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The Age of National Unification 1854-1871 Created by David Silverman The Age of National Unification Europe was divided and Italy and Germany were both made up of a number of territories. By the 19th Century, Germans and Italians were ready to unite under one political banner (due to fear of foreign domination and a shared language) This national unification had a tremendous impact on the future of Europe Control of religious sites in Jerusalem and fear of the Russians, lead to the Crimean War (which impacted Germany and Italy's unification) The Crimean War 1854-1856 France and Great Britain declared war on the Russians and most of the fighting took place in the Crimean region. Most of the ½ million casualties didn't die on the battlefield, but died due to disease in the filthy field hospitals. This event inspired Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) to revolutionize the nursing profession The war ended after the fall of the Russian fortress of Sevastopol (a chief port in the northern Black Sea and Russia's access to the Mediterranean.) Russia was forced to back off when Austria threatened to enter the war. Without a port, or any power, in the Black Sea- the Russian navy was trapped along the Baltic. The Crimean War 1854-1856 (continued) Alfred Lord Tennyson's famous poem "The Charge of the Light Brigade" captures an example of battlefield stupidity during the war. After the Crimean War, European efforts to unite broke down even more. Internal conflict continued. Great Britain became more isolationist with European affairs Germans had no unity with other Europeans. British were horrified from war. The real cost of war was that the idea of the Concert of Europe was shattered. This was an idea that the great powers (France, Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Great Britain) should work together. A concept that emerged from the Congress of Vienna. The Unification of Italy Pope Pius IX- inspired reactionary policies after the fall of the Roman Republic. Italian liberals made an attempt to create an Italian state in 1848 Liberals looked with hope to the Kingdom of PiedmontSardinia (the one liberal Italian state that had preserved its constitution) Also called Piedmont, it consisted of parts of a northern Italian border (w/France and Switzerland) The King of P-S was Victor Emmanuel (1849-1878) Count Camillo de Cavour (1810-1681) was the chief minister and the true architect of Italian unification (what is referred to in Italian as the Risorgimento) Unlike earlier Italian nationalists like Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) who saw state-building in romanticized terms, Cavour was practical. To enhance the power of the Sardinian state, he knew Austria must leave. So Cavour entered into a secret alliance w/France Cavour & Napoleon The war began in April 1859. The combined French and Sardinian forces won a series of battles against the Austrians. Napoleon brought the conflict to a close before expelling Austrians from Italy. He was horrified at the high number of deaths and was threatened by Prussia who was sending troops to the aid of Austria. Cavour was so angered that Napoleon stopped the war that he resigned as prime minister (but only for one year before returning) Both Cavour and Napoleon wanted a unified Italy, but Napoleon didn't want ALL of Italy unified (only Northern Italy) because he thought a large Italian state would be more of a threat to France Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) Meanwhile in southern Italy, Giuseppe Garibaldi emerged. Garibaldi had been a member of Mazzini's Young Italy movement. He was horrified that the treaty between Sardinia and France required Italy to hand over Savoy and Nice to the French. Garibaldi wanted to attack France but Cavour encouraged him to invade the Kingdom of Two Sicilies (thinking it would be a suicide mission) To everyone's surprise Garibaldi led his famous army of 1,000 "red shirts" and conquered the southern Italian kingdom. Garibaldi wanted to continue on to Rome but Napoleon wanted to portray himself as the defender of the Church. Cavour rushed troops to Naples to block Garibaldi The New Italian Nation Victor Emmanuel was declared the first king of Italy in 1861 After a successful invasion of all of the papal lands (aside from Venetia and Rome), everyone was unified under the Italian flag. In 1866, after Prussia took Austria, Italians used the opportunity to seize Venetia. In 1870, Rome was added to Italy and named the capital after French troops withdrew as a result from the FrancoPrussian War. The new Italian nation was plagued with corruption and bribery. Some felt it lacked the previous passion and was made up of petty officials from Sardinia. There was also hostility to the Catholic Church (which wasn't reconciled until 1929 when Mussolini agreed to restore Vatican City to the papacy) To this day, there is a still an economic divide in Italy between the highly industrialized North and the economically backwards South. German Unification Although Italian unification had important implications for the rest of Europe, the rise of the German state in 1871 totally altered the balance of power in Europe. The root of German unification starts in the Napoleon era which reduced the number of independent German states. After the fall of Napoleon, Austria and Prussia were the two dominant states within the German Confederation. When the Frankfurt Parliament offered the crown to the Prussian King, there was a slight delay but eventually the Prussians found advantages for them. Prussia was industrialized while Austria was an agricultural state Prussia was a primarily German state, while Austria was made up of numerous nationalities. German Unification (cont...) Bismarck Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) One of the most remarkable statesmen from Prussian was selected to be the prime minister under William I (1861-1888) Bismarck was a Junker (a Prussian noble) and known for his conservative views. Bismarck delivered his "Blood and Iron" speech when he said "Germany is not looking to Prussia's liberalism but to her power..." Despite his push for a strong military, the parliament refused to vote in favor of a military budget. Bismarck proceeded anyway and never listened to authority. The key to unification was to modernize the Prussian army with the latest weapons. After the Danish War (aka German-Danish War or Danish-Prussian War) Bismarck cunningly set this up so that the Danish dispute would help achieve his next goal- war with Austria. 1866- after securing an alliance with Italy (who wanted Austria removed from Italian lands) and securing a promise of non-participation from France- Prussia declared war on Austria under Bismarck's orders. German Unification (cont...) Citing petty disputes, Prussia attacked Austria and defeated them in seven weeks (the Seven Weeks War or the Austro-Prussian War 1866) Bismarck ignored the advice the his King and generals, who wanted a parade after the Victory, Bismarck treated Austria with courtesy...in order to keep Austrians out of the next part of his plan- war on France. After defeating Austria, Bismarck annexed those smaller German states in the north that supported the Austrian conflict. Other states were convinced to join, and Prussia created the North German Confederation. The Franco-Prussian War (1870)- Bismarck provoked a war with France and won "Ems dispatch" a telegram sent by the Prussian King to Bismarck informing him of the conversation between the King and the French ambassador to make it appear as though the King had insulted France. Bismarck convinced/bribed the rulers of the German states to create Germany under Prussian leadership. 1871- William I was proclaimed German Emperor German Unification (cont...) The unified German Empire changed the direction of European History by: Creating a bitter enemy out of France (who lost territory and money at war) Creating tension with Great Britain because of the new economic power of the new German State Encouraging all of the nations of Europe to seek overseas empires to further their political/economical interested within Europe. The new power developed with the new German state through off the balance for other European nations. The new Germany was not very stable. Created by military might, commanders lead the nation after Bismarck's forced retirement. Bismarck attacked the two groups that he felt threatened internal cohesion of the Reich- the Catholics and the Socialists. "Kulturkampf" was the conflict between Bismarck and the Catholic Church. Bismarck tried to control all Church business and education. He also perceived the Socialists as an enemy and called to ban their right to assemble or publish material While Bismarck was hostile and manipulative, he was seen as having helped Germany and its people during his 25 years in power. France After going through a tumultuous time during the French Revolution, stability finally emerged with the rise of the Third French Republic (1870-1940) Following the election of 1848, Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) became the first and only president of the short-lived Second Republic Like his predecessor, he staged a plebiscite in 1851 to determine if he should be granted dictatorial powers for 10 years. He staged a second plebiscite the following year to determine whether a second French empire should be created. France prospered for the first 10 years of Napoleon's reign, especially the economy Paris went from a medieval city to a modern one under the guidance of Georges Haussmann who cleared the slums of the city and built wide avenues. Paris also became cleaner by bringing clean water through aqueducts into the city and sewers to clear waste, which eliminated cholera. France continued Napoleon led an authoritarian regime during his first 10 years Starting in 1860, Napoleon began making concessions (like easing of censorship) due to the unpopularity of his wars in the Crimean region. This had the opposite effect of his goal This encouraged the people to openly display their disenchantment with his reign. He boldly created a "liberal empire" in 1859 that never had a chance to succeed Napoleon was captured in battle during the Franco-Prussian War, he was sent into exile in Britain where he died soon after. After the collapse of the Second Empire, France created the Third Republic France continued The Third Republic had to deal with putting down a revolt in Paris This led to the rise of the radical government, the Paris Commune, which was caused by the anarchy brought by the Franco-Prussian War. Order was restored after 25,000 Parisians were massacred. By 1875 the republic consisted of a two-house parliamentary body with a chamber of deputies (lower house). They were elected by a universal male pool of voters and a Senate chosen by indirect elections. The president office was relatively weak, as it was responsible to the chamber of deputies. The Third Republic suffered its greatest challenge during the Boulanger Affair which severely weakened the monarchy after a coup d'etat Great Britain Unlike France, Great Britain enjoyed stability and prosperity in the 2nd half of the 19th century. During the Great Exhibition of 1851 - when 13,000 exhibitions of British goods were on display, as a result of industrialization, and attitudes in England were high. To accommodate the visitors, John Paxton constructed the first prefabricated building- which became known as the Crystal Palace Politically, the nation was slowly evolving towards democracy The Great Reform Bill of 1832 was one of the 1st steps in this direction 1867- The Second Reform Bill was passed under the prime minister Benjamin Disraeli. He was one of the most remarkable men to hold the position and extended the bill to include urban heads of households. 1884- William Gladstone extends the vote even further (to households in the countryside) Gladstone was Disraeli's rival and their dynamics led to the 2 political parties Disraeli's Conservative (Tory) Party and Gladstone's Liberal Party Queen Victoria's long reign (1837-1901) saw an end when it was clear her position had little effect on choosing the Prime Minister. Great Britain Unlike France, Great Britain enjoyed stability and prosperity in the 2nd half of the 19th century. During the Great Exhibition of 1851 - when 13,000 exhibitions of British goods were on display, as a result of industrialization, and attitudes in England were high. To accommodate the visitors, John Paxton constructed the first prefabricated building- which became known as the Crystal Palace Politically, the nation was slowly evolving towards democracy The Great Reform Bill of 1832 was one of the 1st steps in this direction 1867- The Second Reform Bill was passed under the prime minister Benjamin Disraeli. He was one of the most remarkable men to hold the position and extended the bill to include urban heads of households. 1884- William Gladstone extends the vote even further (to households in the countryside) Gladstone was Disraeli's rival and their dynamics led to the 2 political parties Disraeli's Conservative (Tory) Party and Gladstone's Liberal Party Queen Victoria's long reign (1837-1901) saw an end when it was clear her position had little effect on choosing the Prime Minister. Russia The Russian failures during Crimean War, fought in their own backyard, revealed the backwardness of the Russian society compared to the rest of Europe. Although Nicholas I Was too reactionary to contemplate reform, his successor Alexander II (1855-1881) recognized that Russia's problem was serfdom. Alexander introduced zemstvos (district assemblies) to handle population growth, education, and social services. In 1861 Alexander II issued a proclamation freeing the serfs. Until the Russian Revolution in 1905, serfs were forced to buy their freedom with payments that would extend for 50 years. Serfs were given the worst land for agriculture and it was difficult to live While Alexander II attempted to change the legal system, he didn't put written constitutions into place and didn't implement changes. The People's Will organization revolted and assassinated Alexander 1881 The throne went to his reactionary son, Alexander III who brought on a new round of repression and attempted to weaken the reforms of his father. Austria The 19th Century was not a good time for Austria (a multinational empire in an age of nationalist sentiment) Battles with Prussia and Italy put Austria out of German affairs In 1867- the government in Vienna found it necessary to sign an agreement creating a dual Austrian-Hungarian empire. It would be under the mutual leadership of Francis Josephwho became the Emperor of Austria AND the King of Hungary. The Magyars in Hungary turned on the nationalities (Croats, Serbs, Romanians, etc) As a result of weak ties with Western Europe, attempts for AustriaHungary to take over the Balkan region were disastrous. The Ottoman Empire The Ottoman was another multinational empire and was seen as the 'weak old man of Europe' In attempts to change this, a program to modernize the Ottoman state began in the 2nd half of the 19th century. The reform program (called the Tanzimat) began under the reign of Sultan Abdul Mejid (1839-1861) to adopt Western methods Western education played a role in forming a group of liberal intellectuals known as the "Young Turks" The Young Turks pushed reforms further than the government and created the monarchy. The Ottoman Empire (continued) The brutal Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909) came to the throne and the previous constitution was ditched. Hamid attempted to discredit anything by non-Muslim people and was responsible for the deaths of thousands of Armenians. His hatred was only a stepping stone to the Armenian Genocide that would later be led by the Young Turks 1915 After a general repression during Hamid's reign, by the end the Young Turks had restored constitutional rule Ottoman's weakness continued to plague the nation when they sided with the Central Powers during the first World War. After a humiliating defeat during the Russo-Turkish War, the Ottomans had to sit by at the Congress of Berlin (1878) when other nation's were recognized as independent by Europe. Including Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Romania References and Resources Resources German Unification part 1 German Unification part 2 German Unification part 3 References This PowerPoint presentation was adapted using information from the Princeton Review’s Cracking The AP European History Exam Pearl, Kenneth. Cracking the AP European History Exam, 2016. New York: Random House, 2015. Print.