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Chapter 5
Learning
Dec 3, 2012
Main points in last class
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 Learning: Relatively permanent change in behavior due to
experience
 Reinforcement: Any event that increases the probability that a
response will recur
 Classical conditioning: A type of learning in which a neutral
stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with
a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.
 Operant conditioning: Learning based on the consequences of
responding; we associate responses with their consequences
 Higher Order Conditioning: A conditioned stimulus is used to
reinforce further learning
 Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through
removal of reinforcement
 Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response
following apparent extinction
Figure 6.2
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FIGURE 6.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s
mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various
stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is
more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments.
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Figure 6.9
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FIGURE 6.9 The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study
of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is
automatically released.
Types of Learning-Learning Process
Chaining learning (系列学习)
Discrimination learning (辨别学习)
Concept learning (概念学习)
Principle learning (原理学习)
Problem solving learning(问题解决学习)
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Types of Learning-Learning results
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Motor skill learning(运动机能学习)
Attitude learning(态度学习)
Verbal information learning (言语信息学习)
Cognitive strategy learning (认知策略学习)
Intellectual skills learning (智慧技能学习)
Types of Learning-Old/New knowledge connection
Meaningful learning(意义学习)
Rote learning(机械学习)
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Types of Learning-Learning strategy
Reception learning(接受学习)
Discovery learning(发现学习)
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Types of Learning-Learning content
Cognitive learning(认知学习）：The
thought processes that underlie learning
 Perceptual learning (知觉学习）
 Problem solving learning (问题解决学习）
 Language learning (语言学习）
Motor skills learning(运动机能学习)
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Cognitive Learning
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 Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing,
understanding, and anticipating
 Latent Learning: Occurs without obvious reinforcement
and is not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided
Figure 6.23
Cognitive Map: Internal representation of an area, like a city or a maze;
underlies ability to choose alternate paths to the same goal
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Cognitive Learning
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 Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing,
understanding, and anticipating
 Latent Learning: Occurs without obvious reinforcement
and is not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided
 Observational learning: Learning by observing the
behavior of another person, or model. (Bandura, 1999,
2004)-mirror neuron
Modeling or Observational Learning
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 Model: Someone who serves as an example in
observational learning
 Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another
person or by noting consequences of a person’s actions
 Occurs before direct practice is allowed
Steps to Successful Modeling
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 Pay attention to model.
 Remember what was done.
 Be able to reproduce modeled behavior.
 If a model is successful or his/her behavior is rewarded,
behavior more likely to be imitated.
 Bandura created modeling theory with classic Bo-Bo Doll
(inflatable clown) experiments
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Baby picky about who they imitate
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Media copycat killings
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Figure 6.26
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FIGURE 6.26 This graph shows the average number of aggressive acts per minute before and
after television broadcasts were introduced into a Canadian town. The increase in aggression
after television watching began was significant. Two other towns that already had television
were used for comparison. Neither showed significant increases in aggression during the same
time period.
Cognitive Learning
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 Rote Learning: Takes place mechanically, through
repetition and memorization, or by learning rules
 Discovery Learning: Based on insight and understanding
Figure 6.24
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FIGURE 6.24 Learning by understanding and by rote. For some types of learning, understanding
may be superior, although both types of learning are useful.
Theories
 Connectionism: stimulus-response
 Classical conditioning
 Operant conditioning
• Thorndike-law of effect
• Skinner-reinforcement
 Cognitive theories
 Insight learning (顿悟学习，Köhler)
 Cognitive learning (认知学习, Tolman)
 Constructivism (建构主义）
 教学不是知识的传递，而是知识的相互作用和
转换。
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Cognitive learning
Preliminary cognitive learning
Advanced cognitive learning
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Learning rules
Specificity vs. Non-specificity
Biphasic and continuous learning
Reverse hierarchy and top-down control
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Practice
Fast-slow
Plateau phenomenon
Individual differences
Feedback
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Brain and Learning
Wang et al., 2003
6 American Learn Chinese tones (4)
Tone identification
Pre- and Post-scans across two weeks
Accuracy: T1: 15% - 95%
T2: 75% - 95%
Results:
7 brain regions involved in lexical identification:
L GFI (BA 44, 45)
L GFd (BA 6)
Bilaterral GTm (BA 21)
GTs (BA 22)
Increased: L STG BA 22: (magnitude)
L BA 42
R IFG (BA 44)
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Xue et al., 2006
Decreased
L/R fusiform
cortex
L occipital cortex
Decreased
L/R fusiform
cortex
L occipital cortex
Increased
L/R fusiform
cortex
L occipital cortex
L precuneus
L insula
L caudate
L hippocampus
L/R IFG
Increased
L/R fusiform
cortex
L occipital cortex
L precuneus
L putamen
L/R IFG
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Wong et al., 2007
Successful vs. Less successful learners
Session = 8
Threshold = uncorrected, p = .0005, t =125
mm3.
Results:
Increased: L /R STG , ITG, basal ganglia,
parietal
L IFG (BA 44)
Brain networks of artificial grammar learning
Explicit
Learning Artificial Grammar Sequences
Implicit
Sublexical processing
T2>T1
IFG
STG
STG
R
Lexical processing (T2)
Behavioral correlation
R2 = 0.24
Brain-behavioral correlation
Brain activation in left IFG, superior parietal lobe
and bilateral superior frontal lobe, positively
correlated with our learners’ IQ.
Osterhout et al., 2006
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French learners
Word/nonword judgment (Prime-Target)
 Related
 Unrelated
 Word-pseudoword
Longitudinal study
 +14 hrs
 +60 hrs
 +140 hrs
Individual differences and Spanish learning
Osterhout et al., 2006
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Individual differences and Spanish learning
Osterhout et al., 2006
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French learners
Sentence acceptability judgment
 Semantic +/ Subject-verb +/ Number agreement +/-
Longitudinal study
 +1 month
 +4 month
 +8 month
Individual differences and Spanish learning
Osterhout et al., 2006
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Individual differences and Spanish learning
Individual differences, language learning, ERPs
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Skilled learners-stronger N400 (Perfetti,
Wlotko, & Hart, 2005)
N400 and P600 effect magnitudes
negatively corrected (Inoue & Osterhout,
2012)
Thematic violation: high WM P600; Low
WM N400 (Nakano, Saron & Swaab,
2010)
Laterality of an early LAN component and the
amplitude of the P600 (Pakulak & Neville, 2010)
Individual differences and Spanish learning
Tanner et al., 2012
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Cross-sectional; ERP; N400; P600
Processing: morphosyntactic processing
Participants: 13 Native German speakers
33 native English speakers in German course (20 1st; 10 3rd)
Task: participants read sentences
that were either well-formed or violated German subject-verb agreement
Stimuli: lexical items from the first seven chapters of 1st grade textbook
60 experimental sentence pairs
Ich wohne/*wohnt in Berline. “I live/*lives in Berlin.”
140 fillers (half ungrammatical with other types of syntactic anomalies)
Procedure:
blank (1000ms)+fixation(475 ms)+words of sentences (475 ms) + blank (250 ms)
Good/Bad response
ERP acquisition: 19 electrodes.
Results: ANOVA
Native speakers and learners in third grade: P600
Learners in first grade: N400-P600 responses
Individual differences and Spanish learning
Tanner et al., 2012
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First year German learners (Fz, Cz, Pz)
Individual differences and Spanish learning
Tanner et al., 2012
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Individual differences and Spanish learning
Self-Managed Behavioral Principles
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 Choose a target behavior
 Record a baseline
 Establish goals
 Choose reinforcers
 Record your progress
 Reward successes
 Adjust your plan as you learn more about your behavior
Self-Managed Behavior (cont'd)
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 Premack Principle: Any high frequency response can be
used to reinforce a low frequency response (e.g., Bob
gets no GameBoy Advance SP until he finishes his
homework)
 Self-Recording: Self-management based on keeping
records of response frequencies
 Behavioral Contract: Formal agreement stating
behaviors to be changed and consequences that apply;
written contract
How to Break Bad Habits
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 Alternate Responses: Try to get the same reinforcement
with a new response.
 Extinction: Try to discover what is reinforcing an
unwanted response and remove, avoid, or delay the
reinforcement.
 Response Chains: Scramble the chain of events that
leads to an undesired response.
 Cues and Antecedents: Try to avoid, narrow down, or
remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit
Behavioral Contracting
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 Contracting: State a specific problem behavior you wish
to control or a goal you wish to achieve.
 State the rewards you will get, privileges you will forfeit,
or punishments you will get.
 Type the contract, sign it, and get a person you trust to
sign it.
Thank you!