Download What Is a Species?

Chapter 14
How Biological Diversity Evolves
PowerPoint® Lectures for
Campbell Essential Biology, Fourth Edition
– Eric Simon, Jane Reece, and Jean Dickey
Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology, Third Edition
– Eric Simon, Jane Reece, and Jean Dickey
Lectures by Chris C. Romero, updated by Edward J. Zalisko
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Biology and Society:
The Sixth Mass Extinction
• Over the past 600 million years the fossil record reveals five
periods of extinction when 50–90% of living species suddenly
died out.
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Figure 14.00
• Our current rate of extinction, over the past 400 years, indicates
that we may be living in, and contributing to, the sixth mass
extinction period.
• Mass extinctions:
– Pave the way for the evolution of new and diverse forms, but
– Take millions of years for Earth to recover
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MACROEVOLUTION AND THE DIVERSITY
OF LIFE
• Macroevolution:
– Encompasses the major biological changes evident in the fossil record
– Includes the formation of new species
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• Speciation:
– Is the focal point of macroevolution
– May occur based on two contrasting patterns
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• In nonbranching evolution:
– A population transforms but
– Does not create a new species
Video: Galápagos Islands Overview
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PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION
Nonbranching Evolution
(no new species)
Branching Evolution
(results in speciation)
Figure 14.1
• In branching evolution, one or more new species branch from a
parent species that may:
– Continue to exist in much the same form or
– Change considerably
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THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
• Species is a Latin word meaning:
– “Kind” or
– “Appearance.”
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What Is a Species?
• The biological species concept defines a species as
– “A group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed
and produce fertile offspring”
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Similarity between different species
Diversity within one species
Figure 14.2
Similarity between different species
Figure 14.2a
Diversity within one species
Figure 14.2b
• The biological species concept cannot be applied in all situations,
including:
– Fossils
– Asexual organisms
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Reproductive Barriers between Species
• Prezygotic barriers prevent mating or fertilization between
species.
Video: Albatross Courtship Ritual
Video: Blue-footed Boobies Courtship Ritual
Video: Giraffe Courtship Ritual
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INDIVIDUALS OF
DIFFERENT SPECIES
Prezygotic Barriers
Temporal isolation
Habitat isolation
Behavioral isolation
MATING ATTEMPT
Mechanical isolation
Gametic isolation
FERTILIZATION
(ZYGOTE FORMS) Postzygotic Barriers
Reduced hybrid viability
Reduced hybrid fertility
Hybrid breakdown
VIABLE, FERTILE
OFFSPRING
Figure 14.3
INDIVIDUALS OF
DIFFERENT SPECIES
Prezygotic Barriers
Temporal isolation
Habitat isolation
Behavioral isolation
MATING ATTEMPT
Mechanical isolation
Gametic isolation
Figure 14.3a
INDIVIDUALS OF
DIFFERENT SPECIES
FERTILIZATION
(ZYGOTE FORMS)
Postzygotic Barriers
Reduced hybrid viability
Reduced hybrid fertility
Hybrid breakdown
VIABLE, FERTILE
OFFSPRING
Figure 14.3b
• Prezygotic barriers include:
– Temporal isolation
– Habitat isolation
– Behavioral isolation
– Mechanical isolation
– Gametic isolation
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PREZYGOTIC BARRIERS
Temporal Isolation
Behavioral Isolation
Mechanical Isolation
Habitat Isolation
Gametic Isolation
Figure 14.4
Temporal Isolation
Skunk species that mate at different times
Figure 14.4a
Habitat Isolation
Garter snake species from different habitats
Figure 14.4b
Behavioral Isolation
Mating ritual of blue-footed boobies
Figure 14.4c
Mechanical Isolation
Snail species whose genital openings cannot align
Figure 14.4d
Gametic Isolation
Sea urchin species whose gametes cannot fuse
Figure 14.4e
• Postzygotic barriers operate if:
– Interspecies mating occurs and
– Hybrid zygotes form
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• Postzygotic barriers include:
– Reduced hybrid viability
– Reduced hybrid fertility
– Hybrid breakdown
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POSTZYGOTIC BARRIERS
Reduced Hybrid Viability Reduced Hybrid Fertility
Hybrid Breakdown
Horse
Donkey
Mule
Figure 14.5
Reduced Hybrid Viability
Frail hybrid salamander offspring
Figure 14.5a
Reduced Hybrid Fertility
Horse
Donkey
Mule
Mule (sterile hybrid of
horse and donkey)
Figure 14.5b
Hybrid Breakdown
Sterile next-generation rice hybrid
Figure 14.5c
Mechanisms of Speciation
• A key event in the potential origin of a species occurs when a
population is severed from other populations of the parent
species.
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• Species can form by:
– Allopatric speciation, due to geographic isolation
– Sympatric speciation, without geographic isolation
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Allopatric speciation
Simpatric speciation
Figure 14.6
Allopatric Speciation
• Geologic processes can:
– Fragment a population into two or more isolated populations
– Contribute to allopatric speciation
Video: Lava Flow
Video: Volcanic Eruption
Video: Grand Canyon
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Ammospermophilus harrisii
Ammospermophilus leucurus
Figure 14.7
• Speciation occurs only with the evolution of reproductive barriers
between the isolated population and its parent population.
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Populations
become
allopatric
Populations
become
sympatric
Populations
interbreed
Gene pools merge:
No speciation
Geographic
barrier
Populations
cannot
interbreed
Reproductive
isolation:
Speciation has
occurred
Time
Figure 14.8
Sympatric Speciation
• Sympatric speciation occurs:
– While the new species and old species live in the same time and place
– If a genetic change produces a reproductive barrier between the new and
old species
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• Polyploids can:
– Originate from accidents during cell division
– Result from the hybridization of two parent species
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• Many domesticated plants are the result of sympatric speciation,
including:
– Oats
– Potatoes
– Bananas
– Peanuts
– Apples
– Coffee
– Wheat
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Domesticated
Triticum monococcum
(14 chromosomes)
AA
BB
Wild Triticum
(14 chromosomes)
AB
Sterile hybrid
(14 chromosomes)
Figure 14.9-1
Domesticated
Triticum monococcum
(14 chromosomes)
BB
AA
Wild Triticum
(14 chromosomes)
AB
Sterile hybrid
(14 chromosomes)
T. turgidum
Emmer wheat
(28 chromosomes)
AA BB
Figure 14.9-2
Domesticated
Triticum monococcum
(14 chromosomes)
BB
AA
Wild Triticum
(14 chromosomes)
AB
Sterile hybrid
(14 chromosomes)
T. turgidum
Emmer wheat
(28 chromosomes)
AA BB
DD
Wild
T. tauschii
(14 chromosomes)
ABD
Sterile hybrid
(21 chromosomes)
Figure 14.9-3
Domesticated
Triticum monococcum
(14 chromosomes)
BB
AA
Wild Triticum
(14 chromosomes)
AB
Sterile hybrid
(14 chromosomes)
T. turgidum
Emmer wheat
(28 chromosomes)
AA BB
DD
Wild
T. tauschii
(14 chromosomes)
ABD
Sterile hybrid
(21 chromosomes)
AA BB DD
T. aestivum
Bread wheat
(42 chromosomes)
Figure 14.9-4
Figure 14.9a
What Is the Tempo of Speciation?
• There are two contrasting models of the pace of evolution:
– The gradual model, in which big changes (speciations) occur by the
steady accumulation of many small changes
– The punctuated equilibria model, in which there are
–
Long periods of little change, equilibrium, punctuated by
–
Abrupt episodes of speciation
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Punctuated
model
Time
Graduated
model
Figure 14.10
THE EVOLUTION OF BIOLOGICAL
NOVELTY
• What accounts for the evolution of biological novelty?
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Adaptation of Old Structures for New Functions
• Birds:
– Are derived from a lineage of earthbound reptiles
– Evolved flight from flightless ancestors
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Wing claw
(like reptile)
Teeth
(like reptile)
Feathers
Long tail with
many vertebrae
(like reptile)
Fossil
Artist’s reconstruction
Figure 14.11
Fossil
Figure 14.11a
Wing claw
(like reptile)
Teeth
(like reptile)
Feathers
Long tail with
many vertebrae
(like reptile)
Artist’s reconstruction
Figure 14.11b
• An exaptation:
– Is a structure that evolves in one context, but becomes adapted for another
function
– Is a type of evolutionary remodeling
• Exaptations can account for the gradual evolution of novel
structures.
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• Bird wings are modified forelimbs that were previously adapted
for non-flight functions, such as:
– Thermal regulation
– Courtship displays
– Camouflage
• The first flights may have been only glides or extended hops as
the animal pursued prey or fled from a predator.
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Evo-Devo: Development and Evolutionary
Novelty
• A subtle change in a species’ developmental program can have
profound effects, changing the:
– Rate
– Timing
– Spatial pattern of development
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• Evo-devo, evolutionary developmental biology, is the study of the
evolution of developmental processes in multicellular organisms.
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• Paedomorphosis:
– Is the retention into adulthood of features that were solely juvenile in
ancestral species
– Has occurred in the evolution of
–
Axolotl salamanders
–
Humans
Animation: Allometric Growth
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Gills
Figure 14.12
Chimpanzee fetus
Chimpanzee adult
Human fetus
Human adult
(paedomorphic features)
Figure 14.13
Chimpanzee fetus
Chimpanzee adult
Figure 14.13a
Human fetus
Human adult
(paedomorphic features)
Figure 14.13b
• Homeotic genes are master control genes that regulate:
– When structures develop
– How structures develop
– Where structures develop
• Mutations in homeotic genes can profoundly affect body form.
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EARTH HISTORY AND MACROEVOLUTION
• Macroevolution is closely tied to the history of the Earth.
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Geologic Time and the Fossil Record
• The fossil record is:
– The sequence in which fossils appear in rock strata
– An archive of macroevolution
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Figure 14.14
Figure 14.14a
Figure 14.14b
Figure 14.14c
Figure 14.14d
Figure 14.14e
• Geologists have established a geologic time scale reflecting a
consistent sequence of geologic periods.
Animation: The Geologic Record
Animation: Macroevolution
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Table 14.1
Table 14.1a
Table 14.1b
Table 14.1c
Table 14.1d
• Fossils are reliable chronological records only if we can
determine their ages, using:
– The relative age of fossils, revealing the sequence in which groups of
species evolved, or
– The absolute age of fossils, requiring other methods such as radiometric
dating
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• Radiometric dating:
– Is the most common method for dating fossils
– Is based on the decay of radioactive isotopes
– Helped establish the geologic time scale
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Carbon-14 radioactivity
(as % of living organism’s
C-14 to C-12 ratio)
Radioactive decay
of carbon-14
100
75
50
25
0
0
5.6 11.2 16.8 22.4 28.0 33.6 39.2 44.8 50.4
Time (thousands of years)
How
carbon-14
dating is
used to
determine
the vintage
of a
fossilized
clam shell
Carbon-14 in shell
Figure 14.15
Carbon-14 radioactivity
(as % of living organism’s
C-14 to C-12 ratio)
100
75
50
25
0
0
5.6 11.2 16.8 22.4 28.0 33.6 39.2 44.8 50.4
Time (thousands of years)
Radioactive decay of carbon-14
Figure 14.15a
How carbon-14 dating is used to determine
the vintage of a fossilized clam shell
Carbon-14 in shell
Figure 14.15b-1
How carbon-14 dating is used to determine
the vintage of a fossilized clam shell
Carbon-14 in shell
Figure 14.15b-2
How carbon-14 dating is used to determine
the vintage of a fossilized clam shell
Carbon-14 in shell
Figure 14.15b-3
Plate Tectonics and Macroevolution
• The continents are not locked in place. Continents drift about the
Earth’s surface on plates of crust floating on a flexible layer called
the mantle.
• The San Andreas fault is:
– In California
– At a border where two plates slide past each other
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Figure 14.16
• About 250 million years ago:
– Plate movements formed the supercontinent Pangaea
– The total amount of shoreline was reduced
– Sea levels dropped
– The dry continental interior increased in size
– Many extinctions occurred
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Cenozoic
Present
65
Eurasia
Africa
India
South
America Madagascar
Mesozoic
Laurasia
Paleozoic
251 million years ago
135
Antarctica
Figure 14.17
• About 180 million years ago:
– Pangaea began to break up
– Large continents drifted increasingly apart
– Climates changed
– The organisms of the different biogeographic realms diverged
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• Plate tectonics explains:
– Why Mesozoic reptiles in Ghana (West Africa) and Brazil look so similar
– How marsupials were free to evolve in isolation in Australia
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Mass Extinctions and Explosive Diversifications
of Life
• The fossil record reveals that five mass extinctions have occurred
over the last 600 million years.
• The Permian mass extinction:
– Occurred at about the time the merging continents formed Pangaea (250
million years ago)
– Claimed about 96% of marine species
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• The Cretaceous extinction:
– Occurred at the end of the Cretaceous period, about 65 million years ago
– Included the extinction of all the dinosaurs except birds
– Permitted the rise of mammals
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The Process of Science:
Did a Meteor Kill the Dinosaurs?
• Observation: About 65 million years ago, the fossil record shows
that:
– The climate cooled
– Seas were receding
– Many plant species died out
– Dinosaurs (except birds) became extinct
– A thin layer of clay rich in iridium was deposited
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• Question: Is the iridium layer the result of fallout from a huge
cloud of dust that billowed into the atmosphere when a large
meteor or asteroid hit Earth?
• Hypothesis: The mass extinction 65 million years ago was caused
by the impact of an extraterrestrial object.
• Prediction: A huge impact crater of the right age should be found
somewhere on Earth’s surface.
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• Results: Near the Yucatán Peninsula, a huge impact crater was
found that:
– Dated from the predicted time
– Was about the right size
– Was capable of creating a cloud that could have blocked enough sunlight
to change the Earth’s climate for months
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Figure 14.18-1
Figure 14.18-2
Chicxulub
crater
Figure 14.18-3
CLASSIFYING THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE
• Systematics focuses on:
– Classifying organisms
– Determining their evolutionary relationships
• Taxonomy is the:
– Identification of species
– Naming of species
– Classification of species
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Some Basics of Taxonomy
• Scientific names ease communication by:
– Unambiguously identifying organisms
– Making it easier to recognize the discovery of a new species
• Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) proposed the current taxonomic
system based upon:
– A two-part name for each species
– A hierarchical classification of species into broader groups of organisms
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Naming Species
• Each species is assigned a two-part name or binomial, consisting
of:
– The genus
– A name unique for each species
• The scientific name for humans is Homo sapiens, a two part
name, italicized and latinized, and with the first letter of the
genus capitalized.
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Hierarchical Classification
• Species that are closely related are placed into the same genus.
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Leopard (Panthera pardus)
Tiger (Panthera
tigris)
Lion (Panthera leo)
Jaguar (Panthera onca)
Figure 14.19
Leopard (Panthera pardus)
Figure 14.19a
Tiger (Panthera tigris)
Figure 14.19b
Lion (Panthera leo)
Figure 14.19c
Jaguar (Panthera onca)
Figure 14.19d
• The taxonomic hierarchy extends to progressively broader
categories of classification, from genus to:
– Family
– Order
– Class
– Phylum
– Kingdom
– Domain
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Species
Panthera
pardus
Genus
Panthera
Leopard
(Panthera pardus)
Family
Felidae
Order
Carnivora
Class
Mammalia
Phylum
Chordata
Kingdom
Animalia
Domain
Eukarya
Figure 14.20
Species
Panthera pardus
Genus
Panthera
Family
Felidae
Order
Carnivora
Class
Mammalia
Phylum
Chordata
Kingdom
Animalia
Domain
Eukarya
Figure 14.20a
Leopard
(Panthera pardus)
Figure 14.20b
Classification and Phylogeny
• The goal of systematics is to reflect evolutionary relationships.
• Biologists use phylogenetic trees to:
– Depict hypotheses about the evolutionary history of species
– Reflect the hierarchical classification of groups nested within more
inclusive groups
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Order
Family
Felidae
Genus
Species
Panthera
Panthera
pardus
(leopard)
Mephitis
Mephitis
mephitis
(striped skunk)
Carnivora
Mustelidae
Lutra
Lutra
lutra
(European
otter)
Canis
latrans
(coyote)
Canidae
Canis
Canis
lupus
(wolf)
Figure 14.21
Sorting Homology from Analogy
• Homologous structures:
– Reflect variations of a common ancestral plan
– Are the best sources of information used to
–
Develop phylogenetic trees
–
Classify organisms according to their evolutionary history
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• Convergent evolution:
– Involves superficially similar structures in unrelated organisms
– Is based on natural selection
• Similarity due to convergence:
– Is called analogy, not homology
– Can obscure homologies
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Molecular Biology as a Tool in Systematics
• Molecular systematics:
– Compares DNA and amino acid sequences between organisms
– Can reveal evolutionary relationships
• Some fossils are preserved in such a way that DNA fragments can
be extracted for comparison with living organisms.
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Figure 14.22
The Cladistic Revolution
• Cladistics is the scientific search for clades.
• A clade:
– Consists of an ancestral species and all its descendants
– Forms a distinct branch in the tree of life
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Iguana
Outgroup
(reptile)
Duck-billed
platypus
Hair, mammary
glands
Gestation
Kangaroo
Ingroup
(mammals)
Beaver
Long gestation
Figure 14.23
• Cladistics has changed the traditional classification of some
organisms, including the relationships between:
– Dinosaurs
– Birds
– Crocodiles
– Lizards
– Snakes
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Lizards
and snakes
Crocodilians
Pterosaurs
Common
ancestor of
crocodilians,
dinosaurs,
and birds
Ornithischian
dinosaurs
Saurischian
dinosaurs
Birds
Figure 14.24
Classification: A Work in Progress
• Linnaeus:
– Divided all known forms of life between the plant and animal kingdoms
– Prevailed with his two-kingdom system for over 200 years
• In the mid-1900s, the two-kingdom system was replaced by a
five-kingdom system that:
– Placed all prokaryotes in one kingdom
– Divided the eukaryotes among four other kingdoms
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• In the late 20th century, molecular studies and cladistics led to the
development of a three-domain system, recognizing:
– Two domains of prokaryotes (Bacteria and Archaea)
– One domain of eukaryotes (Eukarya)
Animation: Classification Schemes
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Domain Bacteria
Earliest
organisms
Domain Archaea
The protists
(multiple
kingdoms)
Kingdom
Plantae
Domain Eukarya
Kingdom
Fungi
Kingdom
Animalia
Figure 14.25
Evolution Connection:
Rise of the Mammals
• Mass extinctions:
– Have repeatedly occurred throughout Earth’s history
– Were followed by a period of great evolutionary change
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• Fossil evidence indicates that:
– Mammals first appeared about 180 million years ago
– The number of mammalian species
–
Remained steady and low in number until about 65 million years
ago and then
–
Greatly increased after most of the dinosaurs became extinct
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Ancestral
mammal
Extinction of
dinosaurs
Reptilian
ancestor
Monotremes
(5 species)
Marsupials
(324 species)
Eutherians
(5,010 species)
250
65 50
Millions of years ago
200
150
100
0
American black bear
Figure 14.26
Ancestral
mammal
Monotremes
(5 species)
Extinction of
dinosaurs
Reptilian
ancestor
Marsupials
(324 species)
Eutherians
(5,010 species)
250
200
150
100
65 50
0
Millions of years ago
Figure 14.26a
American black bear
Figure 14.26b
Zygote
Gametes Prezygotic barriers
• Temporal isolation
• Habitat isolation
• Behavioral isolation
• Mechanical isolation
• Gametic isolation
Viable,
Postzygotic barriers
fertile
• Reduced hybrid viability offspring
• Reduced hybrid fertility
• Hybrid breakdown
Figure 14.UN1
Allopatric speciation
(occurs after
geographic isolation)
Parent
population
Sympatric speciation
(occurs without
geographic isolation)
Figure 14.UN2
Bacteria
Earliest
organisms
Archaea
Eukarya
Figure 14.UN3