Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Modern Europe II Unit 3 – Nation-States, 1859-1871 Rise of the Nation-State From 1859-1871, there is the consolidation of a number of nation-states in Europe Includes two new countries: Italy and Germany Creation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary Radical changes in Russia What is a nation-state? Where the boundaries of the nation correspond to the geographical boundaries People share the same language and culture May share common heritage or history Created new ties between the government and the people Rise of the Nation-State State of the state prior to 1860 Nations were fragmented into smaller countries or large empires encompassed numerous nations Two main nation-states in Europe were Great Britain and France Smaller ones existed (e.g., Portugal and Switzerland) but were not influential Causes of the development of nation-states Rise in nationalism New technology especially in communication Wars were necessary as they broke the choke-holds of major powers such as Austria and Russia Crimean War (1854-1856) Crimean War (1854-1856) Crimean War would break the power of both Austria and Russia They were the last countries holding onto the old style governments and the Congress System Eastern Question Ottoman Empire was losing its grip on provinces in southeastern Europe With the slow decline of the Ottomans, who would benefit from their fall? Strategic location militarily and economically Russia wanted to step into the power vacuum Britain and Austria were hoping to keep the Empire intact Crimean War (1854-1856) Cause of the war France had considered itself “sovereign authority” in the region for many years Mainly religious Both France and Russia wanted to be the protectors of religious minorities in Jerusalem and the Holy Land Goes back to Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774) Abdülmecid I (1839-1861) Ottoman Sultan decided to end the agreement with France Instead wanted Russian influence Crimean War (1854-1856) France responded with a show of force Abdülmecid negotiated a new treaty with France Sent in a number of ships along with a large payment Granted France the “sovereign authority” Catholic Church was the governing Christian religion Russian Orthodox Church lost control of the Church of the Nativity Russian response Nicolas I sent in Russian troops into Ottoman territories of the Danubian Principalities (Moldavia and Walachia) Crimean War (1854-1856) Britain, France, Austria, and Prussia wanted to prevent war Turks declared war on Russia (October 23, 1853) Battle of Sinop (November 30, 1853) Did not want Russia to gain a foothold in the east Britain moved part of its fleet into the Black Sea just in case Abdülmecid was willing to compromise but Nicolas was not Turks lost a good chunk of its fleet British and French response Afraid of the quick advances made by Russia Sent ultimatum to Nicolas requesting withdrawal of troops from Danubian Principalities Crimean War (1854-1856) Britain and France declared war on March 28, 1854 Battle of Balaclava (October 25, 1854) Both countries invaded Russia via Crimean peninsula British led a charge using light cavalry into the “Valley of Death” Were slaughtered by Russian forces Inspired the poem “Charge of the Light Brigade” by Tennyson Austrian response Russia hoped to get Austria as allies Austria was fearful of Russia Did not declare war but did not declare neutrality Also demanded Russia to withdraw its troops Crimean War (1854-1856) Nicolas died on March 2, 1855 Successor was Alexander II who sued for peace Treaty of Paris (March 30, 1856) Outcome of the Congress of Paris Designed to maintain the “integrity of the Ottoman Empire” Danubian Principalities would stay under Ottoman control Black Sea would remain neutral and demilitarized Russia lost all gains in the Danube region Romania becomes an independent nation France continued to hold the right of protection to the Christians in the Ottoman Empire Crimean War (1854-1856) First “modern” war Extensive use of rifled muskets and underwater mines Use of trench warfare Railroads and telegraphs allowed for easier transport and communications Was a “public war” Numerous correspondents and photojournalists covered it Most famous was Roger Fenton (1819-1869) Made heroes out of soldiers and army nurses One of the most famous was Florence Nightingale (1820– 1910) Captain Dames of the Royal Artillery (1855) By Roger Fenton Italian Unification Two visions of Italian statehood Republican ideal Started by Mazzini in 1848 Giuseppi Garibaldi took up the mantel Hoped to achieve national unification through a popular movement Constitutional monarchy This was favored by moderate nationalists Wanted economic and political reforms without democracy Pinned their hopes on Charles Albert, king of PiedmontSardinia When he died, they turned to his son,Victor Emmanuel II (1849–1861) Giuseppi Garibaldi (1807–1882) Italian Unification By 1860, it was clear that the republican model was not going to work Papacy refused to go along with the ideals of Mazzini and Garibaldi Therefore, the pope would not outwardly support unification Also, it would be difficult to kick Austria out of Italy without outside help The burden would fall on Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour Was the Prime Minister under Victor Emmanuel Did not like the republicans but was willing to work with them Brought Sardinia into the Crimean War to gain alliance with France Italian Unification Reforms made by Cavour Pursued pragmatic reforms guided by the state Promoted economic expansion and a modern transportation infrastructure Reformed the currency Working to unify Italy Relied on diplomacy Cultivated an alliance with France in order to drive the Austrians from Italy Went to war against Austria in1859 with the help of the French Piedmont-Sardinia annexed Lombardy Tuscany, Parma, and Modena voted to join as well Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour (1810–1861) Italian Unification There were three Italian states in 1860 Northern Italian kingdom under Victor Emmanuel Papal States Kingdom of Two Sicilies Bringing in the Two Sicilies King Francis II faced a widespread peasant revolt in 1860 Garibaldi used the opportunity to push his ideas He landed in Sicily in May 1860 with his volunteers known as “The Thousand” Gained widespread support for unification Toppled Francis in November by taking Naples Italian Unification Garibaldi planned to march to Rome This would bring him in confrontation with not only the pope but French forces as well Garibaldi took Sicily in the name of King Victor Emmanuel In order to avoid an international crisis, Cavour and Garibaldi were willing to work together Cavour worried that Garibaldi would bring French or Austrian intervention Cavour preferred that unification take place quickly, without domestic turmoil The king ordered Garibaldi to cede military authority Italian Unification First Italian Parliament (1861) Third Italian War of Independence (1866) Assembly ordered by Victor Emmanuel Victor Emmanuel was named King of Italy on March 17 Italy was able to take Venetia from Austria Taking Rome Garibaldi attempted to take Rome in 1867 but was defeated by French and Papal forces With the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, France removed its troops from Rome This allowed Garibaldi another opportunity Italian soldiers occupied Rome in September 1870 Italian Unification Rome voted to become part of Italy on October 2, 1870 Status of the pope Did not become the official capital until July 1871 Law of Papal Guarantees (May 13, 1871) made the pope subject to the king of Italy and not an independent sovereign Pope Pius IX rejected it and declared himself prisoner in the Vatican All the popes until 1929 rejected being part of Italy Problems with unification Parliamentary government with limited suffrage Widening gap between industrial north and rural south Unification of Italy German Unification In 1850, German states were reeling from failure Due to the failure of the 1848 revolutions and the Frankfurt Assembly The main powers had been restored The nationalism movement was stunned Realpolitik Focus on more realistic types of governments than one based on ideals. Strong ties to the realism movement of the middle 19th century Became the watchword in the German states in the 1850s and 60s German Unification Frederick William of Prussia (1840–1861) Still was staunchly anti-revolution Granted a Prussian constitution with bicameral parliament However, the power remained in the hands of the wealthy Voters were divided into three classes based on the amount of taxes they paid The wealthy classes had a much larger degree of voting power than a common working man During this period there was an economic boom Due to six fold output of both coal and iron Led to the growth of the Prussian middle class German Unification Growing liberalism Effects on the military Active liberal intelligentsia Liberal civil service King wanted to expand the standing army and take military matters out of parliamentary control Industrialists did not like the large standing army nor the Junkers who were officers Opponents saw the king perhaps creating a personal army King Wilhelm I (1861-1888) Was caught in the struggle with the Diet Hired Otto von Bismarck as his Prime minister Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) German Unification Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898) Prime Minister from 1862-1873 Prussian Junker and defender of the monarchy Opposed liberalism and nationalism Ideas on unification Believed that some sort of union was inevitable and that Prussia ought to take the initiative Was going to use both diplomacy and war to achieve this “The great questions of the time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions—that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by iron and blood.” German Unification Parliamentary crisis in 1862 Diet refused to pass appropriations for the military and the country’s budge Technically, the government would not be able to collect taxes without approval from the Diet Bismarck decided to have the government collect the taxes based on the budget of 1861 House of Deputies stated it could not work with Bismarck He dissolved the Diet in 1863 Bismarck’s foreign policy Played the “nationalist card” to pre-empt his liberal opponents Believed that the German Confederation was no longer useful Called for the expansion of Prussian territory German Unification Dispute over Schleswig and Holstein First War of Schleswig (1848-1851) Denmark attempted to annex the Duchy of Schleswig Led to war between Prussia and Denmark Prussia lost and was forced to withdraw London Protocol (1852) Both territories contained large German populations The two duchies of Schleswig and Holstein would be joined by a person with the King of Denmark In November 1863, Frederick VII of Denmark died He had no children Led to the dispute over the succession Schleswig and Holstein German Unification Christian IX of Denmark (1863-1906) German Confederation was against the continuing union Signed the November Constitution making Schleswig part of Denmark Violated the London Protocol and went against the idea of a “greater Germany” Second Schleswig War (February–October 1864) German Diet declared an all-German war against Denmark Prussia joined the war with Austria Prussia wanted control of both Schleswig and Holstein Denmark lost and gave up those two territories German Unification Gastein Convention (August 14, 1865) Problems with Austria Prussia gained control of Schleswig Austria gained control of Holstein Bismarck now wanted to get rid of Austrian influence Already problems with Austrian administration of Holstein In 1866, Austria backed out of the Gastein Convention Claimed that only the German Diet could determine who would control Schleswig and Holstein Prussia responded by invading Holstein German Unification The Seven Weeks’ War (1866) Peace of Prague (1866) Prussians used new technological innovations such as the needle-gun to its advantage Bismarck kept the war short to keep it limited to Austria Austria gave up Schleswig-Holstein and Venetia Austria agreed to dissolve the German Confederation Bismarck created the Northern German Confederation Wrote a new constitution King of Prussia was the head of this new Confederation Included a bicameral legislature Weakened the liberal opposition Territory annexed by Prussia (light blue) in 1866 German Unification In 1870, Leopold of Hohenzollern was offered the job of Spanish monarch Ems Dispatch Was a cousin of Wilhelm I Napoleon III convinced Leopold to withdraw his acceptance Then went on to tell Wilhelm that no other Hohenzollern should become candidate for the Spanish throne Based on a telegram from Wilhelm to Bismarck Bismarck reprinted a condensed version Main point: France demanded certain actions of Prussia under the threat of war Both French and Prussians were angered over this France declared war on Prussia (July 19, 1870) German Unification The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871) Quickly showed Prussian military superiority Prussia used railways and new steel artillery (Krupp cannon) to its advantage Did not become a European-wide war German states rallied to Prussia’s side No European powers came to the aid of France Napoleon captured at the Battle of Sedan (September 2, 1870) France responded with the creation of the Third Republic two days later New French government refused to capitulate Prussian troops laid siege to Paris for four months German Unification Declaration of the German Empire (January 18, 1871) Paris finally fell on January 28, 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt (May 1871) Made by Bismarck in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles Prussian king would receive the hereditary title of emperor Returned Alsace-Lorraine to Germany Required France to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs (~ $375 million) Recognized Wilhelm I as the German Emperor Military occupation of parts of France by Prussian troops Bismarck also called for the creation of a new French government elected by universal male suffrage German Unification New German government Constitution similar to Northern German Confederation Allowed for universal male suffrage of the Reichstag Minister were answerable only to the emperor Prussia gained the most out of the creation of the empire Why was Bismarck successful? A “revolution from above” Master of diplomacy Was willing to go to war to get what he wanted Gave enough reforms to placate the liberals Used nationalistic movement to his own advantage German Empire (1871) Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary After 1848, the Austrian empire is still a diverse group Habsburg rulers had to find a way of holding their empire together amidst the different nationalistic uprising Franz Joseph attempted to hold the empire together Passed a series of decrees Adopted of German as the national language Brought an end serfdom (1848) and attempted to modernize the empire New and more-uniform legal system Rationalized taxation All these decrees did was alienate the non-German peoples Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary Ethnic relations grew more tense in the 1850s and 1860s Compromise of 1867 The “nationalities” protested the powerlessness of their Diets, military repression, and cultural disenfranchisement The ones most unhappy were the Magyars Negotiated between the Germans and the Magyars Created a Dual Monarchy with two countries: Austria and Hungary What they shared Common system of taxation, common army, made foreign and military policy together Both were joined by one Habsburg ruler Both would send delegates to a common ministry Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary How they were different New system was not democratic Internal and constitutional affairs were separated Each had its own constitution and government German would be the official language in Austria, Magyar in Hungary Capital of Austria would be Vienna, capital of Hungary would be Budapest Austria did not get universal male suffrage until 1907 Hungary did not get it until after World War I Power was in the hands of the wealthy landowners No national unification in Habsburg lands Alexander II (1855-1881) Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Alexander II (1855-1881) “Slavophiles” Not a liberal but realized changes needed to be made Believed that Russia had its own unique destiny and following western Europe would do more harm than good Wanted to preserve Russia’s distinctive features Idealized traditional Russian culture Rejected Western secularism, commercialism, and bourgeois culture “Westernizers” Called for adoption of European science, technology, and education Called for liberalism and individual right Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Russian autocracy Power in Russia was solely in the hands of the tsar Did not rule by law Instead ruled through decree (ukase) and military might Tsar pick and chose what western ideas and industry would be adopted by Russia Serfdom in Russia Similar to western serfdom Peasants were tied either to the land as farmers or worked in factories Had to pay their lords certain dues and perform certain duties Russian government did not interfere in the relationship between a serf and his lord Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Calls for an end to serfdom Was no longer seen as profitable Also created poor, uneducated workers that were of no benefit to the Russian empire Intelligentsia wanted to bring western ideas into fruition Alexander was willing to implement reforms Eased up on censorship Allowed for academic free speech Allowed travel outside of Russia Enforced universal male conscription in the military How to bring an end to serfdom without throwing the entire country out of whack? Liberalization in Tsarist Russia The Emancipation Decree of 1861 Serfs were no longer subject to their owners but subjects of the government Granted legal rights to 22 million serfs Gave former serfs title to a portion of the land (half the arable land in Russia) Law granted land to the peasant commune (mir), not individual serfs Required the state to compensate landowners Newly liberated serfs had to pay installments for their land Land was not divided equally so peasants were not equal Liberalization in Tsarist Russia End of serfdom led to greater legal reforms Trials were now public Legal representation for those in court Class distinctions were abolished in the court Brought in jury system similar to England Greater representation Created the Zemstvos, which were local councils Designed to govern rural areas and large towns Elected by the people Dealt with various issues including education and public works Refused to create a nation-wide representative body Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Russia expanded to both the east and south After a rebellion in Poland in 1863, Alexander pulled away from reforms Invaded and conquered independent Islamic kingdoms along the Silk Road Founded Siberian city of Vladivostok in 1860 In most cases, Russia did not assimilate the populations of new territories Started paring down reforms Revolutionaries were not pleased with the reforms Many hoped to bring some form of socialism to Russia Led by Alexander Herzen Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Growth in Nihilist (anarchist) movement Led by Mikhail Bakunin and Sergey Nechayev Created secret terroristic societies, like Narodnaya Volya (the People’s Will) Alexander responded by turning to the liberals Hoped to staunch the growth of radicalism Allowed for free speech of political topics Disbanded the secret police set up by his father Planned to implement parliamentary reform Signed edict on March 13, 1881 to create a nationally elected parliament (Duma) Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Assassination attempts 1866 – Failed attempt 1873 – Five shots fired by revolutionary Alexander Soloviev but missed 1879 – Failed attempt by the People’s Will to blow up the Tsar’s train 1880 – Bomb exploded in the Winter Palace; Alexander was late for dinner so was unharmed On March 13, 1881 the People’s Will succeeded Managed to blow up his carriage in St. Petersburg There were three bombers along the route, two succeeded Liberalization in Tsarist Russia Assassination hurt the reform movement Caused reactionary policies in Russia against revolutionaries The Duma would not meet until 1905 Under Alexander III (1881-1894), there was the suppression of civil liberties and the reinstatement of the secret police This was carried on by Nicolas II (1894-1917) Even the Jews were affected Rumors spread that the Jews were responsible for the assassination Over 200 anti-Jewish pogroms took place between 1881-1884 May Laws (1882) prohibited Jews from living in rural areas with less than 10,000 people More restrictions were implemented over next 30 years Assassination of Alexander II