Download NOTEBOO K #13 The Age of Nation-States

N O T E B O O K
#13
The Age of Nation-States
AP European History
Mr. Konecke
Name_________________________
Period____
Project #13 – Irish Home Rule
Introduction:
The issue of Irish home rule was the
dominant political question of British and
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Irish politics at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th
centuries. From the late nineteenth century, Irish leaders of the Home
Rule League demanded a form of home rule, with the creation of an Irish
parliament within the British government of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland. This demand led to the eventual introduction of
four Home Rule Bills, of which two were passed , the Third Home Rule
Act won by John Redmond and most notably the Government of Ireland Act
1920 (which created the home rule parliaments of Northern Ireland and
Southern Ireland -- the latter state did not in reality function and
was replaced by the Irish Free State), which was enacted.
Directions:
You will choose one side of the issue of Irish home rule to argue for.
Then you will perform your own research on the topic. You must come up
with an argument to support your thesis, list & explain the evidence
you based that argument on, list & explain the evidence against your
argument (what someone who disagrees with you would say), and finally
create a response to someone who would argue with you.
Options:
1. You may
2. You may
3. You may
(internet,
Grade:
1. Explain your argument in at least 2 paragraphs (5 sentences per
paragraph) – 50 points
2. List & explain the evidence you used to make that argument (the
facts you are basing your argument on) in at least 1 paragraph (5
sentences) – 25 points
3. List & explain the evidence against your argument (the facts that
someone would use to argue against you) in at least 1 paragraph (5
sentences) – 25 points
4. Explain how you would respond to the facts someone would use to
argue against you in at least 2 paragraphs (5 sentences each) – 50
points
Due Date:
___________________________________________________
choose either side of the debate to support
write out the arguments by hand or type them
use any sources to find evidence to support your argument
books, articles, etc.)
NOTEBOOK #13: THE AGE OF NATION-STATES
1. The Crimean War (1853-1856)
The Crimean War

o
Two disputes led to the war

1. Since late 1700s, Russians allowed to protect Orthodox
Christians in Ottoman Empire

France had similar oversight of Catholics

2


This angered Russians & damaged their prestige
2. Russia wanted control over Moldavia and Walachia


Ottoman Empire then declared war on Russia

o
Britain & France objected to Russians taking eastern Mediterranean –
had naval & commercial interests there
o
Napoleon III also thought opposing Russia would strengthen his support
at home
o
Austria & Prussia – to the disappointment of Nicholas I – remained
neutral


They had their own interests in Balkans

o
They found that both sides fought war badly

All armies got bogged down on coast of Black Sea

1855, after long siege, Russian fortress of Sevastopol fell to
British & French

Peace Settlement and Long-Term Results

o
Russia had to surrender territory near mouth of Danube River, recognize
neutrality of Black Sea, & renounce claims to protect Orthodox
Christians in Ottoman Empire
o
Even before treaty, Austria had forced Russia out of Moldavia &
Walachia

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
Concert of Europe was also shattered
o
o
For next 25 years, European affairs were unstable –

At the same time, Ottoman Empire finally underwent some changes
Directions: The Crimean War was the first war to ever be photographed. Examine the photos
of the war below and answer the 9 questions about each photo. Worth 27 points.
PICTURE A
1. What people & objects do you see? What might
these people be doing, thinking, or saying?
2. What is the setting and season?
3. Is it posed or candid?
4. What do you know about this time period?
5. What can you conclude from what you see?
6. What questions does each photograph raise?
7. What (if anything) is missing from the
photograph?
8. What would you hear or smell?
9. Why is this photograph significant?
PICTURE B
1. What people & objects do you see? What might
these people be doing, thinking, or saying?
2. What is the setting and season?
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3. Is it posed or candid?
4. What do you know about this time period?
5. What can you conclude from what you see?
6. What questions does each photograph raise?
7. What (if anything) is missing from the photograph?
8. What would you hear or smell?
9. Why is this photograph significant?
1.
PICTURE C
What people & objects do you see?
What might these people be doing,
thinking, or saying?
2. What is the setting and season?
3. Is it posed or candid?
4. What do you know about this time
period?
5. What can you conclude from what you
see?
6. What questions does each photograph
raise?
7. What (if anything) is missing from the
photograph?
8. What would you hear or smell?
9. Why is this photograph significant?
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2. Reforms in the Ottoman Empire
The Need for Change

o
1839, sultan issued decree called the Hatt-I Sharif of Gülhane

Attempted to reorganize administration and military along
European lines


Administrative councils – not the sultan – came up with
this reorganization

The reforms liberalized the economy, ended tax farming, &
tried to stop corruption

Also gave civic equality to Ottoman subjects no matter what
their religion
o


Also made it easier for Muslims to make commercial
agreements with non-Muslims
Another decree – Hatti-I Hümayun –
o
Gave them equal obligations with Muslims for military service & equal
opportunity for state employment & admission to state schools
o
Also abolished torture & allowed some foreigners to gain property


Imperial govt. was trying to gain loyalty of its Christian subjects (to
counter nationalism)
o

Tried to define all its citizens as Ottoman subjects rather than as
members of different religious groups
But putting these reforms into practice was hard
o

They carried out own modernizing reforms
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
In Istanbul, authorities fought each other for control

Many Ottomans questioned Tanzimat – feared replacing Islamic
institutions with European ones would cause disaster
o

o
Foreign defeats prompted calls to modernize military & economy & build
railways & telegraphs
o
1876, sultan even passed a constitution



But new sultan soon dismissed the parliament
1908, military officers carried out revolution against power of sultan
o
Reformist officers called the Young Turks came to power with plan to
modernize empire

Directions: Below is a list of the reforms the Ottomans attempted to make during the
Tanzimat era. Read each reform below and then explain how each reform would theoretically
help the Ottoman Empire catch up with the nations of Europe. Then pick what you think is
the most important reform and explain why. Worth 27 points.
1. guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honor,
and property
2. the introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes
3. the opening of the first post offices
4. the reorganization of the finance system according to the French model
5. the reorganization of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model
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6. the establishment of the First Ottoman Parliament
7. the reorganization of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the
army, and fixing the duration of military service
8. the adoption of an Ottoman national anthem and Ottoman national flag
9. the first nationwide Ottoman census in 1844 (only male citizens were counted)
10.
the first national identity cards
11.
the abolition of slavery and slave trade
12.
the establishment of the first modern universities, academies, and teacher
schools
13.
the establishment of the Ministry of Healthcare
14.
the establishment of the Academy of Sciences
15.
the establishment of the first steam-powered commuter ferries
16.
the first European style courts and supreme judiciary council
17.
the abolition of the capitation (Jizya) tax on non-Muslims, with a regular
method of establishing and collecting taxes
18.
non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers
19.
the establishment of the first telegraph networks and railway networks
20.
the replacement of guilds with factories
21.
the establishment of the Ottoman Central Bank and the Ottoman Stock Exchange
22.
the establishment of the School of Economical and Political Sciences
MOST IMPORTANT REFORM – WHY?
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3. Italian Unification
Romantic Republicans

o
First half of century, however, no one was sure how to achieve Italian
unification
o
Secret republican societies founded throughout Italy



1830s, romantic republicans led by Giuseppe Mazzini – most important
nationalist leader in Europe
o
1840s & 1850s, he was involved in attempted insurrections, using
guerrilla warfare
o

Republican nationalism scared moderate Italians – wanted to get rid of
Austrian influence but not form a republic
o
Yet by 1860, Italy was a nation-state under a constitutional monarchy


Machiavelli would have been proud
Cavour’s Policy

Piedmont, in northern Italy, was most independent state in Italy
o

1848-1849, King Charles Albert of Piedmont fought Austria
unsuccessfully twice


1852, new monarch chose Cavour as his prime minister
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
A smart politician, Cavour was a moderate liberal inspired by Enlightenment,
classical economics, and utilitarianism
o
Strong monarchist, Cavour hated republicanism


Cavour felt if Italians proved to be efficient & economically progressive,
great powers would consider Italy able to govern itself
o
Cavour promoted free trade, railway construction, expanding credit, and
farm improvement


Finally, he believed only French help could defeat Austria & unite Italy
o
French Sympathies

Cavour used Crimean War to bring Italy into European politics
o
1855, Piedmont sent 10,000 troops to help France & Britain


1858, Italian named Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III
o

He felt Italy would be strong ally against Austria

War with Austria

1859, Piedmont mobilized its army – Austria demanded it demobilize
o
o
France stepped in to help Piedmont

June, Austrians defeated in two major battles
o
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
Austrians were in retreat and revolutionaries were calling for union
with Piedmont
o
Napoleon III then got nervous about Piedmont getting too powerful
o

o
Piedmont received Lombardy, but Venetia remained under
Austrian control
Cavour felt betrayed by Napoleon III –

Later that summer, several Italian principalities agreed to
join with Piedmont
Garibaldi’s Campaign

Romantic republicans then forced Cavour to try for complete unification
of northern & southern Italy
o

Captured Palermo & prepared to attack mainland

By September, he controlled Naples

On the way, they conquered Papal States (except area around
Rome – saved for pope)

Gariboldi then accepted Piedmontese domination

To ease Napoleon’s fears, Cavour gave Savoy & Nice to
France (spoke French anyway)
o
o
The New Italian State

o
Cavour died 3 months later – he would be missed now

Republicans angry about the treatment of Gariboldi


Economies & societies of north & south Italy were very different
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

South –

North –
Constitution provided for conservative constitutional monarchy
o
Parliament had 2 houses – senate appointed by king & chamber of
deputies elected by rich voters
o
Ministers were responsible to king – not Parliament


Bribery, favors, or cabinet seat “transformed” political
opponents into government supporters


Unification was not completed yet
o Many Italians wanted other territories added – especially Venetia &
Rome

Venetia was gained in 1866 in return for Italy’s alliance with
Prussia in Austro-Prussian War



Italy then annexed Rome & made it the capital

Papacy stayed in Vatican & was hostile to united Italy
until 1929
By 1870, small provinces of Trent & Trieste (Austrian) were not part of Italy
o
But these areas made Italians hate Austrians even more

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Directions: We will act out the simulation explaining the unification of Italy. Several
of you will be assigned characters to read. As we make our way through the simulation,
there are some discussion questions you must answer. Worth 34 points.
King Victor Emmanuel II is seated in his throne. Two reporters enter. The king motions
for them to sit.
Reporter #1: “Thank you, Your Majesty, for agreeing to this interview.”
Reporter #2: “The readers of the World History Times will be fascinated to hear your
description of how you came to be the ruler of a united Italy.”
Victor Emmanuel II: “It’s my pleasure to set the record straight. What would you like to
know?”
Reporter #1: “When you became king of Piedmont in 1849, did you have any idea that you
would oversee the unification of Italy?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “When I became king, most Italians thought of themselves as citizens
of their own separate states. Many didn’t think of themselves as Italians at all.”
Reporter #2: “What changed their minds?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “One man was responsible for spreading Italian nationalism. His name
was Giuseppe Mazzini.”
Reporter #1: “Wasn’t his movement discredited after the Revolutions of 1848 and 1849?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Though he lost many of his supporters, he continued to write and
organize from his exile in London…”
1. When Victor Emmanuel II was king of Piedmont, how did most Italians think of
themselves in terms of citizenship?
2. Who changed the minds of the Italians in this regard?
Scene 1: Mazzini in London (1853)
Mazzini and his fellow nationalists are seated comfortably in a London drawing room.
Mazzini: “The time is right to create an uprising in Naples.”
Carlo Piscane (a Mazzini supporter, republican nationalist): “Ah, yes, my homeland.
You’re right. The Neapolitans hate their king. They’re ready for revolution.”
Giorgio Pallavicino (a moderate monarchist nationalist): “Why do you think this revolt
will succeed when all the others we’ve sponsored have failed?”
Mazzini: “We must not lose faith. The people of Naples are eager to throw off their
Bourbon oppressors.”
Jessie White (a Mazzini supporter, republican nationalist): “Of course they are! Back in
1848 their revolt against Ferdinand II set off revolutions throughout Europe.”
Daniele Manin (a moderate monarchist nationalist): “Yes, but their uprising ended in
disaster. How can we hope to succeed if every time we stir up a revolt, the Austrian or
French armies come in and put it down?”
Mazzini: “So what do you suggest?”
Manin: “King Victor Emmanuel and his Prime Minister Count Cavour in Piedmont have the
army and diplomatic position to lead the unification of Italy.”
Piscane: “You mean—to conquer Italy.”
Pallavicino: “All of our attempts to stir the Italian people to rise up and unite as a
republic have failed! It’s not going to happen. We have to give up the idea of an Italian
republic and focus on our goal of unification.”
Mazzini: “We can’t give up our principles. We must keep trying.”
Giuseppe La Farina (a moderate monarchist nationalist): “But the governments of Europe
fear our call for a republic. They think it would encourage their own subjects to rise
against them. They would feel much safer if we were united under the constitutional
monarchy of King Victor Emmanuel.”
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Giuseppe Ferrari (radical nationalist): “You are all missing the point! Why do the
citizens join these revolts? To better their living conditions. They need to eat. Workers
in the cities slave away in factories 16 hours a day and can’t feed their families.
Landlords demand exorbitant rents from starving peasants.”
White: “So you’re saying we should abandon our goals of independence and unity?”
Ferrari: “I am saying we must first help the peasants and workers to rise up against the
classes that oppress them.”
Mazzini: “But in a united republican Italy all classes will benefit.”
Ferrari: “You are raising false hopes. Only after the wealthy classes have been
overthrown should we focus on
unification.” (He leaves.)
Pallavicino: “We must be practical. The only way to achieve independence and unification
is under the leadership of Prime Minister Cavour in Piedmont.”
The moderate monarchist nationalists (Pallavicino, Manin and La Farina) leave.
Mazzini: “We will continue our struggle. Now, let’s make the plans for the insurrection
in Naples.”
3. What seems to happen everytime the Italians try to start an uprising?
4. The goal of forming an Italian republic kept failing. So what did the revolutionaries
decide was their main goal now?
Reporter #2: “So you’re saying that many of Mazzini’s supporters came to believe that you
and Cavour were the only hope to successfully unite Italy?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Yes, and others thought his goals were not radical enough.”
Reporter #1: “Was Prime Minister Cavour really such a brilliant strategist?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “He was ambitious and often discourteous to me, but he knew how to
make the most of any situation.”
Reporter #2: “How so?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Take for example the Crimean War, a conflict that did not concern my
country at all…”
Scene 2: Piedmont Chamber of Deputies—Debate on the Crimean War (1854)
Cavour: “Today we must discuss our nation’s role in the war in the Crimea. When Czar
Nicholas attacked Turkey, he believed he could enlarge Russia as the great powers of
Europe sat back and watched. He was wrong! France and Great Britain have entered the war
in Turkey’s defense.”
Deputy #1: “This isn’t our fight. How does it affect Piedmont?”
Cavour: “If Piedmont is to be taken seriously by the European powers, we must be involved
in European affairs. I propose
that we join with Britain and France in their fight against Russia.”
Deputy #2: “But why should we send our young men to fight and die in the Crimea if we
have no interests there?”
Cavour: “Italy will never be free from Austrian domination without the good will and
assistance of France and Great
Britain. Here is our opportunity to put the Western powers in our debt.”
Deputy #3: “What is the position of Austria?”
Cavour: “For now Austria is remaining neutral, but France and Britain are working to
convince Emperor Francis Joseph to
bring Austria into the war on their side.”
Deputy #4: “You mean you want us to join a war in which we could be allied with Austria?”
Cavour: “It could happen. But consider the alternative. We stay out of the war. Austria
joins France and Britain to defeat
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Russia. Then what do you think would be the chances of France or Britain helping us to
kick their ally Austria out of
Italy?”
Deputy #5: “No chance!”
Deputy #6: “Never!”
Deputy #7: “They wouldn’t!”
Cavour: “But if we join the war and win, we will have a seat at the peace conference.
We’ll be able to raise the issue of Italian independence, and the Great Powers will have
to listen.”
All Deputies: “Here! Here!”
Cavour: “Let us join the war and take our position among the Great Powers of Europe!”
Deputies #1 and #5: “Bravo!”
Deputies #2 and #6: “Yes!”
Deputies #3, #4 and #7: “Viva Victor Emmanuel!”
Cavour: “All in favor of joining the Crimean War against Russia, say ‘Aye.’”
All Deputies: “Aye!”
Cavour: “All opposed, say “Nay.’” (Silence.) “It is decided. Let us mobilize for war. We
have taken the first step towards our destiny.”
5. Why does Piedmont get involved in the Crimean War?
6. What might happen if Piedmont did not enter the war?
Reporter #1: “Did Cavour’s plan work?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Yes, though Austria did enter the war in the final days of the
conflict, which meant that Austria was also at the peace conference.”
Reporter #2: “Didn’t the Austrian delegate block the discussion of Italy?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “He tried, but Cavour managed to bring it up. Cavour presented the
issue in a way that got the attention of Britain and France. He argued that foreign rule
in Italy encouraged revolutionaries in Italy and throughout Europe, and only if Italy was
united under Victor Emmanuel would nationalists like Mazzini stop stirring up
rebellions.”
Reporter #2: “Did he really win French and British support?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “He seemed to have had an effect on Napoleon III of France. And the
French emperor was even more convinced when an Italian revolutionary attempted to
assassinate him. In July 1858, Napoleon III and Cavour met secretly at the French health
resort town Plombières…”
7. What did Cavour say that convinced Britain and France that foreign rule in Italy was a
bad thing?
Scene 3: Plombières Meeting (1858)
Cavour: “Say, aren’t you Napoleon III, Emperor of France?”
Napoleon III: “Why, yes. Count Cavour, isn’t it? What a surprise to run into you here at
this health spa!”
Cavour: “What a coincidence that we both happened to be here taking the waters at the
same time.”
Napoleon III: “Isn’t it though?”
Cavour: “As long as we’re both here, there are a few things I’ve been meaning to discuss
with you.”
Napoleon III: “I’ve been hoping to chat with you, too.”
Cavour: “I was glad to hear that you weren’t injured in that assassination attempt. I
fear that revolutionaries like Orsini
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will continue to cause trouble as long as the people of Italy remain oppressed by foreign
rulers.”
Napoleon III: “I agree. As long as Mazzini keeps inspiring these radicals, no government
is safe.”
Cavour: “That’s why Piedmont needs your help to drive the Austrians out of Italy.”
Napoleon III: “I’m listening.”
Cavour: “You help Piedmont in a war against Austria. If we win, Piedmont gains control of
Lombardy and Venetia. In return for your help, France gets Nice and Savoy.”
Napoleon III: “That sounds promising, but France will not join a war of aggression by
Piedmont. We will, however, come to your defense if Austria declares war on you.”
Cavour: “I believe that can be arranged.”
Napoleon III: “Then we have an agreement. I hope you’ve enjoyed your visit to
Plombières.”
Cavour: “It has been very refreshing, thank you.”
8. Napoleon III says France will only help Piedmont in a way against Austria if Austria
attacks Piedmont first. Cavour says that can be arranged. What does he mean?
Reporter #1: “Was Cavour actually able to provoke Austria into declaring war?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Yes. He ordered an immediate buildup of the Piedmontese army, openly
recruiting soldiers from among the citizens of Austrian-controlled lands. I gave a speech
denouncing Austrian oppression of Italians. The Austrians
walked right into the trap: first they demanded that we demobilize our army, and when we
refused, they declared war,
just as Cavour had planned.”
Reporter #2: “Did France come to your aid?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Yes, and with their help we won decisive victories against the
Austrians at Magenta and Solferino.”
Reporter #1: “Did you get Lombardy and Venetia?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Not both of them. Napoleon III betrayed us in the end. Events
weren’t going exactly as he had hoped. The citizens of Tuscany, Modena, Parma and Romagna
rose up against their rulers and asked to be annexed to Piedmont. He decided to end the
war before the revolutionaries got out of control. In July, 1859, he made a separate
peace with Austria, giving Lombardy, but not Venetia, to Piedmont.”
Reporter #2: “Did you annex Tuscany, Modena, Parma and Romagna?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “We conducted plebiscites in those regions to determine the will of
the people. They voted
overwhelmingly to join Piedmont. So we annexed them. In exchange for Napoleon III’s
acceptance of this arrangement,
we gave Nice and Savoy to France.”
Reporter #1: “So how did you acquire southern Italy?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “For that I must give due credit to the revolutionary general
Giuseppe Garibaldi and his patriotic
‘Red Shirt’ army.”
Reporter #2: “Who was Garibaldi?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “He was a revolutionary and a patriot, who made a name for himself
fighting in South America for the
independence of Uruguay. Sponsored by Italian nationalists, including Mazzini, Garibaldi
raised an army of over a
thousand volunteers and invaded Sicily. His plan was to free the Sicilians from the
oppressive rule of their Bourbon king.”
Reporter #1: “Did your government support the expedition?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Let’s say, we knew about it, and we didn’t stop it. But Cavour
didn’t like being out of control of the
situation.”
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Reporter #2: “Did the expedition succeed?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “On May 11th, 1860, Garibaldi and his Red Shirts landed unopposed at
Marsala in Sicily and began
to march towards Palermo. As they advanced, Sicilian citizens flocked to join them…”
9. How did Cavour get the Austrians to start a war?
10. What did Napoleon III do that betrayed the Italians?
11. Who does Victor Emmanuel give credit for gaining control of southern Italy?
Scene 4: Garibaldi And The One Thousand (1860) Victor Emmanuel narrates this scene.
Victor Emmanuel II: “Outside of the small town of Calatafimi, the Red Shirts first
encountered the Neapolitan army of the
Kingdom of Two Sicilies. Reaching the top of a small hill, they looked out across a
valley to a hill on the other side. On
the opposite hill camped the enemy.”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Major Sforza, commander of the Neapolitan battalion, underestimated
the abilities of
Garibaldi’s men. Believing that they would flee at the first sign of military might, he
put his men through a series of
drills before their eyes. But instead of running in fear, the Red Shirts laughed and
cheered from the opposite hill.”
Sforza: “Attention! Right face! Forward, march! Halt!”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Seeing that the Red Shirts were standing firm, Sforza hesitated, not
wanting to give up his hilltop
position. Finally, he ordered a charge:”
Sforza: “Forward! Charge!”
Garibaldi: “Hold your fire men! Don’t shoot ’til they’re right on top of you.”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Since their guns took up to a minute to reload, once the Neapolitan
soldiers got in close range of the
Red Shirts, they found themselves fighting hand-to-hand with bayonets.”
Victor Emmanuel II: “The Neapolitan army began to fall back, and soon broke into full
retreat.”
Neapolitan soldier #1: “They’re not mortal men!”
Neapolitan soldier #2: “They’re red devils!”
Neapolitan soldier #3: “They fight with bayonets, not guns!”
Neapolitan soldier #4: “They can’t be killed! Beware the red devils!”
Red Shirt soldier #1: “Viva Garibaldi, Hero of Two Worlds!”
Red Shirt soldier #2: “Viva Victor Emmanuel!”
Red Shirt soldier #3: “Viva l’Italia!”
Garibaldi: “In the name of Victor Emmanuel II, I declare myself Dictator of Sicily!”
12. How did Garibaldi and his Red Shirts take control of Sicily?
Reporter #1: “How did you and Cavour respond to Garibaldi’s success?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Well, I found Garibaldi to be a fascinating, heroic figure. I was
inspired by his patriotism and
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military genius. But Cavour was more skeptical. He felt that Garibaldi’s popularity was a
threat to my prestige. My Prime
Minister didn’t like the fact that he was not in control of events in southern Italy.”
Reporter #2: “What happened next?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Garibaldi then crossed from Sicily into southern Italy. He
encountered so little resistance that his
journey northward to Naples was like a triumphal march. Frances II, the new king of the
Two Sicilies, fled and
Garibaldi’s Red Shirts occupied the city of Naples. There Garibaldi began his plans for
an assault on Rome.”
Reporter #1: “Certainly Cavour wouldn’t allow that. What did he do?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “He called the Piedmont Chamber of Deputies into session…”
13. After taking Sicily and southern Italy, what did Garibaldi plan on doing?
Scene 5: Piedmont Chamber of Deputies—Debate on Garibaldi (1860)
Cavour: “Garibaldi has declared himself ‘Dictator of the Two Sicilies’ and is making
preparations to march on Rome. He
has become too powerful and an attack on Rome would bring France into the conflict to
protect the Pope.”
Deputy #1: “What can we do? Garibaldi is a hero to the people throughout Italy and the
world.”
Cavour: “First, we must annex Sicily and Naples to Piedmont without delay.”
Deputy #2: “Here. Here. We should hold plebiscites in Sicily and Naples. Surely, the
people will vote to join Piedmont.”
Cavour: “Yes, and if the citizens vote to become subjects of Victor Emmanuel, Garibaldi
will have to accept their wishes.
All in favor of annexing any territory that votes to join Piedmont, say ‘Aye.’”
All Deputies: “Aye!”
Cavour: “All opposed, say ‘Nay.’ (Silence.) It is decided. Secondly, we must send a
Piedmontese army to seize the
Papal States before Garibaldi can lead his Red Shirts into Rome.”
Deputy #3: “But won’t Napoleon III oppose our invasion of the Papal States?”
Cavour: “We’ll leave Rome and the surrounding area to the Pope. I have Napoleon III’s
assurance that if we stay away from Rome, France won’t intervene.”
Deputy #4: “Then we have nothing to lose.”
Cavour: “All in favor of sending our army to the Papal States?”
All Deputies: “Aye!”
Cavour: “All opposed? (Silence.) It’s decided. The next time we meet, it will be as the
Chamber of Deputies of Italy.”
14. Cavour and the Chamber of Deputies come up with a 2-part plan to stop Garibaldi.
Explain both parts.
Reporter #2: “Did the plan work?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “As we expected, the citizens of Naples and Sicily voted to join
Piedmont. I led my army into the Papal States. We encountered little resistance. The
citizens were tired of the Pope’s corrupt and inefficient rule. They welcomed us as
liberators. In October, my army entered Naples. Garibaldi rode out to greet us…”
Scene 6: Meeting of Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel (1860)
18
All Piedmontese soldiers: “Viva Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia!”
All Red Shirts: “Hail Garibaldi, Liberator of Italy!”
Garibaldi: “I salute the first king of Italy!”
Victor Emmanuel II: “How are you, my dear Garibaldi?”
Garibaldi: “Well, Your Majesty. And you?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “First rate.”
All soldiers: “Long live Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy!”
Reporter #1: “But you still didn’t have Venetia or Rome. What was Cavour’s next move?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Sadly, Cavour had made his last contribution to Italian unification.
On June 5th, 1861, he died
of a cerebral hemorrhage, at the age of 50.”
Reporter #2: “So he didn’t live to see all of Italy united.”
Victor Emmanuel II: “No. And we missed his leadership. In the following decade, I had a
different Prime Minister every
year.”
Reporter #1: “What happened next? Did you invade Rome?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “No. Once again a foreign power helped us to achieve our goal. This
time it was Prussia, and the prize was Venetia.”
Reporter #2: “That’s the first we’ve heard of Prussia.”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Like the Italians, the German people were divided into many states,
but by the 1860s, the German
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck was busy planning to unite the German states under Prussian
rule.”
Reporter #1: “How did that concern Italy?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “His first step was a war with Austria. In 1866, Bismarck met with my
Prime Minister Alfonso La
Marmora…”
15. How could Germany possibly help Italy with their unification plan?
Scene 7: Meeting between Bismarck and La Marmora (1866)
Bismarck: “Before I can unite all of Germany under Prussian rule, I must eliminate
Austrian influence in the German
states.”
La Marmora: “And how do you plan to do that?”
Bismarck: “Prussia will go to war with Austria. But we need Italy’s help. If Italy joins
Prussia, then Austria will have to
fight a war on two fronts. Forced to fight both our armies at once, Austria will surely
lose the war.”
La Marmora: “In return for our help, Italy must get Venetia.”
Bismarck: “Of course.”
La Marmora: “I will discuss the matter with my king.”
Victor Emmanuel II: “And so it went. We joined the conflict, known as the ‘Six Weeks
War,’ in 1866, and when Austria was defeated, Venetia was ours.”
Reporter #2: “Only Rome was left. How did you get the Pope to give it up?”
Victor Emmanuel II: “Pope Pius IX would never give up his rule of Rome voluntarily. But
all that stood between him and Italy was the French army. And in 1870, Napoleon III went
to war with Prussia. Needing all of his soldiers to fight Prussia, he withdrew the French
troops from Rome. My Italian army moved in…”
16. What did the Prussian army do that allowed the Italians to go after Rome?
19
Scene 8: Pope Pius IX at the gates of the Vatican (1870)
Pope Pius IX: “Victor Emmanuel has asked me to surrender my temporal power peacefully.
This is something I can never do. A Pope must never be the subject of a king. How can he
have the freedom to lead the Roman Catholic world if he must obey a secular ruler? I will
not surrender without a fight. And if Victor Emmanuel takes this city, I will remain a
prisoner inside the walls of the Vatican.”
Victor Emmanuel II: “But the Papal troops were no match for the army of Italy, which
entered the city on September 20,
1870. Rome was ours. Once again, Rome became the capital city of a great state. The
Risorgimento was complete.”
Reporter #1: “We thank you, Your Majesty, for your time.”
Victor Emmanuel II: “You are dismissed. I must now attend to important affairs of state.”
17. Did the pope go down without a fight? Explain.
4. German Unification
A United Germany

German unification was most important political development in Europe 18481914
o
o
And the way it was created determined the character of the new Germany

Germany was united by conservative army, monarchy, & prime
minister of Prussia

Liberals had been trying to unify Germany for 2 generations – it
was unified for illiberal reasons

o
German Confederation ran the German-speaking lands – loose federation
of 39 states who’s representatives met at diet in Frankfurt
o
o

Major states traded with each other & railways linked their
economies

Prussia realized it could not lead united Germany –
What turned situation around were some domestic political changes &
problems in Prussia
20

1858, Frederick William IV found insane – brother William took over – William
I
o

1860, his chief of staff proposed expanding the army – but
Prussian Parliament would not approve taxes to do so

Liberals in Parliament did not want to give monarch more power
Bismarck

o
Bismarck came from Junker class
o
o
1840s, he was elected to provincial diet
o
1851-1859, Bismarck was Prussian representative to German Confederation
o
Later became Prussian ambassador to Russia & then to France
o

As a conservative, Bismarck opposed parliamentary government – but he
supported constitutionalism that allowed a strong monarch
o
He realized Prussia (and later Germany) needed strong industry
o


First speech as prime minister, he said: “The great questions of
the day will not be decided by speeches and majority
decisions…but by iron and blood”

Nevertheless, he would spend next 19 years trying to preserve
peace
After becoming prime minister, Bismarck went after liberal Parliament
o
He argued constitution allowed taxes to be collected & spent without
Parliament’s approval

o
1863 elections, however, kept liberal majority in Parliament
21
o

So he set out to unite Germany through conservative institutions
of Prussia

1. Why does Seaman say that the empire Bismarck created was not really a unified German
empire?
22
2. What do the two historians say about Bismarck’s methods of planning and carrying out
strategy?
3. If Bismarck could have read these two interpretations, which one do you think would
have pleased him more? Why?
The Danish War (1864)

o
Instead, he pursued a kleindeutsch (small German) solution to
unification

He did not want Austria involved in unification – this
would require careful diplomacy

o
King of Denmark had long ruled these two northern areas

Populations were mix of Germans & Danes

Holstein (mostly German) belonged to German Confederation

German Confederation proposed war to stop this

Bismarck, however, wanted Prussia alone (or with Austrian
help) to go to war
o
o

Victory strengthened Bismarck’s prestige & political reputation
o
Over next two years, he managed to push Austria into war with
Prussia


Meanwhile, Bismarck had gained Russian support by backing
their suppression of a Polish revolt

And he got Napoleon III to promise French neutrality if
Austria & Prussia went to war
23

And Bismarck promised Venetia to Italy if it attacked
Austria in the war
o
The Austro-Prussian War (1866)

o
1866, Austria asked German Confederation to step in
o
Bismarck claimed this request violated 1864 alliance & Convention
of Gastein
o

Treaty of Prague after war was lenient toward Austria

Only lost Venetia (given to Napoleon who gave it to
Italy)

Treaty permanently excluded Habsburgs from German
affairs
o
The North German Confederation

1867, Prussia annexed Hanover, Hesse Kassel, Nassau, and Frankfurt &
kicked out their rulers
o


Each state controlled local government, but military forces
run by federal govt.

President of confederation was king of Prussia, represented
by his chancellor – Bismarck

Legislature had 2 houses:

Federal council –

Lower house –
Reichstag had no real power – all laws came from monarch
24
o
Legislature did have right to approve military budgets – but they
were submitted several years ahead of time
o
Constitution of North German Confederation (which would become
constitution of German Empire) created a military monarchy by
1871
o
He crushed them by making monarchy & army most popular
institutions in the country

The Franco-Prussian War and the German Empire

o
Spain gave him the excuse

1868, coup deposed corrupt Bourbon queen of Spain – Isabella II

To replace her, Spanish chose Prince Leopold of HohenzollernSigmaringen (cousin of William I of Prussia)


French sent ambassador to talk to William I
o

Shortly after, Leopold’s father renounced his son’s candidacy as leader
of Spain (might cause war between Prussia & France)
French then asked William I for assurance that Leopold would not again try to
take Spanish throne
o
o
Then he sent Bismarck a telegram about the meeting – Bismarck
disappointed (wanted war with France)


Bismarck trying to goad France into war

o
Southern German states joined Prussia against France
25
o
o

By late September, Paris was attacked and surrendered January 1871
10 days before, at Palace of Versailles, German Empire had been proclaimed
o

o
Princes still led their states in the new empire
o
Germany also annexed Alsace & part of Lorraine & forced French to pay
Effects of German unification:
o

Had plenty of natural resources & high population

o
Unification was also a blow to European liberalism – it was a
conservative creation

Conservative politics were now supported by strongest state in
Europe
5. France: From Liberal Empire to Third Republic
Napoleon III’s Reign

o
After 1851, Napoleon controlled legislature, press, & political
opponents

Army, property owners, Church, peasants, and businesspeople all
supported him

French victory in Crimean War strengthened their support

o
1860, he made trade agreement with Britain & allowed free debate in
legislature
o
Later in 1860s, he relaxed press laws & allowed labor unions & agreed
to a liberal constitution

26

o
1860 – lost control of Italian unification
o
1861-1867 – supported a failed military expedition to Mexico where
leader – Austrian Archduke Maximilian was captured and executed
o
1866 –
o
1870-1871 –
Second Empire ended at Battle of Sedan 1870
o
Emperor captured & allowed to go to England (died 1873)
o
The Paris Commune

Division between provinces & Paris became sharper after war with Germany
o
Monarchists dominated new National Assembly
o
Many Parisians (who went through war) resented monarchist Assembly at
Versailles
o

Intended to run Paris separate from rest of France

Radicals and socialists participated in Commune

o
Army bombed city in May & broke through its defenses
o

Marxists impressed by Paris Commune – thought it was genuine proletariat
government suppressed by bourgeoisie
o
But Commune was actually dominated by petty bourgeois members
The Third Republic

National Assembly backed into republican government against its will
27
o
Monarchist majority divided between House of Bourbon and House of
Orleans
o
They could have solved this problem if the Bourbon heir to throne –
count of Chambord – became king


Conservative monarchists would not go back to white flag of
Bourbons

o

Troops left France
Monarchists elected Marshal Patrice MacMahon as president (to prepare for
return of monarchy)
o

Senate chosen indirectly, and president elected by two houses
o

This simple republican system resulted from fighting between
monarchists
After fighting with Deputies, MacMahon resigned 1879
o
The Dreyfus Affair

o
1894, French military court found Captain Alfred Dreyfus guilty of
passing secrets to the German army
o
Evidence against him was fake

o
Dreyfus was sent to Devil’s Island (notorious prison) – but secrets
kept leaking to Germans


Case was reexamined & different officer was charged – but
military court acquitted him
Army, Catholic Church, conservatives, and anti-Semitic newspapers said
Dreyfus was guilty
28
o


Claimed army denied due process to Dreyfus & had forged evidence

Zola convicted of libel & fled to England (to avoid jail)
Zola was only one of many liberals, radicals, and socialists who demanded new
trial for Dreyfus
o
They realized support of him could help their public image


o
Also claimed Dreyfus was framed to protect guilty person still in
army
More forgeries came to light – officer who made them committed suicide
in jail
o
o
President immediately pardoned him, however, and in 1906 he was finally
acquitted
o
Conservatives were on defensive


Had persecuted innocent man & tried to cover it up

o
Radicals, republicans, and socialists had formed an alliance during
case

Directions: Below is a political cartoon about the Dreyfus Affair. Examine it closely and
answer the questions about it that follow. Worth 10 points.
1. Describe everything you see in this cartoon.
29
2. What is Dreyfus depicted as? Why do you think he is depicted this way?
3. What is Dreyfus sitting in? What does this mean?
4. Notice his hands/paws. What do they signify?
5. Why do you think this cartoon was made?
6. The Habsburg Empire
The Habsburg Problem

o
In age of liberalism, Habsburg response to revolution of 1848 was to
reassert absolutism
o
Emperor Francis Joseph was honest & hard-working but had no imagination


1850s, his ministers tried to start centralized administration of empire –
but dominated by German-speaking Austrians
o
It abolished tariffs in empire & divided revolutionary Hungary into
military districts
o
Catholic Church controlled education
o
Croats & Slovaks, who supported empire against Hungarians, received no
reward for loyalty


Austria had refused to help Russia in Crimean War
o
30

Austrian defeat against France & Italy 1859 (& loss of territory)
demonstrated need for new domestic policy
o
Formation of the Dual Monarchy

1860, Francis Joseph issued October Diploma –
o
Local diets would be run by landowners
o
There would also be one imperial parliament


1861, emperor issued February Patent –
o
Bicameral imperial parliament – Reichsrat

Upper chamber (appointed by emperor) & lower chamber (indirectly
elected)
o
o
Nevertheless, the February Patent governed empire for 6 years (& in
Austria until 1918)


Ministers responsible to emperor, no civil liberties guaranteed,
& armies could be raised & taxes imposed without parliamentary
approval
Finally, after Prussians defeated Austrians 1866, Francis Joseph could deal
with Magyars
o

Francis Joseph became king of Hungary
o
o

There were also separate parliaments
This unique form of government made Magyars accept Habsburg rule – they now
had freedom in Hungary
Unrest of Nationalists

In Hungary, political loyalty based on nationality
31
o

In rest of Habsburg areas, loyalty was to emperor
o

Many nationalities wanted same settlement Hungarians got or to govern
themselves or to unite with other nationals outside the empire
Other national groups – Czechs, Romanians, Croatians – hated Compromise of
1867
o
o
Biggest critics were Czechs of Bohemia


1871, Francis Joseph was willing to accept trialism

But Magyars refused – didn’t want to have to make similar
agreements with nationalities under their control

Germans of Bohemia also did not want Czech language forced
on them

o
But in 1890s, they started complaining again
o
1897, Francis Joseph gave Germans & Czechs equality of language

Germans in Austrian Reichsrat opposed such policies by disrupting
Parliament

So emperor had to rule by imperial decree
o

1907, Francis Joseph granted universal male suffrage in
Austria (but not Hungary)


Unrest of nationalities in Habsburg Empire caused internal problems and
problems for rest of Europe
32
o
Different groups wanted independent states or to be aligned with other
nations
o

For next 100 years, nationalist unrest would hurt all 4 great empires –
German, Russian, Austrian, & Ottoman
o
Governments of all these empires would be overturned during WWI
o

These nationalist problems would then lead to WWII
7. Russia: Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings
Reforms of Alexander II

Russia’s defeat in Crimean War caused government to rethink domestic policies
o

He would institute most extensive reform of Russia since Peter
the Great
Abolition of Serfdom

Socially & economically, Russia was different from rest of Europe
o

It had changed little in Russia since 1700s (even though
every other country in Europe ended it)

Russian landlords still controlled serfs & serfs could do
nothing about it

He believed he had to if Russia was going to become a great
power
o

o
Always created threat of revolt
o
And serfs forced in army fought badly in Crimean War
o
33

1861, Alexander II officially ended serfdom (despite complaints of
nobles and landlords)
o
Actual emancipation law was disappointing to serfs, however

They did get right to marry, buy & sell property, sue in
court, and pursue trades


They had to pay landlords for 49 years for land that
was too small anyway

Also charged interest on the land
o
o

Peasants now could not own land until debts
repaid
Government did not cancel debt until 1906 (after unrest following
Russian defeat against Japan)
Reform of Local Government and the Judicial System

o
Village communes had authority now instead of landlords over
serfs

o
Village elders settled disputes, imposed fines, issued
passports, & collected taxes
Communes often owned the land as well
o

They oversaw local matters (education, farm improvement,
etc.)

But they were underfunded & were ineffective

o
Equality before the law, impartial hearings, trial by jury, etc.

New courts were now more efficient & less corrupt
34
Military Reform

o
Usual length of service for soldier was 25 years
o
Villages had to provide quotas of serfs to serve (often taken by
force)


1874, enlistment period lowered to 6 years (active) and 9
years (reserves)

All males 20 and older eligible
Repression in Poland

o
Russian army suppressed rebellion
o
Alexander II then tried to Russify Poland


Russian law, language, and government were forced on all
areas of Polish life


But Alexander’s reforms failed to gain loyalty of his subjects
o
o
Nobles and wealthy Russians resented not having more influence
over policy
o
Thus, Alexander II was never popular
o
From then on, Russia became more and more like a police state
o
This repression increased anger of radical groups

o
Revolutionaries
35

One of most vocal critics of tsar was Alexander Herzen (lived in exile in
London)
o
Published newspaper called The Bell – wrote his reformist ideas

Initial reforms of Alexander II gave hope to students and
intellectuals


These students formed revolutionary movement called
populism
o
o
Main revolutionary group was called Land and Freedom

o
Wanted to live with peasants, gain their trust, & teach them about
their role in coming revolution
o

1877-78, 200 students on trial – most acquitted or given light
sentences

Court suggested tsar could pardon some students – gain popular
support


Now revolutionaries decided to attack tsar directly
o

1878, assassination attempted on military governor of St.
Petersburg

Court acquitted her because the governor she shot was an evil man


1879, Land and Freedom split
o
One side wanted to educate peasants – it fell apart
o
36

They decided to assassinate Alexander II
o
March 1, 1881, member of The People’s Will threw a bomb at tsar’s
carriage, killing him


Next tsar, Alexander III was as autocratic as his grandfather (Nicholas I)
without the better qualities of his father (Alexander II)
o

His son, Nicholas II, would learn that autocracy could not
survive in the 20th century
Directions: Read the description of the assassination of Tsar Alexander II below. Answer
the comprehension questions as you go. Worth 14 points.
On 13 March 1881, Alexander fell victim to an assassination plot in Saint Petersburg. As
he was known to do every Sunday for many years, the tsar went to the Mikhailovsky Manège
for the military roll call. He travelled both to and from the Manège in a closed carriage
accompanied by six Cossacks with a seventh sitting on the coachman's left. The tsar's
carriage was followed by two sleighs carrying, among others, the chief of police and the
chief of the tsar's guards. The route, as always, was via the Catherine Canal and over
the Pevchesky Bridge.
1. What was the tsar’s mistake here?
2. What could he have done to avoid this mistake?
The street was flanked by narrow sidewalks for the public. A young member of the
Narodnaya Volya ("People's Will") movement, Nikolai Rysakov, was carrying a small white
package wrapped in a handkerchief.
"After a moment's hesitation I threw the bomb. I sent it under the horses' hooves in the
supposition that it would blow up under the carriage...The explosion knocked me into the
fence."
3. Who threw the first bomb at the tsar’s carriage?
The explosion, while killing one of the Cossacks and seriously wounding the driver and
people on the sidewalk, had only damaged the bulletproof carriage, a gift from Napoleon
III of France. The tsar emerged shaken but unhurt. Rysakov was captured almost
immediately. Police Chief Dvorzhitsky heard Rysakov shout out to someone else in the
gathering crowd. The surrounding guards and the Cossacks urged the tsar to leave the area
at once rather than being shown the site of the explosion. Nevertheless, a second young
member of the Narodnaya Volya, Ignaty Grinevitsky, standing by the canal fence, raised
both arms and threw something at the tsar's feet. He was alleged to have shouted, "It is
too early to thank God".
4. What happened shortly after the first explosion failed to kill the tsar?
37
Dvorzhitsky was later to write: "I was deafened by the new explosion, burned, wounded and
thrown to the ground. Suddenly, amid the smoke and snowy fog, I heard His Majesty's weak
voice cry, 'Help!' Gathering what strength I had, I jumped up and rushed to the tsar. His
Majesty was half-lying, half-sitting, leaning on his right arm. Thinking he was merely
wounded heavily, I tried to lift him but the czar's legs were shattered, and the blood
poured out of them. Twenty people, with wounds of varying degree, lay on the sidewalk and
on the street. Some managed to stand, others to crawl, still others tried to get out from
beneath bodies that had fallen on them. Through the snow, debris, and blood you could see
fragments of clothing, epaulets, sabers, and bloody chunks of human flesh."
5. What damage had the second blast done to Alexander?
Later it was learned there was a third bomber in the crowd. Ivan Emelyanov stood ready,
clutching a briefcase containing a bomb that would be used if the other two bombers
failed.
6. Would it have even mattered if the second bomb did not completely kill him?
Alexander was carried by sleigh to the Winter Palace to his study where ironically,
twenty years before almost to the day, he had signed the Emancipation Edict freeing the
serfs. Alexander was bleeding to death, with his legs torn away, his stomach ripped open,
and his face mutilated. Members of the Romanov family came rushing to the scene.
The dying tsar was given Communion and Extreme Unction. When the attending physician, Dr.
S. P. Botkin, was asked how long it would be, he replied "Up to fifteen minutes" At 3:30
that day the standard (Alexander's personal flag) of Alexander II was lowered for the
last time.
7. Why do you think it was so easy for the assassins to attack the tsar?
8. Great Britain: Toward Democracy
The Second Reform Act (1867)

o
Prosperity of working class convinced politicians that workers deserved
a vote
o
Conservative Ministry – led in House of Commons by Benjamin Disraeli –
introduced reform bill 1867



Britain had taken major step toward democracy
38

Huge number of male working-class voters had been added to
electorate

o

Disraeli was prepared to embrace democracy

He thought eventually working class voters would vote for
conservative candidates

He was right – conservative politics dominated Britain in 20th
century
Election of 1868 destroyed Disraeli’s hopes
o
Gladstone’s Great Ministry

Gladstone’s ministry saw culmination of British liberalism
o
Institutions that preserved aristocracy & Anglican Church were opened
to people from all classes & religions


1871, no more purchasing officer’s commission in army


Biggest policy of Gladstone government was Education Act of 1870



Previously, religious institutions ran education (with
state funds)
These reforms were liberal
o
Tried to remove problems without eliminating institutions
o
Disraeli in Office

Disraeli succeeded Gladstone as prime minister
o
They had differed on most issues
39



But Disraeli was all talk
o
His home secretary – Richard Cross – came up with the best ideas

1875, Public Health Act – improved sanitation & allowed state to
step in with private property to protect health & physical wellbeing

1875, Artisan Dwelling Act – government provided housing for
working class
The Irish Question

Major issue of 1880s was Ireland
o

To help Irish, Gladstone had passed two laws:
o
1869, he disestablished Church of Ireland (Irish branch of Anglican
church)

o
1870, land act gave compensation to Irish tenant farmers who were
evicted or loans for those who wanted to buy their land
o
During 1870s, Irish intimidated landlords (Protestant English)
o
Leader of Irish movement for fair land agreement and home rule was
Charles Stewart Parnell
o
But also passed Coercion Act to restore law & order in Ireland
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By 1885, Parnell organized 85 Irish members of House of Commons –
40
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Frequently caused problems in Parliament to get attention to their
cause for home rule
Election of 1885, Liberals & Conservatives were split –
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Gladstone publicly came out in support of home rule
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Parnell, in turn, gave his votes to Liberals
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1886, Liberal Unionists joined with Conservatives to defeat home rule
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