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AP Chapter 5 Study Guide Vocabulary Biogeochemical cycle-cycling of carbon, water, nitrogen and other substances through the living and nonliving environment Combustion- rapid oxidation of organic molecules Nitrogen fixation- conversion of N2 to ammonia (NH3) by nitrogen-fixing bacteria or by lightening, combustion, industrial processes or volcanic activity Nitrification- conversion of ammonia (NH3) and ammonium (NH4+) to nitrates (NO3-) by soil bacteria Assimilation- absorption of nitrates, ammonia or ammonium and conversion into plant proteins and nucleic acids Ammonification- the conversion of biological nitrogen compounds into ammonia and ammonium ions. Denitrification- the reduction of nitrate to N2 Hydrologic cycle –water cycle Transpiration- evaporation of water from leaves Runoff-water running over the surface of the ground Watershed- all the land drained by a body of water Groundwater- water occupying cracks and pores in the ground Photochemical smog- brownish orange haze formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons. Some of the pollutants in photochemical smog include peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs), ozone, and aldehydes. Acid deposition- sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide emissions that react with water vapor in the atmosphere to form acids that return to the surface as either dry or wet deposition. Aerosols- tiny particles of natural or human-made pollution that are so small they stay suspended in the atmosphere for days or weeks Albedo- the proportional reflectance of Earth’s surface; glaciers and ice sheets have high albedos and reflect most of the sunlight hitting their surfaces while oceans and forests have low albedos Coriolois effect- the tendency of moving air or water to be deflected from its path to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere as a result of the rotation of the Earth Prevailing winds- major surface wind that blows more or less constantly Gyres- prevailing winds tend to blow in a circular pattern which create ocean currents in each ocean basin that flow in a circular pattern Upwelling- a rising ocean current that carries cold, nutrient-rich water to the surface Lithosphere – Earth’s outermost rigid rock layer that is composed of seven major and several minor plates Asthenosphere- the region of the mantle where rocks become hot and soft plate tectonics- the study of the processes by which the lithospheric plates move over the asthenosphere plate boundary- region where two tectonic plates meet subduction- process by which one tectonic plate descends under an adjacent plate seismic waves- vibrations that move through rock as a result of an earthquake faults- a fracture in the crust along which rock moves forward and backward, up and down, or side to side. Faults are often found along plate boundaries. focus- the place within the Earth that an earthquake originates epicenter-the location on the surface of the Earth directly above the focus magma- molten rock found within the Earth lava- molten rock that has reached the surface of the Earth 1. Describe the role organisms play in the carbon cycle. Plants, algae and certain photosynthetic bacteria remove CO2 from the air during photosynthesis and fix (incorporate) the carbon into sugar molecules. The sugar is then converted into other carbon containing molecules. Living organisms use sugar as a source of energy during cellular respiration and convert sugar and oxygen into carbon dioxide and water. Carbon-containing compounds move through the food chain as organisms feed on other organism and as decomposers break down organic matter. Occasionally the carbon in biological molecules is not recycled quickly back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide but is stored for millions of years as coal, oil or natural gas. 2. Why are carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and water all important to living organisms? These substances are found in all living cells Which of these does not exist in a gaseous state as it cycles through the environment. phosphorus 3 Describe two processes that remove carbon from the atmosphere. Photosynthesis, dissolving of carbon dioxide in the oceans 4. List at least three processes that put carbon back into the atmosphere. Respiration, decomposition, combustion 5. Describe one way humans can affect the carbon cycle. Deforestation, burning carbon-based fuels including fossil fuels and biomass fuels (wood, ethanol..) 6. The atmosphere is _78_% nitrogen. 7. Why are plants unable to use nitrogen gas directly to form proteins and nucleic acids? The nitrogen atoms are held together by very strong triple bonds 8. Which step of the nitrogen cycle does not involve bacteria? Assimilation 9. What role do nitrogen-fixing bacteria play in the nitrogen cycle? Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen gas into ammonia (NH3) 10. In which step of the nitrogen cycle do bacteria reverse the action of nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying bacteria by returning nitrogen (N2) back to the atmosphere? denitrification 11. Plants are able to absorb nitrogen when it is in the form of __NH3___, ___NH4+_ or _NO3- _. 12. Nitrogen is fixed by ___nitrogen-fixing bacteria_, __combustion__, __volcanic activity__, __lightening__, and __industrial processes__. 13. Describe how humans can affect the nitrogen cycle. -Combustion of fossil fuels convert gaseous nitrogen into nitrogen oxide causing acid deposition - use of fertilizers more than doubled the amount of fixed nitrogen in the global N-cycle during the 20th century (fixed nitrogen refers to nitrogen bonded with H, O or C). This has caused algal blooms, dead zones where decomposing algae have depleted the amount of dissolved oxygen, and nitrate pollution of groundwater 14. Describe how humans can affect the phosphorus cycle. Phosphate pollution from wastewater and runoff of fertilizer reduces water quality causing algal blooms Human activities may accelerate long-term loss of phosphorus from the soil through erosion and other processes 15. Describe the role of organisms in the sulfur cycle. Sulfur is an essential component of proteins. Plant roots absorb sulfate ions assimilating it and incorporate the sulfur into proteins. The sulfur moves through the food chain. Certain marine algae release chemicals that bacteria convert to dimethyl sulfide (DMS) which is released into the atmosphere and helps condense water vapor into droplets influencing climate and weather. 16. Describe how humans have affected the sulfur cycle. Sulfur is a contaminant of coal and to a lesser extent oil. When these fuels are burned, sulfur dioxide is released into the air contributing to acid deposition. Smelting of sulfur-containing ores of metals such as copper, lead and zinc also releases sulfur dioxide into the air. 17. How are changes in global climate during the last century related to the carbon cycle? Combustion and deforestation lead to higher concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide traps heat reducing the amount of heat escaping into space and warming the planet. 18. Diagram the water cycle. See page 95 19. Describe the role of plants in the water cycle. Plants release large amounts of water into the atmosphere through transpiration. 20. How have humans influenced the water cycle? Deforestation reduces transpiration which can affect local precipitation. Global warming is causing polar and alpine ice sheets to melt. Alpine glaciers are an important source of drinking water for many people. Water is being pumped out of the ground and used faster than nature can restore it in many areas. Water is being diverted for irrigation, power, industry and cities changing the flow and volume of rivers. 21. _31_% of the sunlight that reaches Earth is reflected back as light and the remaining __69_% is absorbed. 22. Compare the albedo of the following surfaces. Which has the highest albedo? a. ice; b. land; c. water 23. As polar ice caps melt, what does this suggest will happen to the percentage of sunlight that is absorbed by the Earth rather than reflected? A higher percent will be absorbed accelerating global warming due to the higher albedo of ice and snow compared to liquid water or land 24. What causes seasons? The tilting of the Earth on its axis causes sunlight to not be evenly distributed across the planet 25. Why does Florida have a warmer climate than Maine? It is closer to the equator and because of the tilt of the Earth on its axis, receives a higher percentage of the sun’s energy than Maine and other locations at higher latitudes 26. What layer of the atmosphere is in contact with the surface of the Earth? troposphere How does the temperature change as altitude increases in this layer? Decreases about 11 F (6 C) for every km as you rise through the troposphere 27. In what layer of the atmosphere is the ozone layer found? stratosphere 28. Why is this ozone layer essential to life on Earth? It shields Earth from much of the ultraviolet light that would otherwise strike Earth 29. What layer of the atmosphere is hottest? thermosphere In what layer of the atmosphere does weather occur? troposphere In what layer of the atmosphere do commercial jets fly? stratosphere 30. 31. 32. List the layers of the atmosphere in order starting with the lowest. Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere 33. What drives the circulation of the atmosphere? Variations in the amount of solar energy reaching different regions. Warm rises. As it rises, it cools and sinks. 34. What causes wind? Differences in atmospheric pressure 35. List three factors that affect air pressure. Altitude, temperature, and humidity 36. Winds tend to blow from areas of __high_ atmospheric pressure to areas of _low_ atmospheric pressure. 37. Earth rotates from __west_ to __east__causing surface winds to be deflected. 38. Because of the Coriolis effect, winds curve to the _right_ in the Northern Hemisphere and to the __left__ in the Southern Hemisphere. 39. Describe the location and direction of each of the three prevailing winds. Polar easterlies blow from the east toward the west Westerlies blow from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere. The Westerlies are found in the mid-latitudes The trade winds are tropical winds that blow from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere (see fig. 5.13 page 103) 40. How does the Coriolis effect influence ocean currents? The Coriolis effect (due to the rotation of the Earth) causes both wind and ocean currents to be deflected or swerve to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere Show animation at http://www.physics.orst.edu/~mcintyre/coriolis/North_Pole_GIF.html 41. What causes surface currents? Wind 42. What causes deep ocean currents? Density differences caused by differences in temperature and salinity 43. Explain how ocean currents influence climate. Currents moderate climates carrying heat from the tropics toward the temperate regions. Between 11,000 and 12,000 years ago the ocean conveyer belt in the North Atlantic stopped. Europe and North America experienced a period of intense cold during this time. 44. What triggers an El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event? Normally westward-blowing trade winds move warm water away from the west coast of South America and toward Australia. Upwellings of cold nutrient-rich water caused by this create rich fisheries off the west coast of S. America. During an El Nino year, the trade winds weaken (or even reverse) and the warm mass of water expands eastward to S. America. 45. How does El Nino affect the fishing industry off the coast of South America? Upwellings cease, nutrient levels drop, phytoplankton populations crash which in turn causes a crash in the entire food chain devastating the fishing industry. 46. How widespread geographically are the effects of El Nino? Choose one area of the world other than the Pacific coast of South America and describe how El Nino affects that area. it alters global air currents and has global effects. (See fig. 5.16 page 105) 47. Describe how conditions change during a La Nina year. Often occurs after an El Nino event and results from stronger than normal trade winds cooling the eastern Pacific along the shores of S. America. Also has global effects but the effects are harder to predict. 48. Explain the difference between weather and climate. Weather is a short-term phenomena. (It was a snowy winter this year, it is going to be hot tomorrow…) Climate is the average weather for a region over a long period of time (many years) 49. Where would you observe a rain shadow effect? When moist air flows over mountains, a rain shadow effect occurs on the side away from the prevailing winds. How does a rain shadow effect precipitation? As air masses reach mountains, air is forced to rise. As it rises it cools, clouds form and precipitation falls. This side of the mountain receives a lot of precipitation. As the air mass passes over the mountains the cool air sinks and warms. This side of the mountain is dry. 50. What conditions may lead to the formation of tornadoes? When a mass of cool, dry air collides with warm, humid air producing a strong updraft of spinning air on the underside of a cloud. 51. In what regions of the world do tropical cyclones form? Over warm tropical ocean waters 52. Tropical cyclones are called _hurricanes__ in the Atlantic, _typhoons_ in the Pacific and _cyclones_ in the Indian Ocean. 53. Why are tropical cyclones most common during summer and autumn months? The tropical ocean waters are warmest during this time. Heat from warm water provides the energy for these storms. 54. How has the intensity of tropical cyclones changed since 1970? What might contribute to this change? Increase. Sea-surface temperature is the most important factor influencing the formation of these storms. Global warming leads to warmer water and may result in more frequent and more severe hurricanes. 55. Describe how the Himalayan mountains formed. Collision of the Indian Plate with the Asian plate 56. 57. 58. How much more energy is released by an earthquake that is 6 on the Richter scale compared to one that is 3 on the Richter scale? 303 = 27000 What causes tsunamis? Undersea earthquakes, landslides or volcanic activity Compare divergent, convergent and transform plate boundaries. Divergent-plates move apart Convergent- plates move toward one another Transform- plates move alongside each other (horizontally in parallel but opposite directions)