicks a year, and chicks return to their birthplace to start their own nests the next year. Adults live for 10 years, and siblings will breed. How many barn swallows were at my house by 1990? Year 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 # of Adult Swallows 2 Year 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 # of Adult Swallows 2 12 Year 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 # of Adult Swallows 2 12 72 Year 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 # of Adult Swallows 2 12 72 432 Year 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 # of Adult Swallows 2 12 72 432 2592 Year 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 # of Adult Swallows 2 12 72 432 2,592 15,552 93,312 559,872 Overreproduction A single bacterium dividing every 20 minutes would have 40,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 offspring by the end of one day. After two days, it would have enough offspring to cover the entire Earth in a 2 meter layer of bacteria. In one year, a single pair of fruit flies would have so many offspring, their descents would weigh more than the planet. The elephant is one of the slowest breeding species. But one pair of elephants would have 19 million descendents 750 years later. By contrast, there are only 700,000 elephants alive in the whole world today. Darwin’s “Ingredients”: Struggle for Life Living things “overreproduce.” There are more offspring born than can be sustained. Therefore, there is competition for resources to survive and reproduce. “Nature, red in tooth and claw” Tennyson Competition Why aren’t we buried in barn swallows, bacteria, fruit flies, elephants, and everything else? Limiting factors = things that limit equal survival and reproduction for all individuals include… Limited resources (examples: oxygen, nitrogen, water, food, space) Predation (being eaten, disease) Dangerous environments (climate, disasters) Available mates Darwin’s “Ingredients” Variation – Everyone’s different Inheritance – Differences are passed down to offspring Struggle for Life – Everyone’s in competition to have offspring Result: Differential reproductive success Individuals with an ADVANTAGE in the competition will leave more offspring on average Darwin’s “Ingredients” Repeated over generations, differential reproductive success results in natural selection = Traits that confer a reproductive advantage become more common, traits that confer a disadvantage become less common Populations evolve Natural selection pressures act on individuals… differential survival “survival of the fittest” (not a great term, but famous now ) differential reproductive success “someone has more babies” …but it’s populations that evolve genetic makeup of population changes over time Population: collection of individuals of the same species that inhabit the same area and interbreed Mummichog Smallest unit in which evolution occurs Presence of lactate dehydrogenase Body size & egg laying in water striders Fitness Fitness: A measure of reproductive success Equal to average contribution to the gene pool by individuals bearing the trait Expanding Upon Darwin’s Ingredients: Agents of evolutionary change Mutation Gene Flow Non-random mating Genetic Drift Selection 1. Mutation & Variation Mutation creates variation Mutation is “rare, regular, and random” Rare = Happens few million base pairs Regular = Genome – billions of base pairs, so mutation always happens Random = Where it occurs, what kind of mutation – random Mutation changes DNA sequence changes in protein may change phenotype & therefore change fitness 2. Gene Flow Gene Flow: the process of genes moving from one population to another seed & pollen distribution by wind & insect migration of animals sub-populations may have different allele frequencies Immigration = movement in, emigration = movement out causes genetic mixing across regions + variety within pop - differences between pops 3. Non-random mating Sexual selection 4. Genetic drift Effect of chance, including Founder effect Bottleneck effect Founder effect When a new population is started by only a few individuals some rare alleles may be at high frequency; others may be missing skew the gene pool of new population human populations that started from small group of colonists example: colonization of New World Distribution of blood types Distribution of the O type blood allele in native populations of the world reflects original settlement Distribution of blood types Distribution of the B type blood allele in native populations of the world reflects original migration Out of Africa Likely migration paths of humans out of Africa 10-20,000ya 10-20,000ya 50,000ya Many patterns of human traits reflect this migration Bottleneck effect When large population is drastically reduced by a disaster famine, natural disaster, loss of habitat… loss of variation by chance event alleles lost from gene pool not due to fitness narrows the gene pool Cheetahs All cheetahs share a small number of alleles less than 1% diversity as if all cheetahs are identical twins 2 bottlenecks 10,000 years ago Ice Age last 100 years poaching & loss of habitat Conservation issues Bottlenecking is an important Peregrine Falcon concept in conservation biology of endangered species loss of alleles from gene pool reduces variation which reduces adaptability Breeding programs must consciously outcross Golden Lion Tamarin 5. Natural selection Illustrated example of evolution by natural selection: Natural Variation and Inheritance Elephants within the population have different alleles causing variation in trunk length. Trunk length is genetic. Short Very Short Very Long Long Overreproduction and Struggle for Existence More elephants are born than can survive and reproduce. Food and water are limited, and elephants are in competition with each other for these resources. Differential Success Elephants with longer trunks can reach food and water more easily, so are more likely to survive, more likely to support healthy offspring, and therefore more likely to pass on their genes to the next generation. Including the long trunk allele. X Natural Selection Over many generations short trunk alleles will be reduced then eliminated from the population and all of the elephants will have long trunks. Important Notes 1. Individuals don’t evolve, only groups do. 2. Long trunks didn’t spread “because elephants needed them.” 3. The elephants didn’t choose this evolutionary path. 4. They didn’t evolve for “the good of the species.” Long trunks became more common simply because long-trunked elephants were having more babies! Not how it works! -> Patterns of Natural Selection on Phenotype Frequencies Stabilizing Selection: individuals with the average form have the highest fitness Directional Selection: individuals that have one extreme have a greater fitness Disruptive Selection: individuals with either extreme have the greatest fitness Determining Phenotype Frequency Phenotype Frequency: # of individuals with a phenotype ÷ the total number of individuals in a population Phenotypes can be predicted by multiplying frequencies of alleles. Frequency of Rr = frequency of R X frequency of r Frequencies of phenotypes should add to 1 or 100% Gene Pool Problems: A total of 50 alleles, 20 alleles are Black (B), and 30 are brown (b). What percentage of the What percentage of the What percentage of the alleles individuals are b? would be individuals would be alleles is B? brown? black? 20/50 .4===.36 40% BB: 30/50 .4 xx= =.6 .4 .6 .16 60% 16% bb: .6 == 36% Bb: 2 (.4 x .6) = 2 (.24) = .48 = 48% Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium H-W Law: Allele frequencies within a population remain mathematically constant over the generations unless acted on by outside forces A population will not evolve if… 1. 2. 3. 4. No mutations occur No immigration or emigration Individuals randomly mate And selection does not occur – …which never happens in nature! – Therefore the H-W principle is always in effect. Witness to Evolution Peppered Moth 2 types: dark vs. light Peppered moth Peppered moth: Evolution in action Year % dark % light 1848 5 95 clean air, light-colored bark 1895 98 2 pollution, dark-colored bark 1995 19 81 Clean Air Act, light-colored bark industrial melanism