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Opracowanie: dr Anna Rysiak XXIII Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Nauczycieli Tajnego Nauczania w Lublinie WATER ADAPTATION TEACHER’S GUIDE 1. PARAMECIUM RANGE: Freshwater around the world HABITAT: Paramecia are widespread in freshwater environments, and are especially common in scums. DIET: Paramecia feed on microorganisms like bacteria, algae, and yeasts. ADAPTATIONS: Cilia is the locomotive part in the paramecium. In order for the paramecium to move forward, its cilia beat at an angle, backwards in unison. This means that the paramecium moves by spiraling through the water on an invisible axis. The paramecium can also move backwards when the cilia beat forward at an angle in unison. Simple cilia cover the body, which allow the cell to move with a synchronous motion (like a caterpillar). There is also a deep oral groove containing inconspicuous compound oral cilia (as found in other peniculids) used to draw food inside. Osmoregulation is carried out by a pair of contractile vacuoles, which actively expel water from the cell absorbed by osmosis from their surroundings. Opracowanie: dr Anna Rysiak 2. SEA TURTLES (SUPERFAMILY CHELONIOIDEA) RANGE: Sea turtles can be found in all oceans except for the polar regions. Some species travel between oceans. The Flatback turtle is found solely on the northern coast of Australia. HABITAT: open ocean DIET: feed on zooplankton and smaller nekton GESTATION: The mature nesting female hauls herself onto the beach and finds suitable sand on which to create a nest. Using her hind flippers, she digs a circular hole 40 to 50 centimetres (16 to 20 in) deep. After the hole is dug, the female then starts filling the nest with a clutch of soft-shelled eggs one by one until she has deposited around 50 to 200 eggs, depending on the species. Incubation takes about two months. ADAPTATIONS: Sea turtles are almost always submerged but breathe air. With a single explosive exhalation and rapid inhalation, sea turtles can quickly refill their lungs when they surface. Their lungs have adapted to permit rapid exchange of oxygen and to avoid trapping gasses during deep dives. Sea turtles possess a salt excretory gland at the corner of the eye, in the nostrils, or in the tongue, depending upon the species; chelonian salt glands are found in the corner of the eyes in leatherback turtles. Due to the iso-osmotic makeup of jellyfish and the other gelatinous prey upon which sea turtles subsist, sea turtle diets are high in salt; chelonian salt gland excretions are almost entirely composed of sodium chloride1500-1800 mosmoll-1 3. ATLANTIC MIDSHIPMAN (PORICHTHYS PLECTRODON) RANGE: Occurs in the Atlantic from Virginia to Brazil HABITAT: Generally found on sand or mud bottoms mostly in depths of ten to two hundred fifty meters DIET: Analysis of stomach contents of specimens of showed their diet to consist of primarily amphipods, mysids, and striped anchovies ADAPTATIONS: The are interesting because the sides of their bodies are lined with rows of light- producing organs. These fish have toxin on their spines which cause painful wounds. Another interesting thing about Atlantic Midshipmen is that they attach their eggs to hard surfaces. Opracowanie: dr Anna Rysiak 4. FOUREYE BUTTERFLYFISH (CHAETODON CAPISTRATUS) RANGE: This species is found in the Western Atlantic from Massachusetts, USA and Bermuda to the West Indies and northern South America. HABITAT: coral reef DIET: ADAPTATIONS: Four-eyed butterflyfish are deep-bodied and laterally compressed, with a single dorsal fin and a small mouth with tiny, bristle like teeth. The body is light grey, sometimes with a yellowish hue, and dark forward-pointing chevrons. The ventral fins are yellow. The species gets its common name from a large dark spot on the rear portion of each side of the body. This spot is surrounded by a brilliant white ring, resembling an eye. A black vertical bar on the head runs through the true eye, making it hard to see. This pattern may result in a predator confusing the back end of the fish for the front end. The Four-eyed Butterflyfish's first instinct when threatened is to flee, putting the false eye spot closer to the predator than the head. Most predators aim for the eyes, and this false eye spot tricks the predator into believing that the fish will flee tail first. When escape is not possible, a Four-eyed Butterflyfish will sometimes turn to face its aggressor, head lowered and spines fully erect, like a bull about to charge. This may serve to intimidate the other animal or may remind the predator that the butterflyfish is much too spiny to make a comfortable meal. Opracowanie: dr Anna Rysiak 5. SILVERTIP SHARK (CARHINUS ALBIMARGINATUS) RANGE: Is widely but non-continuously distributed in the tropical Indian and Pacific Oceans. In the western Indian Ocean, this species occurs from the Red Sea to South Africa. HABITAT: Silvertip sharks are found over continental and insular shelves at a depth of 30–800 m, occupying all levels of the water column. They are most common around isolated islands, coral banks, and reef drop-offs. DIET: The diet of the silvertip shark consists primarily of bony fishes such as grouper, mackerel, tuna, escolars, lanternfish, flyingfish, wrasses, and soles. Eagle rays, smaller sharks, and octopus are occasionally taken. Larger sharks tend to be more sluggish and take more benthic prey. ADAPTATIONS: The silvertip shark is a robust and streamlined species with a moderately long, broad snout and large round eyes. The five pairs of gill slits are short. There are 12–14 tooth rows on each side of both jaws, with 1–2 small teeth at the symphysis (middle of the jaws). The upper teeth are broad with oblique triangular cusps and coarse serrations near the base; the lower teeth have erect cusps with fine serrations. The first dorsal fin is large and triangular, originating above or slightly forward of the free pectoral fin tips. There is a ridge between the first and second dorsal fins. The pectoral fins are proportionately longer than in most requiem sharks and falcate (sickle-like) in shape, with pointed tips. 6. DOLPHIN BOTTLENOSE (Tursiops truncatus) RANGE: Is widely but non-continuously distributed in the tropical oceans HABITAT: They spawn in the open sea over very large areas - over continental and insular shelves DIET: Fish and squid are the main food GESTATION: The gestation period varies per species, this period is around 11 to 12 months, while for the Orca the gestation period is around 17 months. They usually become sexually active at a young age, even before reaching sexual maturity. The age of sexual maturity varies by species and gender. ADAPTATIONS: Dolphins have a streamlined fusiform body, adapted for fast swimming. The tail fin, called the fluke, is used for propulsion, while the pectoral fins together with the entire tail section provide directional control. The dorsal fin, in those species that have one, provides stability while swimming. The head contains the melon, a round organ used for echolocation. Dolphins breathe through a blowhole on top of their head. Unlike most mammals, dolphins do not have hair Opracowanie: dr Anna Rysiak 7. HUMPBACK WHALE (MEGAPTERA NOVAEANGLIAE) RANGE: Found in oceans and seas around the world, humpback whales typically migrate up to 25,000 kilometres each year. Humpbacks feed only in summer, in polar waters, and migrate to tropical or subtropical waters to breed and give birth in the winter. HABITAT: They spawn in the open sea over very large areas DIET: Humpbacks feed only in summer. During the winter, humpbacks fast and live off their fat reserves. The species' diet consists mostly of krill and small fish. GESTATION: Migrate to tropical or sub-tropical waters to breed and give birth in the winter. ADAPTATIONS: One of the larger rorqual species, adults range in length from 12–16 metres and weigh approximately 36,000 kilograms. Found in oceans and seas around the world, humpback whales typically migrate up to 25,000 kilometers each year. The humpback has a distinctive body shape, with unusually long pectoral fins and a knobbly head. It is an acrobatic animal, often breaching and slapping the water. Males produce a complex whale song, which lasts for 10 to 20 minutes and is repeated for hours at a time. The purpose of the song is not yet clear, although it appears to have a role in mating. Opracowanie: dr Anna Rysiak 8. GREY SEAL (HALICHOERUS GRYPUS) RANGE: Is found on both shores of the North Atlantic Ocean HABITAT: During the winter months it can be seen hauled out on the rocks, islands, and shoals not far from shore, like great gray bananas in the sun, and occasionally coming ashore to rest. In the spring the recently weaned pups and yearlings occasionally strand on beaches after becoming "lost." DIET: The Grey Seal feeds on a wide variety of fish, mostly benthic or demersal species, taken at depths down to 70m (230ft) or more. Sand eels are important in its diet in many localities. Cod and other gadids, flatfish, herring and skates are also important locally. GESTATION: The pups are born in autumn (September to November) in the eastern Atlantic and in winter (January to February) in the west ADAPTATIONS: Seals need to be streamlined in order to move through the water with the minimum amount of resistance or "drag". External structures are absent e.g. ear flaps are internal, limbs are reduced and the male genitalia and female mammary glands are withdrawn into the body. All seals are covered in a layer of blubber, a thick layer of fat found between the muscle and the skin. Its thickness varies with age, body size and energy balance. It is built up when food is abundant and used as an energy source when required, e.g. during lactation and migration. It may be up to 6 cm thick over the chest of adult grey seals. Blubber gives the body of seals a smooth outline, and thus also helps to reduce drag. As an insulating layer, it is superior to hair in the water, as it does not readily collapse under pressure. It thus retains its insulating properties at depth, allowing seals to live in waters only slightly above freezing. In young pups, hair is still the primary insulator until a layer of blubber is produced. Seals' eyes are large and adapted to life in the water, with a surface (cornea) that is specially strengthened.The shape and composition of the cornea, coupled with a nearly spherical lens, allows accurate focusing underwater. The light receptive lining of the eye, the retina, is specially adapted to function in the dim light found in the depths of the ocean. On land, seals' sight is not so efficient. Vision in bright light with the pupil constricted is good, but in dim light with the pupil dilated, images Usually grey seals dive for no longer than 10 minutes. Recovery time from a dive of this length is quick and the seal can soon dive again. If a seal dives for longer (up to half and hour), more time has to be spent recovering on the surface before diving again. Oxygen needed to complete these dives is not stored as free air in the lungs. If it was, seals would be too buoyant to dive efficiently and would also be prone to the "bends". are blurred. Opracowanie: dr Anna Rysiak 9. TUNA FISH (THUNUS THYNNUS) RANGE: Tunas migrate long distances over all the world’s oceans and occupy tropical, temperate, and even some cooler waters. The only two species of relatively limited distribution are the blackfin tuna (western Atlantic) and the longtail tuna (Indo-Pacific region). HABITAT: They spawn in the open sea over very large areas DIET: Tunas feed on fishes, squid, shellfish, and a variety of planktonic organisms ADAPTATIONS: Tuna are fast swimmers—they have been clocked at 70 kilometers per hour and include several warm-blooded species. Unlike most fish, which have white flesh, tuna flesh is pink to dark red, which could explain their odd nick-name, "rose of the sea." The red coloring comes from tuna muscle tissue's greater quantities of myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule. Some of the larger species, such as the bluefin tuna, can raise their blood temperature above water temperature through muscular activity. This ability enables them to live in cooler waters and to survive in a wide range of ocean environments. A remarkable aspect of Thunnus physiology is its ability to maintain body temperature above than that of the ambient seawater. For example, bluefin can maintain a core body temperature of 75-95°F (24-35°C), in water as cold as 43 °F (6 °C). However, unlike typical endothermic creatures such as mammals and birds, tuna do not maintain temperature within a relatively narrow range. Tuna achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through normal metabolism. The rete mirabile ("wonderful net") the intertwining of veins and arteries in the body's periphery, transfers heat from arterial blood to venous blood via a counter-current exchange system. This reduces surface cooling, maintaining a warmer core. Higher body temperatures allow more efficient muscle use, supporting higher swimming speed with reduced energy expenditure. Opracowanie: dr Anna Rysiak 10. Sponges (phylum Porifera) RANGE: Sponges are worldwide in their distribution, from the polar regions to the tropics. HABITAT: Most live in quiet, clear waters, because sediment stirred up by waves or currents would block their pores, making it difficult for them to feed and breathe. The greatest numbers of sponges are usually found on firm surfaces such as rocks, but some sponges can attach themselves to soft sediment by means of a root-like base. DIET: Freshwater sponges often host green algae as endosymbionts within archaeocytes and other cells, and benefit from nutrients produced by the algae. Many marine species host other photosynthesizing organisms, most commonly cyanobacteria but in some cases dinoflagellates. GESTATION:Sponges have three asexual methods of reproduction: after fragmentation; by budding; and by producing gemmules. Most sponges are hermaphrodites (function as both sexes simultaneously), although sponges have no gonads (reproductive organs). ADAPTATIONS: The mesohyl functions as an endoskeleton in most sponges, and is the only skeleton in soft sponges that encrust hard surfaces such as rocks. More commonly the mesohyl is stiffened by mineral spicules, by spongin fibers or both. Spicules may be made of silica or calcium carbonate, and vary in shape from simple rods to three-dimensional "stars" with up to six rays. Spicules are produced by sclerocyte cells,[3] and may be separate, connected by joints, or fused.[ Sponges do not have distinct circulatory, respiratory, digestive, and excretory systems – instead the water flow system supports all these functions. They filter food particles out of the water flowing through them. Opracowanie: dr Anna Rysiak 11. KILLER WHALE (ORCINUS ORCA) RANGE: It is found in all the world's oceans, from the frigid Arctic and Antarctic regions to warm, tropical seas. HABITAT: They spawn in the open sea over very large areas DIET: Some killer whale populations feed mostly on fish while others hunt sharks, marine mammals, including sea lions, seals, walruses and even large whales and Great white sharks. GESTATION: Females become mature at around 15 years of age. Then they have periods of polyestrous cycling with non-cycling periods of between three and sixteen months. The gestation period varies from fifteen to 18 months. ADAPTATIONS: Killer whales have a heavy and stocky body and a large dorsal fin with a dark grey "saddle patch" at the fin's rear. Females are smaller, generally ranging from 5-7 m and weighing about 3 to 4 tons. The largest male killer whale on record was 9.8 m and weighing over 10 tonnes while the largest female was 8.5 m (28 ft) and weighing 7.5 tonnes). The killer whale's large size and strength make it among the fastest marine mammals, often reaching speeds in excess of (65km/h). Unlike most dolphins, the pectoral fin of a killer whale is large and rounded—more of a paddle than other dolphin species. Males have significantly larger pectoral fins than females. Like other dolphins, killer whales are highly vocal. They produce a variety of clicks and whistles used for communication and echolocation. Opracowanie: dr Anna Rysiak 12. ANGLER FISH (LOPHIUS PISCATORIUS) RANGE: found in the in north-western Europe, eastern North America, Africa and the Far East. HABITAT: Some anglerfish are pelagic (live in the open water), others are benthic (bottom-dwelling). Some live in the deep sea and others on the continental shelf DIET: feed on fishes, squid, shellfish, and a variety of planktonic organisms GESTATION: Anglerfish employ an unusual mating method. Because individuals are presumably locally rare and encounters doubly so, finding a mate is problematic. When scientists first started capturing ceratioid anglerfish, they noticed that all of the specimens were females. These individuals were a few inches in size and almost all of them had what appeared to be parasites attached to them. It turned out that these "parasites" were the remains of male ceratioids. ADAPTATIONS: The fish are named for their characteristic method of predation. Anglerfish typically have three long filaments sprouting from the middle of the head; these are the detached and modified three first spines of the anterior dorsal fin. The spine is movable in all directions, and the esca can be wiggled so as to resemble a prey animal, and thus to act as bait to lure other predators close enough for the anglerfish to devour them whole. Some deep sea anglerfish of the aphotic zone emit light from their esca to attract prey. This bioluminescence is a result of symbiosis with bacteria. The bacteria enter the esca from the seawater through small vents. In the confines of the esca they can multiply until their density is such that their collective glow is very bright. In most species a wide mouth extends all around the anterior circumference of the head, and both jaws are armed with bands of long pointed teeth, which are inclined inwards, and can be depressed so as to offer no impediment to an object gliding towards the stomach, but to prevent its escape from the mouth. The anglerfish is able to distend both its jaw and its stomach (its bones are thin and flexible) to enormous size, allowing it to swallow prey up to twice as large as its entire body. Some benthic (bottom-dwelling) forms have arm-like pectoral fins which the fish use to walk along the ocean floor. The pectoral and ventral fins are so articulated as to perform the functions of feet, enabling the fish to move, or rather to walk, on the bottom of the sea, where it generally hides itself in the sand or amongst seaweed. All around its head and also along the body the skin bears fringed appendages resembling short fronds of seaweed, a structure which, combined with the extraordinary faculty of assimilating the colour of the body to its surroundings, camouflage the fish in areas abundant with prey.