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Chapter 5 Learning Dec 3, 2012 Main points in last class LOGO Learning: Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience Reinforcement: Any event that increases the probability that a response will recur Classical conditioning: A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response. Operant conditioning: Learning based on the consequences of responding; we associate responses with their consequences Higher Order Conditioning: A conditioned stimulus is used to reinforce further learning Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of reinforcement Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction Figure 6.2 LOGO FIGURE 6.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments. LOGO Figure 6.9 LOGO FIGURE 6.9 The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released. Types of Learning-Learning Process Chaining learning (系列学习) Discrimination learning (辨别学习) Concept learning (概念学习) Principle learning (原理学习) Problem solving learning(问题解决学习) LOGO Types of Learning-Learning results LOGO Motor skill learning(运动机能学习) Attitude learning(态度学习) Verbal information learning (言语信息学习) Cognitive strategy learning (认知策略学习) Intellectual skills learning (智慧技能学习) Types of Learning-Old/New knowledge connection Meaningful learning(意义学习) Rote learning(机械学习) LOGO Types of Learning-Learning strategy Reception learning(接受学习) Discovery learning(发现学习) LOGO Types of Learning-Learning content Cognitive learning(认知学习):The thought processes that underlie learning Perceptual learning (知觉学习) Problem solving learning (问题解决学习) Language learning (语言学习) Motor skills learning(运动机能学习) LOGO Cognitive Learning LOGO Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipating Latent Learning: Occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided Figure 6.23 Cognitive Map: Internal representation of an area, like a city or a maze; underlies ability to choose alternate paths to the same goal LOGO Cognitive Learning LOGO Higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipating Latent Learning: Occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not demonstrated until reinforcement is provided Observational learning: Learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model. (Bandura, 1999, 2004)-mirror neuron Modeling or Observational Learning LOGO Model: Someone who serves as an example in observational learning Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person or by noting consequences of a person’s actions Occurs before direct practice is allowed Steps to Successful Modeling LOGO Pay attention to model. Remember what was done. Be able to reproduce modeled behavior. If a model is successful or his/her behavior is rewarded, behavior more likely to be imitated. Bandura created modeling theory with classic Bo-Bo Doll (inflatable clown) experiments LOGO LOGO Baby picky about who they imitate LOGO Media copycat killings LOGO Figure 6.26 LOGO FIGURE 6.26 This graph shows the average number of aggressive acts per minute before and after television broadcasts were introduced into a Canadian town. The increase in aggression after television watching began was significant. Two other towns that already had television were used for comparison. Neither showed significant increases in aggression during the same time period. Cognitive Learning LOGO Rote Learning: Takes place mechanically, through repetition and memorization, or by learning rules Discovery Learning: Based on insight and understanding Figure 6.24 LOGO FIGURE 6.24 Learning by understanding and by rote. For some types of learning, understanding may be superior, although both types of learning are useful. Theories Connectionism: stimulus-response Classical conditioning Operant conditioning • Thorndike-law of effect • Skinner-reinforcement Cognitive theories Insight learning (顿悟学习,Köhler) Cognitive learning (认知学习, Tolman) Constructivism (建构主义) 教学不是知识的传递,而是知识的相互作用和 转换。 LOGO LOGO LOGO Cognitive learning Preliminary cognitive learning Advanced cognitive learning LOGO Learning rules Specificity vs. Non-specificity Biphasic and continuous learning Reverse hierarchy and top-down control LOGO Practice Fast-slow Plateau phenomenon Individual differences Feedback LOGO Brain and Learning Wang et al., 2003 6 American Learn Chinese tones (4) Tone identification Pre- and Post-scans across two weeks Accuracy: T1: 15% - 95% T2: 75% - 95% Results: 7 brain regions involved in lexical identification: L GFI (BA 44, 45) L GFd (BA 6) Bilaterral GTm (BA 21) GTs (BA 22) Increased: L STG BA 22: (magnitude) L BA 42 R IFG (BA 44) LOGO LOGO Xue et al., 2006 Decreased L/R fusiform cortex L occipital cortex Decreased L/R fusiform cortex L occipital cortex Increased L/R fusiform cortex L occipital cortex L precuneus L insula L caudate L hippocampus L/R IFG Increased L/R fusiform cortex L occipital cortex L precuneus L putamen L/R IFG LOGO Wong et al., 2007 Successful vs. Less successful learners Session = 8 Threshold = uncorrected, p = .0005, t =125 mm3. Results: Increased: L /R STG , ITG, basal ganglia, parietal L IFG (BA 44) Brain networks of artificial grammar learning Explicit Learning Artificial Grammar Sequences Implicit Sublexical processing T2>T1 IFG STG STG R Lexical processing (T2) Behavioral correlation R2 = 0.24 Brain-behavioral correlation Brain activation in left IFG, superior parietal lobe and bilateral superior frontal lobe, positively correlated with our learners’ IQ. Osterhout et al., 2006 LOGO French learners Word/nonword judgment (Prime-Target) Related Unrelated Word-pseudoword Longitudinal study +14 hrs +60 hrs +140 hrs Individual differences and Spanish learning Osterhout et al., 2006 LOGO Individual differences and Spanish learning Osterhout et al., 2006 LOGO French learners Sentence acceptability judgment Semantic +/ Subject-verb +/ Number agreement +/- Longitudinal study +1 month +4 month +8 month Individual differences and Spanish learning Osterhout et al., 2006 LOGO Individual differences and Spanish learning Individual differences, language learning, ERPs LOGO Skilled learners-stronger N400 (Perfetti, Wlotko, & Hart, 2005) N400 and P600 effect magnitudes negatively corrected (Inoue & Osterhout, 2012) Thematic violation: high WM P600; Low WM N400 (Nakano, Saron & Swaab, 2010) Laterality of an early LAN component and the amplitude of the P600 (Pakulak & Neville, 2010) Individual differences and Spanish learning Tanner et al., 2012 LOGO Cross-sectional; ERP; N400; P600 Processing: morphosyntactic processing Participants: 13 Native German speakers 33 native English speakers in German course (20 1st; 10 3rd) Task: participants read sentences that were either well-formed or violated German subject-verb agreement Stimuli: lexical items from the first seven chapters of 1st grade textbook 60 experimental sentence pairs Ich wohne/*wohnt in Berline. “I live/*lives in Berlin.” 140 fillers (half ungrammatical with other types of syntactic anomalies) Procedure: blank (1000ms)+fixation(475 ms)+words of sentences (475 ms) + blank (250 ms) Good/Bad response ERP acquisition: 19 electrodes. Results: ANOVA Native speakers and learners in third grade: P600 Learners in first grade: N400-P600 responses Individual differences and Spanish learning Tanner et al., 2012 LOGO First year German learners (Fz, Cz, Pz) Individual differences and Spanish learning Tanner et al., 2012 LOGO Individual differences and Spanish learning Self-Managed Behavioral Principles LOGO Choose a target behavior Record a baseline Establish goals Choose reinforcers Record your progress Reward successes Adjust your plan as you learn more about your behavior Self-Managed Behavior (cont'd) LOGO Premack Principle: Any high frequency response can be used to reinforce a low frequency response (e.g., Bob gets no GameBoy Advance SP until he finishes his homework) Self-Recording: Self-management based on keeping records of response frequencies Behavioral Contract: Formal agreement stating behaviors to be changed and consequences that apply; written contract How to Break Bad Habits LOGO Alternate Responses: Try to get the same reinforcement with a new response. Extinction: Try to discover what is reinforcing an unwanted response and remove, avoid, or delay the reinforcement. Response Chains: Scramble the chain of events that leads to an undesired response. Cues and Antecedents: Try to avoid, narrow down, or remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit Behavioral Contracting LOGO Contracting: State a specific problem behavior you wish to control or a goal you wish to achieve. State the rewards you will get, privileges you will forfeit, or punishments you will get. Type the contract, sign it, and get a person you trust to sign it. Thank you!