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Unit 7:
Cognition
Unit 7:
Cognition
Unit 07 - Overview
• Studying and Building Memories
• Memory Storage and Retrieval
• Forgetting, Memory Construction, and
Memory Improvement
• Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity
• Solving Problems and Making Decisions
• Thinking and Language
Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.
Module 31:
Studying and Building
Memories
Studying Memory
Studying Memory
• Memory
– the persistence of
learning over time
through the encoding,
storage and retrieval
of information.
• Extremes of
memory
Studying Memory
Memory Models
•
•
•
•
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Parallel
processing
Studying Memory
Memory Models
• Encoding
– the processing of
information into the
memory systems – for
example, by extracting
meaning.
• Encoding is the translation of
information into a form that
can be stored in memory.
• For computers and the human
brain, encoding is the first stage
in processing information.
• Storage
– the process of retaining
encoded information over
time.
• Storage is the second process of
memory, the maintenance of encoded
information over a period of time.
• Maintenance rehearsal- repeating
information over and over again to
keep from forgetting it.
• Elaborative rehearsal- make new info
meaningful by relating it to info you
already know well.
Studying Memory
Memory Models
• Retrieval
– the process of getting
information out of
memory storage.
• Parallel processing
– the processing of many
aspects of a problem
simultaneously; the brain’s
natural mode of information
processing for many
functions. Contrasts with
the step-by-step (serial)
processing of most
computers and of conscious
problem solving.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Atkinson and Shiffrin Theory
–Sensory memory
–Short-term memory
–Long-term memory
• Modified version of the threestage processing model of
memory
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Is the first step for
external events. It is a
• the immediate,
split second holding
very brief
tank for incoming
recording of
sensory information.
sensory
• Most of the information
here is not encoded.
information in the
• Sensory memory
memory system.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Short-term memory
• activated memory
that holds a few
items briefly, such
as the seven digits
of a phone number
while dialing before
the information is
stored or forgotten.
• Everything you are
thinking right now is
held in your short-term
memory.
• They are temporary
• If we do nothing with
them they usually fade
in 10 to 30 seconds.
• Is limited to hold
around 7 items
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Long-term memory
• the relatively
permanent and
limitless storehouse
of the memory
system. Includes
knowledge, skills,
and experiences.
• Our long term memory holds a
capacity that is not yet known
to man.
• What we do know is that it
contains vast numbers of videos
and films of out lifetime of
experience. All of them are in
color, and all of them have
stereo sound.
• But again, we just don’t know
how much we know.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Modified version of the three-stage processing
model of memory
–Working memory
– a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on
conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial
information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Modified version of the three-stage
processing model of memory
–Working memory
– a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on
conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial
information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Modified version of the three-stage
processing model of memory
–Working memory
–a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on
conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial
information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Modified version of the three-stage
processing model of memory
–Working memory
–a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on
conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visualspatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term
memory.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Modified version of the three-stage
processing model of memory
–Working memory
–a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on
conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visualspatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term
memory.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Modified version of the three-stage
processing model of memory
–Working memory
–a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on
conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visualspatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term
memory.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Modified version of the three-stage
processing model of memory
–Working memory
–a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on
conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visualspatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term
memory.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Modified version of the three-stage
processing model of memory
–Working memory
–a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on
conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visualspatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term
memory.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Modified version of the three-stage
processing model of memory
–Working memory
–a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on
conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visualspatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term
memory.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Modified version of the three-stage
processing model of memory
–Working memory
–a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on
conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visualspatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term
memory.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Modified version of the three-stage
processing model of memory
–Working memory
–a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on
conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visualspatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term
memory.
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
Building Memories: Encoding
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful
Versus Automatic Processing
• Explicit memory (declarative
memory)
• Effortful processing
• Automatic processing
• Implicit memory (nondeclarative
memory)
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Versus
Automatic Processing
• Explicit memory
– memory of facts and
experiences that one
can consciously know
and “declare.” (Also
called declarative
memory)
• Effortful processing
• encoding that requires
attention and
conscious effort.
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Versus
Automatic Processing
• Automatic processing
• unconscious encoding of
incidental information,
such as space, time and
frequency, and of welllearned information, such
as word meanings.
• Implicit memory
– retention independent of
conscious recollection.
(Also called
nondeclarative memory)
• Implicit memory are things that are
implied, or not clearly stated.
• These memories consist of the skills
or procedures you have learned.
• Examples- riding a bike, skipping rope,
driving a car etc.
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Automatic Processing
and Implicit Memories
• Automatic Processing
• Space
• Time
• Frequency
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing
and Explicit Memories
• Effortful processing
• Sensory Memory
• Iconic
memory
• Echoic
memory
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful
Processing and Explicit Memories
• Iconic memory
– a momentary
sensory memory of
visual stimuli; a
photographic or
picture-image
memory lasting no
more than a few
tenths of a second.
• Echoic memory
– a momentary
sensory memory of
auditory stimuli; if
attention is
elsewhere, sounds
and words can still
be recalled within 3
or 4 seconds.
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Capacity of Short-Term and
Working Memory
• Magic number
Seven
–Plus or minus 2
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies
• Chunking
• organizing
items into
familiar,
manageable
units; often
occurs
automatically.
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies
• Chunking
• organizing
items into
familiar,
manageable
units; often
occurs
automatically.
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies
• Chunking
• organizing
items into
familiar,
manageable
units; often
occurs
automatically.
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies
• Chunking
• organizing
items into
familiar,
manageable
units; often
occurs
automatically.
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies
• Chunking
• organizing
items into
familiar,
manageable
units; often
occurs
automatically.
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies
• Chunking
• organizing
items into
familiar,
manageable
units; often
occurs
automatically.
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies
• Chunking
• organizing
items into
familiar,
manageable
units; often
occurs
automatically.
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies
• Mnemonics
• memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and
organizational devices.
– Visual imagery
– Peg word system
– ROY G BIV
– Acronym - HOMES
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies
• Hierarchies
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Distributed Practice
• Overlearning
• Spacing effect
– the tendency for distributed
study or practice to yield
better long-term retention
than is achieved through
massed study or practice.
• Massed practice
• Distributed practice
• Testing effect
– enhanced memory after
retrieving, rather than
simply rereading
information. Also
sometimes referred to as a
retrieval practice effect or
test-enhanced learning.
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Levels of Processing
• Shallow processing
• encoding on a basic level
based on the structure or
appearance of words.
• Deep processing
• encoding semantically, based
on the meaning of the words;
tends to yield the best
retention.
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Making Material Personally
Meaningful
• Making material meaningful
• Self-reference effect
Module 32:
Memory Storage and Retrieval
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Retaining Information in the Brain
• Memories are NOT stored in
one part of the brain.
• Memory has an amazing
capacity , but attention issues,
prior knowledge, and memory
decay interfere with the actual
memories that are stored.
Memory Storage
Retaining Information in the Brain:
Explicit-Memory System: The Frontal Lobes and
Hippocampus
• Hippocampus
• The brain’s equivalent of the save
button for explicit memories
– Amnesia (memory loss)
– Damage to either hemisphere
– Consolidation during sleep
(memories are replaying as they
transfer to long-term storage
Memory Storage
Retaining Information in the Brain:
Implicit-Memory System: The Cerebellum and Basal
Ganglia
• Cerebellum- (Forming and storing the
implicit memories created by classical
conditioning.)
• Basal Ganglia- (facilitates formation of
our procedural memories for skills.)
• Infantile amnesia- our conscious
memory of our first 3 years are blank.
(Index much of our explicit memories using
words and the hippocampus is one of the
last brain structures to mature.
Memory Storage
The Amygdala, Emotions, and
Memory
• Amygdala (emotion-related memory formation)
• Flashbulb
Memories
Flashbulb Memories
• Flashbulb
Memories
– a clear memory of an
emotionally significant
moment or event.
• Where were you
September 11, 2001?
• Name or think of a
Flashbulb memory.
Flashbulb Memories
• In this cartoon, each of the forest
animals remember their whereabouts
when they heard that Bambi's mother
had been shot. The news did not affect
them personally, but the event was
significant enough that they each
recalled what they were doing when
they heard about the event. A quote
from the caption, "To this very day,"
suggests that Bambi's mother was shot
some time ago, and still forest animals
can recall their personal situation at
the time. This also demonstrates that
flashbulb memories are extremely long
lasting.
Memory Storage
Synaptic Changes
• Aplysia (sea slug that has increased our understanding of the neural
basis of learning)
• Long-term potentiation
• an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid
stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning
and memory.
• Mild neurocognitive disorders
• Alzheimer’s
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Retrieval: Getting Information
Out
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Measuring Retention
• Recall
• Recognition
• Relearning
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Measuring Retention
• Recall
– a measure of memory
in which the person
must retrieve
information learning
earlier, as on a fill-inthe-blank test.
• Recognition
– a measure of memory
in which the person
need only identify
items previously
learned, as on a
multiple-choice test.
•Relearning
•a measure of memory that assesses the amount of
time saved when learning material again.
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Priming
• Priming
• the activation,
often
unconsciously, of
particular
associations in
memory.
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Priming
• Priming
•the activation,
often
unconsciously, of
particular
associations in
memory.
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Priming
• Priming
•the activation,
often
unconsciously, of
particular
associations in
memory.
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
• Context-Dependent Memoryinformation that is more easily
retrieved in context in which it was
encoded and stored
• Example- hearing a song that
reminds you of a time that has
past but always brings back those
memories
• Context effects
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
State-Dependent Memory
• State dependent memory
• State-dependant memory- memories in
which info is more easily retrieved when
one is in the same physiological or
emotional state as when the memory was
originally encoded
• Example- feelings of happiness can
bring back other happy memories or
feelings of sadness bring forth other sad
memories.
• Mood congruent memory
•
the tendency to recall experiences that
are consistent with one’s current good or
bad mood.
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Serial Position Effect
• Serial position effect
• our tendency to recall best the
last (a recency effect) and first
items (a primacy effect) in a
list.
–Recency effect
–Primacy effect
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Serial Position Effect
• Primacy Effect
– When we try to remember a
series of letters or numbers our
memories of the first and last
items tend to be sharper than our
memories of the middle letters.
– The tendency to recall initial items
in a series of items
– Why would this be??
– First and last are repeated more?
Fresh mind? Etc.
• Recency Effect
– The tendency to record the
last items in a series is called
the recency effect.
– Why would this be?
– These items are rehearsed
most recently and tend to
be fresher in our memory.
Module 33:
Forgetting, Memory
Construction, and Memory
Improvement
Forgetting
• Forgetting is the flip side of Memory
• Forgetting can occur at any one of the three
stages of memory
• Remember sensory memory does not last long
unless moved to short-term memory and
short-term disappears in 10-12 seconds unless
it makes it way into long-term memory.
Forgetting
Forgetting and the Two-Track
Mind
• Amnesia is severe memory loss
caused by brain injury, shock,
fatigue, illness, repression, or
psychological trauma.
• Anterograde
amnesia
• Retrograde
amnesia
Forgetting
Forgetting and the Two-Track
Mind
• Anterograde amnesia
– an inability to form
new memories.
• Retrograde amnesia
– an inability to retrieve
information from one’s
past.
– In Retrograde Amnesia
people forget the period
leading up to a traumatic
event.
• Example- People in a car accident
don’t remember they were in a
car before the accident.
Forgetting
Encoding Failure
Forgetting
Encoding Failure
Forgetting
Encoding Failure
Forgetting
Storage Decay
• Storage decay
• DECAY is the fading away of memory.
• Many times forgetting is due to interference or DECAY.
-Ebbinghaus curve
Forgetting
Storage Decay
Forgetting
Storage Decay
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure:
Interference
• Proactive interference (forward acting)
• Retroactive interference (backwardacting)
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure:
Interference
• Proactive interference
(forward acting)
– the disruptive effect of
prior learning on the
recall of new
information.
• Retroactive interference
(backward-acting)
– the disruptive effect of
new learning on the
recall of old
information.
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure:
Motivated Forgetting
• Self-serving
personal histories
• Repression
According to Freud we sometimes
forget things on purpose without
even knowing that we are doing it.
Example- forgetting things that are
unpleasant, painful or cause
anxiety, guilt or shame.
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure:
Motivated Forgetting
• Self-serving personal histories
• Repression
• in psychoanalytic theory, the
basic defense mechanism that
banishes from consciousness
anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories.
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure:
Motivated Forgetting
• Self-serving
personal histories
• Repression
• in psychoanalytic theory,
the basic defense
mechanism that banishes
from consciousness
anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories.
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure:
Motivated Forgetting
• Self-serving
personal histories
• Repression
• in psychoanalytic theory, the basic
defense mechanism that banishes
from consciousness anxietyarousing thoughts, feelings, and
memories.
Memory Construction Errors
Memory Construction Errors
Misinformation and Imagination Effects
• Loftus memory studies
–Misinformation effect
–incorporating misleading information into
one’s memory of an event.
Memory Construction Errors
Source Amnesia
• Source amnesia (source misattribution)
• Déjà vu
– “already seen”
Memory Construction Errors
Source Amnesia
• Source amnesia (source
misattribution)
– attributing to the wrong
source an event we have
experienced, heard about,
read about, or imagined.
(Also called source
misattribution.) Source
amnesia, along with the
misinformation effect, is at
the heart of many false
memories.
• Déjà vu
– that eerie sense that
“I’ve experienced this
before.” Cues from the
current situation may
unconsciously trigger
retrieval of an earlier
experience.
Memory Construction Errors
Discerning True and False
Memories
• Memory studies
• Children eyewitness recall
Memory Construction Errors
Repressed or Constructed
Memories of Abuse?
• Areas of agreement
– Sexual abuse happens
– Injustice happens
– Forgetting happens
– Recovered memories are incomplete
– Memories before 3 years are unreliable
– Hypnotic memories are unreliable
– Memories can be emotionally upsetting
Improving Memory
Improving Memory
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Rehearse repeatedly
Make the material meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Use mnemonic devices
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse
it and to help determine what you do not yet
know
Module 34:
Thinking, Cognition, and
Creativity
Thinking and Concepts
Thinking and Concepts
• Cognition (thinking)
• Concepts
• Prototypes
Thinking and Concepts
• Cognition (thinking)
– the mental activities
associated with
thinking, knowing,
remembering, and
communicating.
• Concepts
– a mental grouping of
similar objects, events,
ideas, or people.
•Prototypes
•a mental image or best example of a category. Matching
new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method
for sorting items into categories (as when comparing
feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
Creativity
Creativity
• Creativity
• Convergent
thinking
• Divergent
thinking
Creativity
• Creativity
– the ability to produce
novel and valuable
ideas.
• Convergent thinking
– narrows the available
problem solutions to
determine the single
best solution.
•Divergent thinking
•expands the number of possible problem solutions
(creativity thinking that diverges in different
directions).
Creativity
• Sternberg’s five components of
creativity
–Expertise
–Imaginative thinking skills
–A venturesome
personality
–Intrinsic motivation
–A creative environment
Creativity
• Ways to boost creativity
–Develop your expertise
–Allow time for incubation
–Set aside time for the mind to roam
freely
–Experience other cultures and ways
of thinking
Module 35:
Solving Problems and Making
Decisions
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
• Algorithms
–Step-by-step
• Heuristic
• Insight
• Confirmation
bias
• Mental set
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
• Algorithms
– Step-by-step
– a methodical, logical rule
or procedure that
guarantees solving a
particular problem.
Contrasts with the usually
speedier – but also more
error-prone – use of
heuristics.
• Heuristic
– a simple thinking
strategy that often
allows us to make
judgments and solve
problems efficiently;
usually speedier but
also more error-prone
than algorithms.
• Insight
a sudden realization of a problem’s solution;
contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
• Confirmation bias
– a tendency to search
for information that
supports our
preconceptions and to
ignore or distort
contradictory
evidence.
• Mental set
– a tendency to
approach a
problem in one
particular way,
often a way that
has been
successful in the
past.
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
Forming Good and Bad
Decisions and Judgments
Forming Good and Bad
Decisions and Judgments
• Intuition
• an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or
thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious
reasoning.
– Automatic unreasoned feelings and
thoughts
– Seat of their
pants
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
The Representativeness Heuristic
• The Representative Heuristic
• judging the likelihood of things in terms of how
well they seem to represent, or match,
particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore
other relevant information.
– Prototype
– Likelihood of something
• Truck Driver versus a professor of classics
at an Ivy League school.
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
The Availability Heuristic
• The Availability Heuristic
• estimating the likelihood of events based on their
availability in memory; if instances come readily to
mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we
presume such events are common
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
Overconfidence
• Overconfidence
• the tendency to be more confident than correct –
to overestimate the accuracy of
our beliefs and judgments.
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
Belief Perseverance and Framing
• Belief perseverance
• clinging to one’s initial conceptions
after the basis on which they are
formed has been discredited.
– Consider the opposite
• Framing
• the way an issue is posed; how an
issue is framed can significantly
affect decisions and judgments.
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
The Perils and Powers of Intuition
• Intuition
• an effortless, immediate,
automatic feeling or thought,
as contrasted with explicit,
conscious reasoning.
– Intuition is huge
– Intuition is usually
adaptive
– Intuition is recognition
born of experience
Module 36:
Thinking and Language
Introduction
• Language
• our spoken,
written, or signed
words and the
ways we combine
them to
communicate
meaning.
Language Structure
Language Structure
• Phoneme
• in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
– English about 40 phonemes
– Learning another language’s phonemes
• Morpheme
• in language, the smallest unit that carries
meaning; may be a word part.
• Includes prefixes and suffixes
Language Structure
• Grammar
• in a language, a system of
rules that enables us to
communicate with and
understand others. In a given
language, semantics is the
set of rules for deriving
meaning from sounds, and
syntax is the set of rules for
combining words into
grammatically sensible
sentences.
–Semantics
–Syntax
Language Development
Language Development
• Receptive language
• Productive language
–Babbling stage
–One-word stage
–Two-word stage
–Telegraphic speech
Language Development
• Babbling stage
•
• beginning at about 4 months,
the stage of speech
development in which the infant
spontaneously utters various
sounds at first unrelated to the
household language
• One-word stage
• the stage in speech
development, from about age 1
to 2, during which a child
speaks mostly in single words.
Two-word stage
•
•
beginning about age 2,
the stage in speech
development during
which a child speaks
mostly two-word
statements.
Telegraphic speech
•
early speech state in
which a child speaks like
a telegram – “go car” –
using mostly nouns and
verbs.
Language Development
Language Development
Language Development
Language Development
Language Development
Language Development
Language Development
Explaining Language
Development
• Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar
–Language acquisition device
–Universal grammar
Language Development
Explaining Language
Development
• Statistical Learning and Critical
Periods
–Statistical learning
–Critical (sensitive)
period
The Brain and Language
The Brain and Language
• Aphasia
• Broca’s Area
• Wernicke’s
Area
The Brain and Language
• Aphasia
– impairment of language,
usually caused by left
hemisphere damage
either to Broca’s area
(impairing speaking) or to
Wernicke’s area
(impairing understanding).
• Broca’s Area
– controls language
expression – an area of
the frontal lobe, usually in
the left hemisphere, that
directs the muscle
movements involved in
speech.
•Wernicke’s Area
•controls language reception – a brain area involved
in language comprehension and expression; usually
in the left temporal lobe.
Language and Thought
Language and Thought
Language Influences Thinking
• Whorf’s linguistic determinism
• Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way
we think.
• Bilingual advantage
Language and Thought
Language Influences Thinking
The End
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Teacher Information
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Psychology’s History and Approaches
Research Methods
Biological Bases of Behavior
Sensation and Perception
States of Consciousness
Learning
Cognition
Motivation, Emotion, and Stress
Developmental Psychology
Personality
Testing and Individual Differences
Abnormal Psychology
Treatment of Abnormal Behavior
Social Psychology
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Kent Korek
Germantown High School
Germantown, WI 53022
262-253-3400
[email protected]
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Definition
Slides
Memory
= the persistence of learning over time
through the encoding, storage and
retrieval of information.
Encoding
= the processing of information into the
memory systems – for example, by
extracting meaning.
Storage
= the process of retaining encoded
information over time.
Retrieval
= the process of getting information out of
memory storage.
Parallel Processing
= the processing of many aspects of a
problem simultaneously; the brain’s
natural mode of information processing for
many functions. Contrasts with the stepby-step (serial) processing of most
computers and of conscious problem
solving.
Sensory Memory
= the immediate, very brief recording of
sensory information in the memory
system.
Short-Term Memory
= activated memory that holds a few items
briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone
number while dialing before the
information is stored or forgotten.
Long-Term Memory
= the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system.
Includes knowledge, skills, and
experiences.
Working Memory
= a newer understanding of short-term
memory that focuses on conscious, active
processing of incoming auditory and
visual-spatial information, and of
information retrieved from long-term
memory.
Explicit Memory
= memory of facts and experiences that one
can consciously know and “declare.” (Also
called declarative memory)
Effortful Processing
= encoding that requires attention and
conscious effort.
Automatic Processing
= unconscious encoding of incidental
information, such as space, time and
frequency, and of well-learned information,
such as word meanings.
Implicit Memory
= retention independent of conscious
recollection. (Also called nondeclarative
memory)
Iconic Memory
= a momentary sensory memory of visual
stimuli; a photographic or picture-image
memory lasting no more than a few tenths
of a second.
Echoic Memory
= a momentary sensory memory of auditory
stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds
and words can still be recalled within 3 or
4 seconds.
Chunking
= organizing items into familiar, manageable
units; often occurs automatically.
Mnemonics
= memory aids, especially those techniques
that use vivid imagery and organizational
devices.
Spacing Effect
= the tendency for distributed study or
practice to yield better long-term retention
than is achieved through massed study or
practice.
Testing Effect
= enhanced memory after retrieving, rather
than simply rereading information. Also
sometimes referred to as a retrieval
practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
Shallow Processing
= encoding on a basic level based on the
structure or appearance of words.
Deep Processing
= encoding semantically, based on the
meaning of the words; tends to yield the
best retention.
Hippocampus
= a neural center that is located in the limbic
system; helps process explicit memories
for storage.
Flashbulb Memory
= a clear memory of an emotionally
significant moment or event.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
= an increase in a cell’s firing potential after
brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a
neural basis for learning and memory.
Recall
= a measure of memory in which the person
must retrieve information learning earlier,
as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
Recognition
= a measure of memory in which the person
need only identify items previously
learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
Relearning
= a measure of memory that assesses the
amount of time saved when learning
material again.
Priming
= the activation, often unconsciously, of
particular associations in memory.
Mood Congruent Memory
= the tendency to recall experiences that are
consistent with one’s current good or bad
mood.
Serial Position Effect
= our tendency to recall best the last (a
recency effect) and first items (a primacy
effect) in a list.
Anterograde Amnesia
= an inability to form new memories.
Retrograde Amnesia
= an inability to retrieve information from
one’s past.
Proactive Interference
= the disruptive effect of prior learning on the
recall of new information.
Retroactive Interference
= the disruptive effect of new learning on the
recall of old information.
Repression
= in psychoanalytic theory, the basic
defense mechanism that banishes from
consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories.
Misinformation Effect
= incorporating misleading information into
one’s memory of an event.
Source Amnesia
= attributing to the wrong source an event
we have experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined. (Also called source
misattribution.) Source amnesia, along
with the misinformation effect, is at the
heart of many false memories.
Deja Vu
= that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this
before.” Cues from the current situation
may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an
earlier experience.
Cognition
= the mental activities associated with
thinking, knowing, remembering, and
communicating.
Concept
= a mental grouping of similar objects,
events, ideas, or people.
Prototype
= a mental image or best example of a
category. Matching new items to a
prototype provides a quick and easy
method for sorting items into categories
(as when comparing feathered creatures
to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
Creativity
= the ability to produce novel and valuable
ideas.
Convergent Thinking
= narrows the available problem solutions to
determine the single best solution.
Divergent Thinking
= expands the number of possible problem
solutions (creativity thinking that diverges
in different directions).
Algorithm
= a methodical, logical rule or procedure that
guarantees solving a particular problem.
Contrasts with the usually speedier – but
also more error-prone – use of heuristics.
Heuristic
= a simple thinking strategy that often allows
us to make judgments and solve problems
efficiently; usually speedier but also more
error-prone than algorithms.
Insight
= a sudden realization of a problem’s
solution; contrasts with strategy-based
solutions.
Confirmation Bias
= a tendency to search for information that
supports our preconceptions and to ignore
or distort contradictory evidence.
Mental Set
= a tendency to approach a problem in one
particular way, often a way that has been
successful in the past.
Intuition
= an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling
or thought, as contrasted with explicit,
conscious reasoning.
Representativeness Heuristic
= judging the likelihood of things in terms of
how well they seem to represent, or
match, particular prototypes; may lead us
to ignore other relevant information.
Availability Heuristic
= estimating the likelihood of events based
on their availability in memory; if instances
come readily to mind (perhaps because of
their vividness), we presume such events
are common
Overconfidence
= the tendency to be more confident than
correct – to overestimate the accuracy of
our beliefs and judgments.
Belief Perseverance
= clinging to one’s initial conceptions after
the basis on which they are formed has
been discredited.
Framing
= the way an issue is posed; how an issue is
framed can significantly affect decisions
and judgements.
Language
= our spoken, written, or signed words and
the ways we combine them to
communicate meaning.
Phoneme
= in language, the smallest distinctive sound
unit.
Morpheme
= in a language, the smallest unit that
carries meaning; may be a word or a part
of a word (such as a prefix).
Grammar
= in a language, a system of rules that
enables us to communicate with and
understand others. In a given language,
semantics is the set of rules for deriving
meaning from sounds, and syntax is the
set of rules for combining words into
grammatically sensible sentences.
Babbling Stage
= beginning at about 4 months, the stage of
speech development in which the infant
spontaneously utters various sounds at
first unrelated to the household language.
One-Word Stage
= the stage in speech development, from
about age 1 to 2, during which a child
speaks mostly in single words.
Two-Word Stage
= beginning about age 2, the stage in
speech development during which a child
speaks mostly two-word statements.
Telegraphic Speech
= early speech state in which a child speaks
like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly
nouns and verbs.
Aphasia
= impairment of language, usually caused by
left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s
area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s
area (impairing understanding).
Broca’s Area
= controls language expression – an area of
the frontal lobe, usually in the left
hemisphere, that directs the muscle
movements involved in speech.
Wenicke’s Area
= controls language reception – a brain area
involved in language comprehension and
expression; usually in the left temporal
lobe.
Linguistic Determinism
= Whorf’s hypothesis that language
determines the way we think.