Download chapter 14: the renaissance and reformation

WORLD HISTORY I CHAPTER OUTLINES
Chapter 1: TOWARD CIVILIZATION
A. UNDERSTANDING OUR PAST
1. PREHISTORY refers to the period of time before people invented a system of writing.
a. About 5,000 years ago people in different parts of the world began to keep written
records.
-This event marks the beginning of recorded history.
2. ARCHEOLOGISTS are scientists who find and analyze the physical remains left by early
people.
a. ARTIFACTS are objects made by human beings
Examples would be tools, weapons, clothing, jewelry, etc.
3. ANTHROPOLOGY is the study of humans and the societies they create.
4. TECHNOLOGY refers to the skills and tools people use to meet their basic needs.
5. GEOGRAPHY is the study of people, their environments and the resources available to
them.
6. There are 5 THEMES of Geography.
a. LOCATION – where a place is one the surface of the Earth.
LATITUDE measures the distance North or South of the Equator.
LONGITUDE measures the distance East or West of the Prime Meridian.
It is like saying that West Catholic High School is at 45th Street and Chestnut Street.
b. PLACE – is described in terms of their physical features and human characteristics.
In other words at the Shore, up the mountains, near the lake, by the forest, etc…
c. HUMAN – ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION – how the environment has shaped man
and how man has shaped his environment.
In Northern countries where there is a lot of snow and cold, people tend to be blond and
light skinned.
In countries closer to the Equator, people tend to have curly hair and darker skin.
Man has shaped the environment by cutting down forests and making farms; blocking
rivers and making lakes; by building cities, etc…
d. MOVEMENT - The movement of people, goods and ideas.
In earlier times, man followed herds of wild animals.
Now people migrate from one part of the world to another.
e. REGION. The world in divided into many different kids of regions.
In the United States for example, there is the West Coast, the South, The Northeast,
etc…
B. THE DAWN OF HISTORY.
1. Historians, people who study history, call the earliest period of human history the OLD
STONE AGE or the PALEOLITHIC AGE.
2. It is believed that earliest people lived in East Africa.
a. Their descendants migrated (moved) north and east into Europe and Asia. Later
reaching America, Australia and the islands of the Pacific.
Is this absolute fact? NO. IT IS THE BEST THEORY WE HAVE SO FAR.
3. Paleolithic people lived in small hunting groups of about 20 to 30 people.
a. They were NOMADS, moving from place to place following animals and ripening
fruit.
b. They depended COMPLETELY on their environment for survival.
c. They adapted to their surroundings and at SOME point developed a spoken language.
4. Prehistoric people faced severe challenges from the environment.
During several Ice Ages, GLACIERS, or thick sheets of ice spread across parts of Asia,
Europe, and North America.
How would people have learned to adapt to this change?
What kinds of things, new technologies would they have had to learn?
5. About 30,000 years ago people began to leave evidence of their belief in a spirit world and
an after life.
What kinds of evidence are they talking about?
How can they prove what people thought 30,000 years ago?
6. About 11,000 years ago nomadic hunters learned to farm.
a. This change, from nomadic hunter to settled farmer ushered in the NEW STONE AGE
or the NEOLITHIC AGE.
No one knows exactly How or When people began to plant seeds.
b. THE NEOLITHIC AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION ENABLED PEOPLE TO
BECOME FOOD PRODUCERS FOR THE FIRST TIME.
c. This led to a growth in population (WHY?), which led to more interaction among
human communities (WHY?).
d. They had to develop a new range of skills and tools.
7. By 5,000 years ago a new stage of development, farming communities, led to the
emergence of civilization.
C. BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION
There are 8 features to civilization:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Cities
Well organized central governments
Complex religions
Job specialization
1.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Social classes
Arts and Architecture
Public works
Writing
The central feature of civilization was the rise of cities.
a. As population grew some villages swelled into cities.
2.
As cities grew, they needed to maintain a steady food supply, to produce large
amounts of food and oversee irrigation projects, new forms of government arose.
a. At first priests, probably had the greatest power, but in time warrior kings emerged
as the chief power.
b. They almost always claimed the right to rule came from the gods, thereby claiming
religious power also.
c. Over time, BUREAUCRACIES, a system of managing government through
departments run by appointed officials, evolved.
3. Most ancient people were POLYTHEISTIC, that is they believed in many gods.
What does MONOTHEISTIC mean?
4. City dwellers developed so many new crafts that one person could no longer master all
the skills needed to make tools, weapons, or other goods.
a. Some became skilled ARTISANS, or skilled craftworkers.
What are some skills needed for city life?
5. People were ranked according to their jobs and such ranking led to the growth of social
classes.
6. Temples and palaces reassured the people of the strength and power of their government
and religion.
7. Strong rulers ordered vast public works to be built such as irrigation systems, roads,
bridges, and defensive walls.
8. Early writing was made up of PICTOGRAMS, or simple drawings to show the words
represented.
a. In time symbols were added to stand for sounds or ideas not easily expressed in
pictures.
b. As writing grew more complex, only specially trained people called SCRIBES
learned to read and write.
Scribes were educated in temple schools and kept records for priests, rulers and
merchants.
9. As rulers gained more power they conquered territories beyond their cities. This led to the
rise of CITY – STATES.
a. A city-state is a political unit that include the city and the surrounding lands and
villages.
10. Sometimes rulers conquered many cities and villages creating the first EMPIRES.
a. An empire is a group of states or territories controlled by one ruler.
11. ALL SOCIETIES AND CIVILIZATIONS CHANGE.
a. Among the chief causes of change were shifts in the physical environment and
interactions among people.
Why?
b. CULTURAL DIFFUSION is the spread of ideas, customs and chronologies from one
people to another.
Important to note here, not from one person to another, from one people to another.
c. Three causes of cultural diffusion are migration, trade and warfare.
Explain how or why each of these would cause cultural diffusion.
Chapter 2: FIRST CIVILIZATION
A.
Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile
1. “Egypt is wholly a gift of the Nile”
a. What does this means?
b. Yearly floods would overflow the banks of the Nile and deposit silt, a rich soil, across
the land that made farming possible
c. BLACK LANDS refers to the rich, irrigated, farm lands that generally stretched no
more than 10 miles from the Nile.
d. RED LANDS refers to the sun baked desert that stretches across North Africa.
e. The desert protected Egypt from invasion, but it also limited where people could settle.
2. Ancient Egypt had two distinct regions; UPPER Egypt in the South and LOWER
Egypt in the North.
a. A CATARACT is a waterfall or series of rapids.
b. A DELTA is a triangular area of marshland formed deposits of silt at the mouth of
some rivers.
c. A DYNASTY is a ruling family that passes power from one generation to another.
3. About 3,100 B. C., MENES, the king of Upper Egypt united the two regions.
a. He and his successors used the river as a highway sending armies and trade up and
down the Nile, thus helping to unify the two regions.
b. Egypt was the world’s first unified state.
4. Ancient Egypt is divided into three main periods:
a. The Old Kingdom (2700 B.C. – 2200 B.C.)
b. The Middle Kingdom (2050 B.C. – 1800 B.C.)
c. The New Kingdom (1550 B.C. – 1100 B.C.)
5. During the Old Kingdom, Egyptian rulers, called PHARAOHS, believed they were gods,
controlled Egypt.
a. They relied on Viziers, chief minister who supervised the work of the government.
b. The Old Kingdom is called the AGE OF THE PYRAMINDS, because it is only at this
time that pyramids were built.
c. Pyramids were tombs to preserve the Pharaohs for the afterlife.
d. Power struggles, crop failures and building of the pyramids contributed to the collapse
of the Old Kingdom.
6. The Middle Kingdom finally arose and was a turbulent time.
a. In 1700 B. C., the HYKSOS, invaded and ruled Egypt.
b. They had bronze weapons and horse drawn war chariots. The Egyptians could not
compete.
c. The Hyksos ruled Egypt for about 100 years. In that time they taught the Egyptians
how to make bronze. The Egyptians taught the Hyksos about their beliefs and customs.
d. THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF CULTURAL DIFFUSION.
e. The Egyptians took this knowledge and drove the Hyksos out of Egypt. This marks the
beginning of the New Kingdom.
7. During the New Kingdom, powerful pharaohs created a large empire.
a. QUEEN HATSHEPSUT, wife of a pharaoh and daughter of a pharaoh, was the only
woman to rule Egypt as a pharaoh herself.
b. RAMSES II, pharaoh who allowed Moses to take the Israelites out of Egypt, won many
great military victories.
c. He signed the first known peace treaty, with the HITTITES.
d. After Ramses II’s death, Egypt’s power declined.
8. As Egypt declined, NUBIA once controlled by Egypt, regained its independence and in
about 750 B.C. marched north and conquered Egypt.
a. About 650 B.C., ASSYRIANS pushed the Nubians out of Egypt and back to their
homelands.
B. EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION
1. The chief god of ancient Egypt was the sun god, AMON – RE.
a. It was believed that the pharaohs were actually living gods linked to Amon-Re
b. Other gods included OSIRIS, lord of the dead and the Nile; his wife, ISIS, their son,
HORUS, and the evil god SET
2. Egyptians believed the afterlife would be like life here on Earth, so they buried their dead
with everything they would need for eternity.
a. They developed MUMMIFICATION, a process to preserve the body so it could be
used in the afterlife.
3. About 1380, b. c. a young pharaoh took the name AHKENATON, which means “he who
serves Aton”.
a. He tried to replace Amon-Re as chief god with belief in one god Aton. (Monotheism)
b. Priests resisted this change. WHY???
c. After Ahkenaton’s death, the priests reasserted the supremacy of Amon-Re.
4. Women generally enjoyed higher status and greater independence than women elsewhere
in the ancient world.
a. They could not become scribes or hold government jobs.
5.
Egyptians developed a form of picture writing called HIEROGLYPHICS.
a. Over time scribes developed DEMOTICS, a simpler form of writing for everyday use.
C. CITY STATES OF ANCIENT SUMER
1. The FERTILE CRESCENT is an arc of land from the Persian Gulf to the eastern
Mediterranean coast.
2. The first known civilization in the Fertile Crescent was in Mesopotamia.
a. MESOPOTAMIA means land between the rivers in Greek
b. The two rivers were the TIGRIS and the EUPHRATES.
c. More than 5,000 years ago busy cities began to emerge in the southern part of
Mesopotamia. This is SUMER.
d. Sumerian civilization emerged as the first of many to succeed in the Fertile Crescent.
3. The Sumerians made remarkable progress with limited natural resources.
a. They lacked timber or stone so they built with earth and water.
b. They made bricks of clay, shaped in wooden molds and dried in the sun.
c. Their cities were often rectangular in shaped, surrounded by high, wide walls.
d. Their largest cities were called ZIGGURATS, pyramid like temples.
e. Their sloping sides had TERRACES, or wide steps.
f. On the top of the ziggurat stood a shrine to the chief god or goddess of the city.
g. The wheel had been invented by some unknown civilization, but the Sumerians
made the first wheeled vehicles.
5. Sumer included many independent city-states, unlike Egypt which was one united country.
a. City states often battled each other for control of land and water.
b. People turned to war leaders, who over time evolved into hereditary rulers.
6. Like most ancient people, Sumerians were polytheistic.
a. They believed their gods controlled every aspect of their lives.
b. To a Sumerian the highest duty was to keep the gods happy thereby ensuring the safety
of their city-state.
c. They believed in an afterlife which was a dark place where they ate dirt and from
which there was no escape.
THIS IS VERY DIFFERENT FROM THE EGYPTIAN AFTERLIFE. WHY???
7. The Sumerians invented the first form of writing known as CUNEIFORM.
8. Eventually armies of conquering peoples swept across Mesopotamia and
overwhelmed the Sumerian city-states
a. These new comers adapted cuneiform to their own languages and helped to
spread Sumerian learning across the Middle East.
D. INVADERS, TRADERS AND EMPIRE BUILDERS
1. Invasion and conquest were prominent features in the history of the ancient Middle East.
2. In about 2300 B. C. SARGON, the ruler of AKKAD invaded and conquered the city-states
of Sumer.
a. He built the first empire known to history.
b. It did not last. Soon after his death other invaders crushed his empire into ruin.
3. About 1790 B. C., HAMMURABI, King of Babylon, brought much of Mesopotamia
under his rule.
a. He is known for a set of laws known as the CODE OF HAMMURABI.
-HE WAS NOT THE AUTHOR OF THIS CODE. HE WAS THE FIRST ONE
TO HAVE THEM WRITTEN DOWN.
b. He had the 300 laws carved on stone pillars for all to see.
It listed both criminal laws and CIVIL laws, dealing with private rights and matters.
4. About 1400 B. C., the HITTITES pushed out of Asia Minor and into Mesopotamia.
a. They were less advanced than other cultures, but they had learned the secret of making
iron.
b. They tried to keep this a secret, but as their empire collapsed, Hittites ironsmiths
migrated to serve other customers elsewhere.
5. By 1100 B. C., the ASSYRIANS had learned to forge iron and terrorized the region
for the next 500 years.
a. They were one of the most warlike people in history.
b. At the capital of NINEVAH, King ASSURBANIPAL, built one of the first libraries in
the world.
c. After King Assurbanipal’s death, neighboring people joined together to crush the
Assyrian army.
6. The power of Babylon was revived by King NEBUCHADNEZZAR.
a. He built the famous hanging gardens of Babylon for his wife.
7. By 539 B. C., Babylon fell to the Persian armies of CYRUS THE GREAT.
a. In general, the Persians were tolerant of the people they conquered.
8. King Darius divided the empire into provinces, called SATRAPIES, each headed by a
governor called a SATRAP.
a. He established a common set of weights and measures.
b. He built and repaired roads for trade and communication.
c. He established a common set of laws.
d. He encouraged the use of coins instead of the use of the BARTER economy.
The exchange of one set of goods or services for another.
9.
The religious beliefs of ZOROASTER also helped to unify the empire.
a. He rejected the old Persian gods and taught about a single, wise god called
AHURA – MAZDA.
b. Ahura Mazda was in constant battle against AHRIMAN, the prince of lies and evil.
c. In the end of the world Ahura – Mazda, would defeat Ahriman. Those who had
been good would enter paradise. Evildoers would be condemned to eternal suffering.
E. THE WORLD OF THE HEBREWS
1. According to the TORAH, their most sacred text and the first five books of the Bible, the
Hebrews originally lived near UR in Mesopotamia.
2. They believed that God had made a COVENANT, or binding promise, with ABRAHAM
and they became God’s chosen people.
3. About 2000 B. C., they migrated, herding their sheep and goats into CANAAN, later
called PALESTINE.
a. Around 1800 B. C., a famine forced them to migrate to Egypt where they were
eventually enslaved.
b. Moses, the adopted son of Pharaoh’s daughter, led the Hebrews on their EXODUS or
escape from Egypt.
c. They wandered the desert for 40 years, entering Canaan after Moses death, claiming the
land they believed God had promised them.
4. By 1000 B. C., they had established the KINGDOM OF ISRAEL.
a. King Solomon built a beautiful temple dedicated to God.
b. The heavy taxes and forced labor led to a revolt soon after his death.
c. The kingdom split into ISRAEL in the north and JUDAH in the south.
5. In 722 B. C., the Assyrians invaded Israel.
6. In 586 B. C., the Babylonian armies captured Judah.
a. The great temple was destroyed and the Hebrews sent into exile in Babylon.
b. Years later, Cyrus the Great allowed the Hebrews to return to Israel and rebuild their
temple.
7. Hebrew beliefs developed into the religion known as JUDAISM, which is monotheistic.
a. Monotheistic religions at the time
JUDAISM
ZOROASTER (Persian)
AKHENATON (Egypt)
8. PROPHETS, or spiritual leaders, (NOT PSYCHICS LIKE MISS CLEO, THEY DID NOT
FORETELL THE FUTURE), emerged to interpret God’s will and lead the people.
a. They preached a strong code of ETHICS, or moral standards of behavior.
9. The Romans conquered Israel about 2,000 years ago and again exiled the Jews from their
homeland.
a. This DIASPORA, or scattering of people, sent Jews to different parts of the world.
Chapter 3: ANCIENT CIVILIZATION IN INDIA AND CHINA
A. CITIES OF THE INDUS VALLEY
1. India is located on a subcontinent.
a. A SUBCONTINENT is a large landmass that juts out from a continent.
2. The Himalayas and the Hindu Kush mountain ranges across the northern border of the
subcontinent limited contact between India and other lands and helped its people
develop a distinct culture.
a. There were steep passes through the Hindu Kush which served as gateways for
migrating and invading peoples for thousands of years.
There are three Major zones on the subcontinent
1. The Northern plains. A well watered area just south of the mountains fed by the INDUS
RIVER, which gives the area its name; the GANGES RIVER, considered India’s most
sacred river; and the BRAHMAPUTRA
2. The DECCAN, the triangular plateau that juts into the Indian Ocean. It lacks the water
supply of the northern plains and is therefore arid, unproductive and sparsely
populated.
a. It is the most recognizable feature of India on any map.
3. The COASTAL PLAINS separated from the Deccan by low-lying mountain ranges called
the Eastern and Western Ghats.
a. Rivers and seasonal rains provide water for farming.
b. MONSOONS – (seasonal winds) are a defining feature of Indian life.
(1) In October, the winter monsoons from the northeast blow hot, dry air that withers
crops.
(2) In late May, early June, the winds from the Southwest, pick up moisture over the
the Indian Ocean and drench the land with its daily downpours.
c. If the rains are late, famine and starvation may occur.
4. India’s great size and diverse landscapes made it hard to unite.
B. THE INDUS RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATION
1. It emerged in Pakistan about 2500 B. C. and is cloaked in mystery. It flourished for about
1,000 years and then vanished without a trace.
a. As of yet we have not been able to translate any of their writing.
2. The two main cities HARAPPA and MOHENJO-DARO may have been twin capitals.
a. Both were large, over three miles in circumference.
b. Each city was laid out in a grid pattern.
c. They had surprisingly modern plumbing systems with baths, drains and water chutes
that led to sewers underneath the streets.
3. By 1500 B. C., this once proud civilization was over.
a. Some think a volcano erupted and changed the blocked the Indus River causing it to
flood the city.
b. Some think an earthquake destroyed them.
c. But nomadic people from the north, ARYANS, may have completed what nature began.
The destruction of this civilization.
C. THE ARYANS
1. Over the centuries, the Aryans, a warlike people who destroyed and looted the cities of the
Indus valley became the builders of a new Indian civilization.
a. The early Aryans built no cities and left no statues or writings.
b. The were among many Indo-European people who migrated across Europe and Asia
looking for water and pastures for their horses and cattle.
c. Most of what we know about them comes from the VEDAS – a collection of prayers,
hymns, and other religious teachings.
2. For 1,000 years Aryan priest memorized and recited the VEDAS before they were written
down.
3. The Aryans divided people by occupation:
The BRAHMINS were the priests and leaders of the people
The KSHATRIYAS were the warriors.
The VAISYAS were the herders, farmers, artisans and merchants.
The SUDRAS were the Non-Aryans, or DRAVIDIANS, the people they conquered,
who occupied the lowest level of society. They were the servants, farmworkers, and
other laborers.
a. This gave rise to a CASTE SYSTEM – social groups into which people are born and
from which they can not change.
4. The Aryans were polytheistic but some of their thinkers moved toward the notion of a
single spiritual power beyond the gods called BRAHMAN which resides in all things.
5. There was also a move toward mysticism.
a. MYSTICS are people who devote their lives to seeking spiritual truth.
6. Aryan tribes were led by a chief called a RAJAH, who were elected by an assembly of
warriors because he was the most skilled war leader.
7. By 500 B. C., a new Indian civilization consisting of many rival kingdoms who shared a
common culture and new written language, SANSKRIT, emerged
a. The MAHABHARATA is the greatest Indian epic. It mixes history, mythology and
religion
D. EARLY CIVILIZATION IN CHINA
1. The ancient Chinese called their land ZHONGGUO (JONG goo AW), the MIDDLE
KINGDOM.
a. China is the most isolated of the early river valley civilizations.
b. This isolation contributed to China’s belief that it was the center of the Earth and the
sole source of civilization.
c. Despite its formidable boundaries, China did have contact with neighboring people.
2. The Chinese heartland lay along the Pacific coast and the valleys of the HUANG HE, or
YELLOW RIVER.
a. Chinese history begins in the Huang He valley.
b. The Huang He got its name from the LOESS, or fine, wind blown yellow soil that came
from Siberia and Mongolia.
c. As the loess would settle on the river, it would raise the water level often causing the
flooding.
d. The Huang He was also known as the “RIVER OF SORROWS”.
3. About 1650 B. C., the SHANG gained control of Northern China, along the Huang He.
a. They dominated the region until 1027 B. C.
b. Their walled capital was the city of ANYANG
4. Shang kings probably only controlled a small area. Princes and nobles loyal to the Shang
dynasty governed most of the land.
a. They were most likely the heads of important CLANS, or groups of people who
claimed a common, often mythical, ancestor.
5. By Shang times, the Chinese had developed complex religious beliefs.
a. Chief among them were SHANG DI, the supreme being and the Mother Goddess.
b. The king was seen as the link between the people and Shang Di.
c. Gods as great as Shang Di would not respond to the pleas of mere mortals.
d. They called upon the spirits of their ancestors to intercede for them with Shang Di and
bring them good fortune.
6. They believed the universe reflected a delicate balance between the forces of YIN and
YANG.
a. YIN was linked to earth, darkness and female forces.
b. YANG stood for heaven, light and male forces.
c. These forces were not in opposition. The well-being of the universe depended on the
harmony of Yin and Yang.
d. IT IS IMPORTANT TO NOTE, THESE ARE NOT THE FORCES OF GOOD AND
EVIL.
7. The ancient Chinese developed a system of writing that used both pictographs and
IDEOGRAPHS, signs that expressed thoughts or ideas.
a. The oldest examples of Chinese writing are found on ORACLE BONES, used by
priests to predict the future.
b. Chinese writing evolved to include tens of thousands of characters.
c. Even today, students must memorize up to 10,000 characters to read a newspaper.
d. They turned CALIGRAPHY, or fine handwriting into an art form.
e. People in different parts of China may not have understood each others language, but
they all used the same system of writing.
8. In 1027 B. C., the ZHOU marched out of western China and overthrew the Shang.
a. They claimed they had the MANDATE OF HEAVEN, or divine right to rule.
b. They claimed the Shang kings were so cruel the gods themselves sent ruin upon them.
c. This later came to explain the DYNASTIC CYCLE, or rise and fall of dynasties.
d. Floods, famines and other catastrophes were signs that a dynasty had lost the favor of
heaven
9.
Under the Zhou, China developed into a FEUDAL state.
a. FEUDALISM was a system of government in which local lords governed their own
lands but owed military service and other forms of support to their ruler.
10. By 1,000 B. C., the Chinese had discovered how to make silk thread from the cocoons
of silk worm.
11. Under the Zhou, the Chinese made the first books.
a. They bound thin strips of wood or bamboo together and carefully drew characters on
the surface.
b. One of the first books was the I CHING or Book of Change.
CHAPTER 4: EMPIRES OF INDIA AND CHINA
A. HINDUISM AND BUDDHISM
1. Unlike most major religions, HINDUISM has no single founder and no single sacred text.
2. Hinduism became one of the world’s most complex religions, with countless gods and
goddesses and many forms of worship existing side by side.
3. Despite this, diversity, all Hindus share certain basic beliefs.
a. Hindu thinkers believe that everything in the universe is part of the unchanging,
all-powerful spiritual force called BRAHMAN.
b. The most important gods are:
-
BRAHMA, the Creator
VISHNU, the Preserver
SHIVA, the Destroyer
4. To Hindus, every person has an essential self, or ATMAN.
a. Atman is just another name for brahman
5. The ultimate goal of existence is MOKSHA, or union with the brahman.
a. One must free oneself from selfish desires that separate them from moksha.
b. Most people cannot achieve moksha in one lifetime.
c. Hindus believe in REINCARNATION, or the rebirth of the soul in another bodily form.
d. Reincarnation allows people to continue to work toward moksha through several
several lifetimes.
6. In each life, Hindus believe that a person can come closer to achieving moksha by obeying
the laws of karma.
a. KARMA refers to all the actions of a person’s life that affects his or her fate in the next
one.
b. People who lead good lives earn good karma and are reborn at a higher level of
existence.
c. Humans are closest to brahman. The comes animals, plants and objects like rocks or
or water.
7. By obeying one’s DHARMA, a person acquires merit for the next life.
a. Dharma is the religious and moral duties of an individual
b. The concepts of karma and dharma helped ensure the social order by supporting the
caste system.
8. Another key moral principle is AHIMSA, or nonviolence.
a. The teacher MAHAVIRA founded a new religion called JAINISM, which was an
extreme form of ahimsa.
b. To avoid killing a living thing, even an insect, Jains carried a broom to sweep the
ground in front of their feet.
c. Reformers like Mahavira, rejected the domination by the Brahmin and offered others
paths to truth.
9. SIDDHARTHA GUATAMA was born around 566 B.C. to a high-ranking family of the
Kshatriyas class.
a. According to tradition his mother had a dream which a prophet man interpreted to mean
Siddhartha would grow up to be a wandering holy man.
b. His father, determined to stop this from happening, locked him away in the palace
surrounded only by beauty and luxury.
c. As an adult, he saw for the first time a sick person, and old person and a dead body.
d. That night he left his wife and newborn son to seek an answer to a world of sickness,
pain, and death.
e. He wandered for years seeking answers from Hindu scholars.
f. Eventually he sat under a Bodhi tree to meditate. He stayed there for 48 days, evil
spirits tempting him, until he finally discovered the cause ands the cure for suffering
and sorrow.
g. When he arose he was no longer Siddharth Guatama. He was the BUDDHA, the
Enlightened One.
10. He spent the rest of his life teaching the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS.
a. All life is full of suffering, pain and sorrow
b. The cause of suffering is the desire for things that are really illusions such as riches,
power and a long life.
c. The only cure for suffering is to overcome desire
d. The only way to overcome desire is to follow the eightfold path.
11. The EIGHTFOLD PATH consists of right views, right aspirations, right speech, right
conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right contemplation.
12. Through meditation, a person might at last achieve enlightenment.
a. For a Buddhist, the final goal was NIRVANA, union with the universe and release
from the cycle of rebirth.
13. Both Buddhism and Hinduism accepted the laws of karma, dharma and moksha; believed
in the cycle of rebirth and held nonviolence as a central belief.
14. Buddhists differed from Hindus in their rejection of priests, formal rituals, the existence
of the many gods of the Hindus and the caste system.
15. After Buddha’s death, his followers collected his teachings into a sacred text called the
TRIPITAKA, or Three Baskets of Wisdom.
16. Gradually Buddhism split into two major schools, THERAVADA and MAHAYANA
a. The THERAVADA school closely followed Buddha’s original teachings.
b. MAHAYANA made Buddhism easier for ordinary people to follow.
B. POWERFUL EMPIRES OF INDIA
1. CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA forged the first great Indian empire.
a. It lasted from about 321 B. C. to 185 B. C.
2. Chandragupta’s rule was effective but harsh.
a. He had specially trained female warriors to protect him.
3. The most honored Maurya emperor was Chandragupta’s grandson ASOKA.
a. He fought a long and bloody war to conquer the Deccan province of Kalinga, which
left over 100,000 dead.
b. He became a Buddhist, turned his back on violence and resolved to rule by moral
example.
c. After his death, Maurya power declined.
4. About 500 yrs., after the Mauryan empire, the GUPTA empire rose from about 320 to
about 550.
a. Gupta rule was much looser than the Mauryas.
b. Much power was left in the hands of the individual villages.
c. Students were educated in religious schools, but learning was NOT limited to religion.
d. Buddhists built STUPAS, large domed shaped shrines that housed the sacred remains
of the Buddha or other holy people.
5. The Deccan never matched the strength and unity of the empires in the north.
a. It was divided into many kingdoms, each with its own language, capital, and traditions.
b. Women in the Deccan enjoyed a much higher status than those in the north.
c. The TAMIL kingdoms, which occupied much of the southern most part of India, were
sometimes ruled by women.
C. PILLARS OF INDIAN LIFE
1. The three pillars of Indian life were the caste system, village life and the joint family.
2. The caste system was closely linked to Hindu beliefs; people in other castes were
considered a different species of being.
3. Caste governed every aspect of life.
a. People in the highest had the strictest rules to protect them from the spiritually
polluted, impure lower castes.
b. The lowest caste, the UNTOUCHABLES, not only had to live apart, but they also
had to sound a wooden clapper to warn others of their approach.
4. Despite its inequalities, the caste system ensured a stable social order.
a. People believed the law of karma determined their caste.
5. Throughout India’s history, the village was the heart of life.
6. Within the village, the basic unit of life was the JOINT FAMILY, in which parents,
children, grandparents, aunts and uncles and their offspring shared a common dwelling.
a. This was usually only achieved by the wealthy because in poor families people often
died young, so several generations seldom survived long enough to live together.
7. The Indian family was PATRIARCHIAL, that is the father or oldest male headed the
household.
a. For parents, an important duty was arranging a good marriage, based on caste and
family interests.
b. In parts of India high caste widows were forbidden to remarry.
c. They were expected to become SATI, meaning a virtuous woman, and throw herself
on the funeral pyre.
D. MUSLIMS IN INDIA
1. The Gupta Empire fell in about 550 and India returned to its age-old pattern of rival
princes battling for control of the Northern Plains.
a. Although Arab armies conquered the Indus Valley in 711, they advanced no further
into the subcontinent.
b. In the late 1100’s, the Sultan of Ghur defeated Hindu armies and established his
capital at DELHI.
c. From there, his successors organized the Dehli Sultanate, lasting from 1206 to 1526,
marked the beginning of Muslim rule in northern India.
d. A new language, URDU, evolved as a marriage of Persian, Arabic and Hindi.
2. An Indian holy man named NANAK, sought to blend Muslim monotheism and Hindu
beliefs into a new religion called SIKHISM.
a. The Sikhs later organized into military forces that clashed with the powerful Mughal
rulers of India.
3. In 1526, Turkish and Mongol forces led by BABUR, who claimed to be a direct
descendant of Genghis Khan, invaded the Dehli sultanate.
a. Though he had a smaller army, he had cannons
b. He set up the MUGHAL Dynasty which reigned from 1526 to 1857
4. The chief builder of the Mughal empire was Babur’s grandson AKBAR, the Great.
a. Akbar recognized India’s diversity and allowed more tolerance and inclusion of other
religions and cultures.
5. SHAH JAHAN, Akbar’s grandson was distraught by the death of his wife while giving
birth to her fourteenth child.
a. He had the TAJ MAHAL built as a tomb for her and stands today as perhaps the greatest
monument of the Mughal Empire.
b. According to legend, after the Taj Mahal was built he had the architect and all the chief
workmen blinded so no one would ever build anything more beautiful than this he had
built for his wife.
E. 3 SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN CHINA
1. China’s most influential philosopher, CONFUCIUS, was born in 551 B. C.
a. He hoped to become an advisor to a local ruler but spent his life wandering from court
to court.
b. As his reputation for wisdom grew, he attracted many students.
c. Confucius never wrote down his ideas.
d. After his death, his students collected his sayings in THE ANALECTS.
2. Confucius taught that harmony resulted when people accepted their place in society.
a. He stressed five key relationships
- husband to wife
- elder brother to younger brother
- ruler to subject
- father to son
- friend to friend
b. Other than friend to friend, none of these was an equal relationship.
c. Confucius put FILIAL PIETY, or respect for parents above all other duties, even
loyalty to the state.
d. He believed that people were basically good and that the best ruler led by example.
e. Confucianism NEVER became a religion.
f. Chinese rulers would base their government on Confucian ideas, choosing Confucian
scholars as officials
3. Another teacher HANFEZI who died in 233 B. C., taught that “the nature of man was evil”
a. The only way to achieve order was to pass strict laws and enforce them with harsh
punishment.
b. The teachings of Hanfeizi were known as LEGALISM.
c. Legalism was the official policy of the QIN emperor who united China in 221 B.C.
4. The third Chinese philosophy DAOISM, differed from both Confucianism and Legalism.
a. Daoists had no interest in bringing order to human affairs. They sought to live in
harmony with nature.
b. The founder of Daoism is LAOZI. Or Old Master who lived at the same time as
Confucius.
c. He is credited with writing a book called the “WAY OF VIRTUE”
d. He focused on the DAO, or the way of the universe as a whole.
e. They used water to explain their beliefs. They emphasized the virtue of yielding.
f. To Daoists the best government was one that governed the least.
g. Daoism did develop into a religion.
F. STRONG RULERS OF CHINA
1. In 221 B. C., ZHENG, ruler of the QIN from western China, unified all of China and
declared himself SHI HUANGDI, or First Emperor.
a. He centralized power using Legalist advisors and built a strong authoritarian
government.
b. He divided China into 36 military districts each ruled by an appointed official.
c. He forced the noble families to live at his capital where he could keep an eye on them.
d. He jailed, tortured and killed many who opposed his rule.
e. His most remarkable achievement was the GREAT WALL which was actually the
continuation or connection of pre-existing walls throughout China.
f. When Shi Huangdi died in 210 B. C., there was a revolt over his harsh laws and heavy
taxes.
2. LIU BANG, an illiterate peasant defeated his rivals, became emperor, took the name
GAO ZU and established the HAN dynasty.
a. He appointed Confucian scholars as officials as opposed to the legalist advisors of Shi
Huangdi.
b. The most famous Han emperor, WUDI, took China to new heights.
c. He earned the title Warrior Emperor.
d. He opened up a trade route known as the SILK ROAD that linked China with the west.
e. Eventually, the Silk Road stretched for more than 4,000 miles.
3. Han emperors adopted the idea that officials should win their positions through merit
rather than family background.
4. This led to a system of CIVIL SERVICE examinations, based on the teachings of
Confucius, it lasted for more than 2,000yrs.
5. In its time, the Han dynasty was the most technologically advanced civilization in the
world.
6. In A. D. 220, ambitious warlords overthrew the last Han emperor ending almost 400 yrs.
of unity.
7. Han rulers created an empire roughly the size of the continental United States.
CHAPTER 5: ANCIENT GREECE
I. Early People of the Aegean
A. CRETE, a large island south of Greece, was home to a brilliant early civilization.
1. We do not know what this civilization called itself, but the British archeologists who
discovered its ruins called them the MINOANS.
a. The success of the Minoans was based on trade, not conquest.
2. The rulers of this trading empire lived in a vast palace at KNOSSOS.
a. At the palace there were wall paintings of their main sport and religious observance,
BULL JUMPING.
b. Women appeared freely in public and appear to have enjoyed more rights than women
in most ancient civilizations.
c. The major religious belief was in the Mother Goddess.
3. By about 1400 B. C. Minoan civilization disappeared.
a. Archeologists are not sure of the cause, but they believe a sudden volcanic eruption on
a nearby island caused an earthquake which destroyed the palace and set off a tidal
wave.
b. However, invaders certainly played a role in the destruction of Minoan civilization.
c. These invaders were the MYCENAEANS, the first Greek speaking people of whom we
have a record.
d. They conquered the Greek mainland, before overrunning Crete.
e. They were sea traders, like the Minoans from whom they learned many skills including
writing.
f. They dominated the Aegean world from about 1400 B. C. to 1200 B.C.
g. The Mycenaeans were best known for taking part in the Trojan War, which took place
around 1250 B.C.
h. Not long after the fall of Troy, the Mycenaean civilization began to crumble. Around
the same time, another wave of Greek speaking people, the DORIANS, invaded from
the north.
i. As Mycenaean power faded, people abandoned cities, trade declined, and people forgot
many skills, including the art of writing.
j. From about 1100 B. C. to 800 B. C., Greek civilization took a step backwards.
4. According to tradition, Homer was a blind Poet who wandered from village to village
singing of heroic deeds.
a. Homer’s tales were passed on orally for generations before they were written down.
b. The ILLIAD is our chief source of information about the Trojan War.
c. The ODYSSEY tells of the struggles of Odysseus to return home after the war.
B. THE RISE OF THE GREEK CITY-STATE
1. Greece is part of the Balkan peninsula, which is divided by mountains into isolated
valleys. Beyond the rugged coast, hundreds of rocky islands spread out into the Aegean
Sea.
2. Because of its geography, Greece did not create a large empire.
a. Instead they built many small city-states, cut off from one another by land or water.
b. Greeks felt loyalty to their city-states and fiercely defended their independence.
c. While mountains divided the Greeks, the seas provided a vital link to the world outside.
d. By 750 B. C., rapid population growth was forcing many Greeks to leave their own
overcrowded valleys and islands and seek fertile land overseas.
3. They evolved a unique version of the city-state, which they called the POLIS.
a. Typically, they city was built on two levels. On the hilltop stood the ACROPOLIS, or
high city, with temples dedicated to the various gods and goddesses.
b. On flatter ground below lay the walled main city with its market place, theater, public
buildings and homes.
c. The population of these city-states was usually small which allowed the citizens to
share a sense of responsibility for it.
4. Between 750 B. C. and 500 B. C., the Greeks evolved different forms of government.
a. At first, the ruler of the polis was the king.
- A government in which a king or queen exercises central power is called a
MONARCHY.
b. Slowly power shifted to a class of noble landowners, because they were the only ones
who could afford the bronze weapons and chariots necessary to be the military
defenders of the city-state.
- The result was an ARISTOCRACY, or rule by a landholding elite.
c. As trade expanded, a new middle class of wealthy merchants, farmers and artisans
emerged who challenged the nobles for power.
- This is a form of government known as an OLIGARCHY, where power is in the
hands of a small, powerful elite, usually from the business class.
5. In about 650 B. C., iron weapons and tools replaced bronze ones, which changed
military technology and increased the power of the middle class.
a. Because iron was cheaper, ordinary citizens could afford better weapons and tools.
6. The people of Sparta, called SPARTANS, lived in the southern part of Greece called the
PELOPONNESUS.
a. They were Dorians who conquered people and turned them into state owned slaves
called HELOTS.
b. Citizens were male, native-born Spartans over the age of 30.
7. From childhood, a Spartan prepared to be part of a military state.
a. Officials examined every newborn, sickly children were abandoned to die.
b. At age 7, boys moved into the barracks and began training for a lifetime in the military.
- To encourage cunning and to supplement their diet, they were encouraged to steal
food. If they were caught, they were beaten.
c. At age 20, a man could marry, but he had to continue to live in the barracks for another
10 years and eat there for another 40.
d. At age 30, after further specialized training, he took his place in the assembly.
e. At age 60, they were permitted to retire and go home to their wives and estates.
8. Women were also to play their part in a military society by producing healthy sons for the
army.
9. The Spartans isolated themselves from the other Greeks.
a. They looked down on trade and wealth, and had little use for new ideas or the arts.
b. In the long run, Sparta suffered from its rigid ways and inability to change.
c. In time, its warrior class shrank and its power declined.
10. ATHENS was located in ATTICA, just north of the Peloponnesus
a. Athenian government developed into an aristocracy.
b. As discontent spread, Athens moved slowly toward DEMOCRACY, or government by
the people.
c. SOLON, a wise and trust leader was appointed ARCHON, or chief official and made
many reforms.
- He outlawed DEBT SLAVERY, the practice of selling oneself or one’s family into
slavery to pay off a debt, and freed those already sold into it.
- Although Solon did make many other changes widespread unrest led to the rise of
TYRANTS, or people who gained power by force.
d. In 507 B. C., CLEISTHENES set up the COUNCIL OF 500, whose members were
chosen by lot from among all the citizens.
- He made the assembly a LEGISLATURE, or lawmaking body, that debated laws
before deciding to approve or reject them.
- All male citizens over the age of 30 were members of the assembly
e. Boys attended schools, if their families could afford it, learning to become skilled
public speakers in order to participate in democracy.
f. Young men did receive military training, but unlike Sparta which put it above all else,
Athens encouraged young men to explore many areas of knowledge.
11. Despite many divisions, Greeks shared a common culture.
a. They spoke the same language, honored the same ancient heroes, participated in the
same festivals, like the Olympics, and prayed to the same gods.
b. Greeks felt superior to non-Greeks and called them BARBARIANS, meaning people
who did not speak Greek.
C. VICTORY AND DEFEAT IN THE GREEK WORLD.
1. The Greeks had established colonies in Western Asia Minor that they called IONIA, who
rebelled against the Persian Empire claiming independence.
2. The EMPEROR DARIUS soon crushed the invasion and sent a large army across the
Aegean to Greece to punish Athens for its interference.
a. They landed north of Athens at MARATHON on 490 B. C. outnumbering the Greek
forces 2 to 1.
b. The Greeks defeated the Persian forces and sent their fastest runner PHEIDIPPEDES
the 26.2 miles to tell Athens the news.
c. A feat that would become known in modern Olympics as the MARATHON.
3. The Athenian leader THEMISTOCLES knowing the war was not over, urged the building
of a fleet of warships and other defenses.
a. In 480 B. C., XERXES son of Darius, attacked with a much larger force.
b. The Persians landed in Northern Greece near a small narrow mountain pass called
THERMOPYLAE where they were met by KING LEONIDAS of Sparta and a small
force of men.
c. For two days the Greeks kept the Persians at bay until a second pass was discovered.
d. Before the Spartans could be defeated, King Leonidas sent his army south to defend
Athens and keeping only three hundred men, defended the pass, allowing the rest of the
army time to retreat to Athens.
e. The Persians marched south where they burned Athens, which was empty thanks to the
warning and time bought by king Leonidas.
f. The army of the unified Greek city-states defeated the Persian army.
4. Athens emerged from the war the most powerful city-state in Greece and organized the
DELIAN LEAGUE, an alliance of other city-states for defense against Persia.
a. Athens took money from the Delian League to rebuilt itself and created an Athenian
Empire.
5. The years after the Persian War were a golden age for Athens, often called the AGE OF
PERICLES, after the wise leader who led from 460 B. C. to 429 B. C.
a. He pushed to pay salaries to men who held public office thus allowing poor men to
serve in government.
b. Athens had a DIRECT DEMOCRACY which meant that the assembly meet several
times a month and required at least 6,000 men present before deciding anything of
importance.
6. To counter the DELIAN LEAGUE, Sparta sponsored the PELOPONNESIAN LEAGUE.
a. The Delian League was a democracy
b. The Peloponnesian League was an oligarchy
7. In 431 B. C., the PELOPONNESIAN WAR broke out and lasted for 27yrs.
a. The Spartans, allied themselves with the Persian empire to defeat Athens.
8. When Sparta invaded Athens, Pericles allowed people from the surrounding countryside
to move inside the city walls.
a. This led to an outbreak of plague that killed a third of all the people in Athens,
including Pericles.
b. Finally, in 404 B.C., with the help of the Persian navy, Sparta captured Athens.
D. The Glory that was Greece
1. The Greeks used observation and reason to find the cause of events, not content to
believe in the “whim of the gods”.
a. They called these thinkers PHILOSOPHERS, which means “lovers of wisdom”.
2. In Athens, one group of thinkers called SOPHISTS questioned accepted ideas about
truth and justice and believed instead that success was more important than moral
truths.
a. They urged their students to develop skills in RHETORIC, the art of skillful speaking.
3. SOCRATES, was an outspoken critic of the sophists and encouraged people to examine
their deepest beliefs and ideas.
a. Socrates was a teacher who wrote no books himself, instead he taught by what was
called the SOCRATIC METHOD.
b. The Socratic Method was a series of open questions that allowed the student to come to
a better understanding himself without being told by another.
c. At 70, Socrates was put on trial for corrupting the youth and failing to respect the gods.
He was condemned to death.
d. He was given the option to escape and never return to Athens. He refused, saying it
morally wrong. He voluntarily drank a cup of hemlock, a poison, and died.
4. PLATO, a student of Socrates wrote a book called the REPUBLIC, in which he describes
the ideal state
a. He rejected democracy and believed the state should regulate every aspect of its citizens
lives in order to best serve them.
b. He divided society into three classes; workers, soldiers and philosophers, with a
philosopher king.
5. ARISTOTLE, a student of Plato’s, was also suspicious of democracy and favored rule by a
single strong and virtuous ruler.
a. He set up a school called the LYCEUM, where all branches of knowledge could be
studied.
b. When universities began to develop in Europe 1,500yrs later, they were based on
Aristotle’s teachings.
6. HERODOTUS, is known as the father of history, because he cast a critical eye on his
sources noting bias and conflicting accounts.
E. ALEXANDER AND THE HELLENISTIC AGE
1. When PHILIP, Alexander’s father came to the throne of MACEDONIA in 359 B.C.,
he dreamt of conquering the city-states to the south.
a. He built a large, strong, well-trained army and through threats, bribery and
diplomacy formed alliances with many Greek city-states.
b. In 338 B. C., he defeated Athens and Thebes and brought all of Greece under his
control.
c. His next step was to conquer the Persian Empire, unfortunately he was murdered at
his daughter’s wedding feast.
d. Probably by his wife OLYMPIAS, who maneuvered her son, ALEXANDER, only 20
at the time, into succeeding his father.
2. He became known as ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
a. In 334 B. C., Alexander began his conquest of the Persian Empire, though not as
powerful as it once was, it still stretched more than 2,000 miles from Egypt to India.
b. In 331 B. C., he had captured Babylon and the Persian Empire.
c. In 326 B. C., he grew restless and advanced on to conquer India.
d. Though Alexander never lost a battle, his troops were growing tired and wanted to go
home. At a branch of the Indus River, they refused to go on and reluctantly, Alexander
agreed to return home.
e. On the march back to Babylon, he caught a fever and died at the age of 30.
f. His generals asked him who would inherit his empire as Alexander had no children. He
replied, “To the strongest”
g. His three strongest generals divided Alexander’s empire up into three parts.
3. After his death a new culture known as HELLENISTIC CIVILIZATION, a blend of
Greek, Persian, Egyptian and Indian influences would flourish for centuries.
a. At the heart of the Hellenistic world stood the city of ALEXANDRIA in Egypt.
b. It was home to almost 1 million people and new schools of philosophy, the most
influential was STOICISM, founded by ZENO, which urged people to avoid desire and
disappointment by calmly accepting whatever life brought
c. HIPPOCRATES, the father of modern medicine, studied the causes of illness and
looked for cures.
d. His Hippocratic Oath set ethical standards for doctors and a form of it is used today.
CHAPTER 6: ANCIENT ROME AND THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY
A. THE ROMAN WORLD TAKES SHAPE
1. Rome began as a small city-state but ended up ruling the entire Mediterranean world.
Because of its geography, Rome was much easier to unify than Greece.
a. Italy was not broken up into small isolated valleys, its mountains were less rugged and it
had broad fertile plains in both the north and the west.
2. The Roman ancestors, the LATINS, had migrated into Italy about 800 B. C. They shared
Italy with other peoples such as the ETRUSCANS who ruled much of central Italy including
Rome.
a. They drove the Etruscan king out about 509 B. C. and use this date to mark the
traditional founding of the Roman state.
3. Determined never again to be ruled by a monarch, the Romans set up a new government in
which officials were chosen by the people.
a. They called it a REPUBLIC, or “thing of the People”. A republic, they thought, would
keep any one person from gaining too much power.
4. In the early republic, the most powerful governing body was the SENATE, made up of 300
members, all of whom were PATRICIANS, members of the landholding upper class.
Senators served for life.
5. Each year, the senators elected two CONSULS, whose job was to supervise the business of
government and command the armies. Like senators they came from the patrician class, but
could only serve one term
6. In the event of war, the senate might choose a DICTATOR, or ruler who has complete
control over a government, who was granted emergency powers for a period of six months.
a. CINCINNATUS is considered the model dictator.
b. According to legend, after he had been appointed by the senate, he left his farm.
Organized an army, led the Romans to victory against the invaders, attended victory
celebrations and returned home – all within 16 days.
7. PLEBEIANS, the farmers, merchants and craftsmen, who made up the bulk of the
population, had little to no say or influence in government.
a. The plebeians first breakthrough came when the government had the laws inscribed
on 12 tablets and set up in the FORUM, or marketplace.
b. In time, plebeians gained the right to elect their own officials, called TRIBUNES, to
protect their interests.
c. The tribunes could VETO, which means “I FORBID”, or block those laws they felt
were harmful. Little by little, plebeians gained more rights and power in government.
8. By about 270 B. C., Rome occupied all of Italy.
a. As in Greece, Roman armies consisted of citizen soldiers who fought without pay and
supplied their own weapons.
b. Rome generally treated its defeated enemies with justice, though it posted soldiers
throughout the land.
c. It also built a network of all weather military roads to link distant provinces.
d. Even in troubled times, most of the conquered lands remained loyal to Rome.
9. Rome’s conquest of the Italian peninsula brought it into conflict with a new rival
CARTHAGE.
a. Carthage was a city-state on the Northern coast of Africa. Between 264 B. C. and
146 B. C., Rome fought three wars with Carthage known as the PUNIC WARS.
b. PUNICUS was the Roman word for the people of Carthage.
c. Rome’s victory in the first Punic War so angered Carthage, that 23 years later they
sought revenge in the second Punic War.
10. Carthage’s armies of the Second Punic War were led by HANNIBAL.
a. When Hannibal was 9, his father made him swear an oath to always be “an enemy of
Roman people”.
b. In 218 B. C., Hannibal led his army, including dozens of war elephants, from Spain
across the Pyrenees mountains, through France and over the Alps into Italy. The trek
across the Alps cost Hannibal 15 days and more than half of his army and most of his
elephants.
c. For 15yrs, Hannibal and his army moved across Italy winning battle after battle but
were never able to capture Rome.
d. Hannibal was forced to leave Italy, when Rome sent an army to attack Carthage itself.
In the battle of ZAMA, the Roman’s defeated him at last.
e. Carthage had to give up all of its lands outside of Africa to Rome and pay a large
TRIBUTE, or tax to Rome.
f. The most important result aspect of the Second Punic War, was that Rome was now
the master of the Western Mediterranean.
g. At first Rome allowed Hannibal to remain free and under his leadership, Carthage
made a rapid recovery. He was eventually accused of conspiring with the enemies of
Rome and ordered to surrender himself. He drank poison rather than allow himself to be
captured.
11. Hannibal was dead and Carthage was paying its tribute and abiding by the terms of its
surrender, but Rome still saw it as a rival.
a. In the end Rome attacked and completely destroyed the 700yr. old city, killing most
of its citizens and selling the survivors into slavery.
12. Rome also fought wars on other fronts eventually bringing Macedonia, Greece and other
parts of Asia Minor under its rule.
a. By 1333 B. C. Roman power extended from Spain to Egypt and they called the
Mediterranean MARE NOSTRUM, which means our sea.
B. FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE
1. Roman victories put them in control of busy trade routes and incredible riches flooded into
Rome from conquered lands. This newly found wealth had disturbing consequences.
a. A new class of wealthy families emerged who bought huge estates, called
LATIFUNDIA, which were worked by slaves captured in the war.
b. This hurt the small farmer who could not produce as cheaply as the latifundia and were
made worse by the huge quantities of grain flooding the markets from conquered lands.
c. Many farmers fell into debt, sold their lands and moved to Rome and other cities looking
for work. There they joined a restless class of unemployed people where ambitious men
who saw the gap between rich and poor widening roused angry mobs to riot.
d. New wealth increased corruption, greed and self-interest, replacing virtues such as
simplicity, hard work and devotion to duty so prized in the early republic.
2. During the next 100yrs., Rome was plunged into a series of civil wars.
a. The army was transformed from citizen-soldiers, who fought for the glory of Rome, into
highly organized professional soldiers whose first loyalty was to their commanders who
paid them.
3. Out of this chaos emerged JULIUS CAESAR.
a. Caesar dominated Roman politics with the help of his ally, POMPEY, one of Rome’s
most brilliant generals.
b. In 59 B. C., Caesar, set out to make new conquests and after almost nine years of
constant fighting, succeeded in bring all of GAUL, modern day France, under Roman
control.
c. Pompey, growing jealous of Caesar’s success, convinced the senate to order him back to
Rome and disband his army.
d. Caesar defied the order and led his army across the Rubicon river into Northern Italy and
to Rome.
e. The expression “Crossing the Rubicon” has come to mean making a decision to which
one is completely committed and from which one cannot retreat.
f. Caesar crushed Pompey and his supporters and forced the senate to make him dictator,
but without the time limit.
g. He later stated, “VENI, VIDI VICI”, which means I came, I saw, I conquered.
h. Although he kept the senate and other features of the republic, he was in fact the absolute
ruler of Rome.
4. Caesar’s enemies worried that he planned to make himself king so in order to save the
republic they plotted against him.
a. According to legend, a SOOTHSAYER, or fortuneteller, warned him to “BEWARE
THE IDES OF MARCH”.
b. As Julius Caesar arrived on the steps of the senate, he was stabbed to death. The death of
Julius Caesar plunged Rome into a new round of civil wars.
5. MARK ANTHONY, Caesar’s chief general, and OCTAVIAN, Caesar’s grandnephew,
joined forces to hunt down his murderers.
a. The two men soon quarreled and in 31 B. C., Octavian defeated Mark Anthony and his
ally, CLEOPATRA, Queen of Egypt.
6. The senate proclaimed Octavian, AUGUSTUS, which means the exalted one and declared
him PRINCEPS, or first citizen. It was under the rule of Augustus that the 500yr old
republic came to an end and the age of the Roman Empire was born.
7. Augustus left the senate in place but established a well-run, efficient civil service, an
improved and more fair tax system, cemented relations with outlying provinces, set up a
postal service, put the jobless to work and organized a stable government that functioned
well for 200yrs.
8. Still, a serious problem kept arising, who would rule after the emperor died?
a. As Romans hated the idea of a king, power did not automatically pass from father to son.
Consequently, the death of an emperor often led to intrigue and violence.
9. Not all of Augustus’ successors were great rulers; some were weak and incompetent.
a. Two early emperor, CALIGULA and NERO, were downright evil and perhaps insane.
10. Between A. D. 96 and A. D. 180, the empire benefited from a series of good emperors.
11. The two hundred year span that began with Augustus and ended with Marcus Aurelius is
known as the period of PAX ROMANA, or Peace of Rome.
C. THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY
1. Early in the Pax Romana, a new religion CHRISTIANITY, sprang up in a distant corner of
the Roman empire.
a. At first it was just one of many religions practiced , but grew rapidly and by 392, it had
been declared the official religion of the Roman empire.
2. Among the many people of the empire were the JEWS, who had been conquered by the
Romans in about 63 B. C., and turned PALESTINE into the Roman province of JUDEA.
a. During the Hellenistic Age, many Jews adopted Greek customs and ideas.
b. This brought them into conflict with others who saw this as a weakening of their religion
and called for a stricter obedience to Jewish laws and customs.
c. The turmoil took on a political side with Jewish priest struggling to preserve their religion
and others called ZEALOTS, radicals, extremists, calling for a revolt against Rome and
an establishment of an independent state called ISRAEL.
d. Some believed that a MESSIAH, or savior sent by God, would soon appear to lead them
to freedom.
e. In 66, Roman forces crushed the rebels, captured JERUSALEM, their holy city and
destroyed the temple. In 135, Roman armies leveled Jerusalem and force the Jews out of
their homeland and forbade them ever to return. This was called the DIASPORA
f. Jews survived in scattered communities around the Mediterranean and over the centuries
RABBIS, Jewish scholars, preserved and extended Jewish law in the TALMUD.
3. What little we know about the life of Jesus comes from the Gospels.
a. Jesus’ teachings were rooted firmly in Jewish tradition, though he also preached new
beliefs.
b. Some Jews welcomed Jesus, others saw him as a dangerous troublemaker.
c. Jewish priest feared that he was a threat to their leadership and the Romans saw him as a
revolutionary who might lead the Jews in rebellion against Rome.
d. Jesus’ DISCIPLES, or followers, were thrown into confusion upon his death and soon
rumors spread throughout Jerusalem that Jesus been seen walking and talking and had
risen form the dead. He commanded them to spread his teachings and then ascended into
heaven.
e. The disciples who spread Jesus’ message are known as the APOSTLES, from the Greek
word meaning, “a PERSON SENT FORTH”
f. Slowly, a few Jews accepted the teachings that Jesus was the messiah, or the CHRIST,
from the Greek for ‘ANNOINTED ONE”. These people became the first Christians.
3. At first, Christianity remained a SECT, or small group, within Judaism. Then PAUL, a Jew
from Asia Minor began the wider spread of the faith.
a. Paul’s missionary work set Christianity on the road to becoming a world religion.
4. Rome’s tolerant attitude toward religion DID NOT extend to Christianity.
a. Roman officials suspected Christians of disloyalty to Rome because they refused to make
sacrifices to the emperor or to honor the Roman gods. When Christians met in secret to
avoid persecution, rumors spread that they were engaged in evil practices.
b. Over the centuries, thousands of Christians became MARTYRS, people who suffer or
die for their beliefs.
5. The reasons Christianity continued to spread were many.
a. Jesus welcomed ALL people, especially the humbled, poor and oppressed.
b. They found comfort in his message of love and a better life beyond the grave.
c. Even persecution brought converts. People were impressed by the strength of the
Christians belief when they saw them willing to die for them.
6. As they did their work, Christian missionaries, like Paul, added ideas from Plato, the Stoics,
and other Greek thinkers to Jesus’ message.
7. In early Christian communities, women served as teachers and administrators.
a. Even when they were barred from any official role in the Church, they still worked to win
converts and support Christian communities across the Roman world.
8. Early Christian communities began to organize a formal church. Each community had its
own priests who came under the authority of a BISHOP, who was a church official
responsible for all Christians in an area called a DIOCESE.
a. Bishops traced their spiritual authority back to PETER, the chief disciple of Christ and
through Peter to Jesus himself.
b. The Christian church thus developed into a HIERARCHY, or organization in which
officials are arranged according to rank.
9. Rivalry among the bishops of Jerusalem, Antioch, Rome and Constantinople led to
divisions in the Church.
a. Eventually, in the Latin speaking West, the bishop of Rome was accepted as POPE,
or head of the Roman Catholic Church.
b. To end disputes over questions of faith, councils of Church leaders met to decide
official Church teachings. They battled HERESIES, beliefs said to be contrary to
official Church teachings.
10. The persecutions of Christians finally ended in 313, when the emperor CONSTANTINE
issued the EDICT OF MILAN, which granted freedom of worship to all citizens of the
Roman Empire.
a. Some 80 years later, the emperor THEODOSIUS, made Christianity the official religion
of the Roman empire.
b. When the Roman empire collapsed, the Church inherited many of its functions.
E. THE LONG DECLINE
1. After the end of the Pax Romana, political turmoil rocked the empire.
a. Disturbing economic and social trends forced many small farmers to give up their
land and seek the protection of wealthy landowners.
2. In 284, the emperor DIOCLETION set out to restore order.
a. To make the empire easier to govern, he divided it into two parts, though he kept
absolute control of the wealthier portion and appointed a co-emperor to run the
western provinces.
b. He established laws to ensure steady production of food and other goods; such as
farmers were forced to remain on their lands and sons were required to follow in their
father’s occupation.
3. In 312, CONSTANTINE took the throne and continued Diocletion’s reforms.
a. He took two steps which changed the course of European history.
b. FIRST, he granted toleration to Christians, which encouraged the rapid growth of
Christianity within the empire and guaranteed its future success.
c. SECOND, he built a new capital, CONSTANTINOPLE, and moved the center of
power from the west to the eastern empire and would for centuries to come.
d. The reforms failed to stop the decline and in the end, internal problems combined
with attacks from outside brought the empire down.
4. The Huns, a nomadic people from Central Asia, fought fierce battles to dislodge the
Germanic peoples in their path. People like the VISIGOTHS, sought safety by crossing
into Roman lands.
a. In 378, when the Roman army tried to turn them back, they suffered a stunning
defeat. New waves of invaders were soon hammering at Rome’s borders.
b. In 410, the Visigoth general ALARIC, overran Italy and plundered Rome.
c. Gradually, other Germanic peoples occupied large parts of the western empire.
5. In 434, the Hun leader ATTILA, embarked on a savage campaign of the conquest of
Europe.
a. Christians called Attila, THE SCOURGE OF GOD, because they believed his
attacks were punishment for the sins of mankind.
b. Attila died in 453 and his empire collapsed soon after, though his invasion sent still
more Germanic peoples fleeing into the Roman empire.
6. In 476, ODOACER, a Germanic leader, ousted the emperor of Rome. Historians mark
this as the “fall of Rome”
7. DID ROME FALL?
a. The empire did not disappear from the map in 476.
b. An emperor still ruled in the eastern Roman empire, later to be called the
BYZANTINE EMPIRE, for a thousand years.
c. In Italy, people still spoke Latin, obeyed Roman laws and continued their lived as
they always have.
d. Eventually, German customs, ideas and languages replaced Roman culture, old
Roman cities began to crumble and Roman roads disappeared under the mud.
But the Christian Church preserved many of the elements of Roman civilization.
Chapter 7: Civilizations of the Americas
I. Civilizations of Middle America
A. Geography: The Americas
1. Great migration of people from Asia to North America occurred during the last ice age
over a land bridge on the Bering Strait.
2. As global warming and hunting skills improved, large game animals like the mammoth
may have died.
3. Regions
a. North America: Rocky Mountains, Mississippi River
b. Middle America (Mexico and Central America): East and West Sierra Madre
Mountains
c. South America: Andes Mountains, Amazon River
d. The first Americans learned to adapt to the environment and resources they lived in.
4. The Agricultural Revolution
a. Archaeologists think that farming was partly a response to the disappearance of the
large animals.
b. Neolithic people began cultivating a range of crops from corn and beans to sweet
potatoes, peppers, tomatoes, and squash.
c. Early American farmers learned to domesticate animals, such as llamas, but had no
large animals – such as oxen and horses – to do the heavy labor.
d. The agricultural revolution sparked the rise of the first American civilization.
B. Legacy of the Olmecs
1. Location: tropical forests of Mexican Gulf Coast
2. Period: 1400 B.C. to 500 B.C.
3. The rich tombs and temples suggest a powerful class of priests and aristocrats.
4. The Olmecs did not build true cities, but rather they built ceremonial centers made up of
pyramid-shaped temples and other buildings.
5. The most dramatic remains of the Olmec civilization are the giant carved stone heads
found in the ruins of a religious center at La Venta.
6. Olmec influence: grinning jaguars and serpent carvings, calendar, carved inscriptions as
writing, tradition of priestly leadership and religious devotion.
C. The World of the Mayas
1. Location: Yuccatán in southern Mexico through much of Central America
2. Period: 300-900
3. Mayan farmers cleared the dense rain forests and then built raised fields that caught and
held rainwater. They also built channels that could be opened to drain off excess water.
4. Towering pyramid temples dominated the largest Mayan city of Tikal, in present-day
Guatemala.
5. Priests climbed steep temple stairs to perform sacrifices on high platforms, while ordinary
people watched from the plazas far below.
6. Some temples also served as burial places for nobles and priests.
7. Tikal also boasted large palaces and huge stone pillars covered with elaborate carvings.
8. The carvings, which usually record events in Mayan history, preserve striking images of
haughty aristocrats, warriors in plumed headdresses, and captives about to be sacrificed
to the gods.
9. Much of the wealth of Tikal and the other Mayan cities came from trade, particularly
honey, cocoa, and feathers.
10. Social classes
a. rulers: usually men, though women occasionally governed
b. nobles: served as military leaders and officials who managed public works, collected
taxes, and enforced laws
c. priests: held great power because only they could conduct the elaborate ceremonies
needed to ensure good harvests and success in war
d. farmers: most Mayans; grew corn, beans, squash, fruit trees, cotton, and tropical
flowers; paid taxes in food
11. Advances in Learning
a. hieroglyphic writing system
b. books made of bark
c. priests became expert mathematicians and astronomers
(1) accurate 365-day solar calendar
(2) accurate 260-day calendar based on Venus
(3) developed a number system and understood the concept of zero
12. About 900, the Mayas abandoned their cities, leaving their great stone palaces and
temple to be swallowed up by the jungle.
13. Today, millions of people in Guatemala and southern Mexico speak Mayan languages
and are descended from the builders of this early American civilization.
D. The Valley of Mexico
1. The Valley of Mexico is a huge oval basin ringed by snow-capped volcanoes, located in
the high plateau of central Mexico.
2. Teotihuacán
a. city that dominated a large area from 100-750
b. wide roads, large apartment buildings, massive temples
(1) Pyramid of the Sun
(2) Pyramid of the Moon
c. Citizens worshipped a powerful nature goddess and rain god
3. Arrival of the Aztecs
a. Aztec legend
(1) gods told them to search for an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake
in its beak
(2) saw the sign on an island in Lake Texcoco
(3) built the city of Tenochtitlán – site of present-day Mexico City
b. built chinampas, artificial islands made of earth piled on reed mats that were
anchored to the shallow lake bed, to raise corn, squash, and beans.
4. Conquering an Empire
a. Through a combination of fierce conquests and shrewd alliances, the Aztecs spread
their rule over most of Mexico.
b. War brought immense wealth through tribute (payment from conquered peoples) as
well as power.
E. The World of the Aztecs
1. Government and Society
a. emperor: lone ruler chosen by a council of nobles and priests to lead in war
b. nobles: served as officials, judges, and governors of conquered provinces
c. warriors: could rise to noble status by killing or capturing enemy soldiers
d. commoners: majority of people, farmed the land
e. slaves: mostly criminals or prisoners’ of war
(1) could own land and buy their freedom
f. long-distance traders: were also used as spies to find new places to trade and conquer
2. Religious beliefs
a. Priests were a class apart. They performed the rituals needed to please the many
Aztec gods.
b. Huitzilopochtli: chief god, sun god
c. Priests offered human sacrifices to Huitzilopochtli and other Aztec gods.
d. Most of the victims were prisoners of war, but sometimes a noble family gave up one
of its own members to appease the gods.
II. The World of the Incas
A. Early Peoples of Peru
1. Climates and terrains
a. coastal plain: dry, lifeless desert crossed by occasional river valleys
b. Andes Mountains and high plateaus that bake (day) and freeze (night)
c. dense jungles
2. Using careful irrigation, they grew corn, cotton, squash, and beans
3. On mountain slopes, they cultivated potatoes, eventually producing 700 varieties.
4. In high plateaus, they domesticated the llama
5. Chavín
a. earliest culture, 850 B.C.
b. built a huge temple complex
c. worshiped a ferocious-looking god, part jaguar and part human
6. Mochica
a. 100-700
b. built roads and organized networks of relay runners to carry messages
c. The people perfected skills in goldwork and woodcarving
d. They produced remarkable pots decorated with realistic scenes of daily life.
7. Many other cultures left tantalizing clues to their lives and beliefs
a. Nazca people etched giant figures of birds, whales, and other creatures into the sand
and gravel hills.
B. Ruling an Empire
1. Pachacuti: skilled warrior and leader, founder of Incan empire; proclaimed himself Sapa
Inca (emperor) in 1438
2. Government
a. The Sapa Inca exercised absolute power over the empire.
b. Claiming he was divine, he son of the sun itself, he was also the chief religious
leader
c. Gold, “the sweat of the sun,” was his symbol.
d. His queen, the Coya, carried out important religious duties and sometimes governed
when the Sapa Incas was absent.
e. From their mountain capital at Cuzco, the Incas ran an efficient government with a
chain of command reaching into every village.
(1) Nobles ruled the provinces along with local chieftains whom the Incas
conquered.
(2) Below them, officials carried out the day-to-day business of collecting taxes
and enforcing laws.
(3) Specially trained officials kept records on a quipu, a collection of knotted,
colored strings.
3. Roads and Runners
a. To unite their empire, the Incas imposed their own language, Quechua, and religion
on the people.
b. They also created one of the great road systems in history, winding more than 12,000
miles.
c. The roads allowed armies and news to move rapidly throughout the empire.
d. Ordinary people were restricted from using the roads at all.
4. Cuzco
a. In the heart of the city stood the great Temple of the Sun, its interior walls lined with
gold.
b. The engineering was so precise that, although no mortar was used to hold the stones
together, Incan buildings have survived severe earthquake.
C. Lives of the Incas
1. The Incas strictly regulated the lives of millions of people within their empire.
2. Leaders of each ayllu (close-knit community) carried out government orders, assigning
jobs to each family and organizing the community to work the land.
3. Government officials arranged marriages to ensure that men and women were settled at
a certain age.
4. Farming
a. Farmers expanded the step terraces built by earlier peoples.
b. Farmers had to spend part of each year working land for the emperor and the temples
as well as for their own communities.
5. Religion
a. The Incas were polytheistic, worshipping many gods linked to the forces of nature.
b. People offered food, clothing, and drink to the guardian spirits of the home and the
village.
c. Each month had its own festival. Festivals were celebrated with ceremonies, sports,
and games.
D. Chosen Women of the Sun
1. Within the walls of the Acllahuachi, the young Aclla learned the skills and duties they
needed to serve the sun god.
2. They studied the mysteries of the Incan religion, learning the natures and rituals of the
many gods and goddesses.
3. They learned to prepare ritual foods and to brew chica, a corn beverage used by priests
in their sun ceremonies.
4. Perhaps most important, the Aclla learned to make the elaborate wool garments and
feathers headdresses worn by the Sapa Inca and his wife, the Coya.
5. When a Chosen reached the age of 16, her long period of training came to an end.
a. In the provincial capitals, some women might be given in marriage to nobles or other
allies and friends of the Incas.
b. At Cuzco, a few Aclla might be selected to serve the emperor or the Coya.
c. Most of the Chosen Women, however, remained in the house of seclusion.
(1) They spent their lives using their skills in the service of the Sun.
(2) Some Aclla became mamaeuna, or “noble mothers,” whose sacred duty was
to train new generations of Chosen Women.
E. Advances
1. The Incas did have a calendar.
2. The Incas also excelled in medicine.
a. They used herbs as antiseptics and performed surgery on the skull to relieve
swelling caused by wounds.
III. Peoples of North America
A. The Desert Southwest
1. The Hohokams
a. “Vanished Ones”
b. To farm the desert, they built a complex irrigation system for corn, squash, and beans.
c. They lived near the Gila River in present-day Arizona.
d. They built temple mounds and ball courts.
2. The Anasazi
a. They lived in what is today the Four Corners region of Arizona, New Mexico,
Colorado, and Utah.
b. Between about 900-1300, the Anasazi built large villages, later called pueblos by the
Spanish.
c. At the center of the great complex, the Anasazis dug their Kiva, a large underground
chamber used for religious ceremonies.
d. In the late 1100s, the Anasazi began building housing complexes in the shadow of
canyon walls, where the cliffs offered protection from raiders, used ladders to get to
their fields.
e. In the late 1200s, a long drought forced the Anasazi to abandon their cliff dwellings.
f. Attacks by Navajos and Apaches may have contributed further to their decline.
B. The Mound Builders
1. The Adena and Hopewell people left behind giant earthen mounds.
2. Some mounds were cone-shaped, while others were made in the shape of animals.
3. The Mississippians built clusters of earthen mounds and even larger towns and ceremonial
centers.
a. Their greatest center, Cahokia, in present-day Illinois, housed as many as 40,000
people by about 1200.
b. Cahokia boasted at least 60 mounds.
C. Diverse Regional Cultures
1. Modern scholars have identified 10 culture areas based on the environments in which
people lived: the Arctic, Subarctic, Northwest Coast, California, Great Basin, Plateau,
Southwest, Great Plains, Southeast, and Eastern Woodlands.
2. In each area, people adapted to geographic conditions that influenced their ways of life.
Culture Group/Selected Tribes
Patterns of Life
Connections Today
Arctic/Subarctic
Beavers, Crees, Inuits,
Kutchins
Lived as nomadic hunters
and food gatherers in cold
climate; honored ocean,
weather, and animal spirits
Northwest Coast
Bella Coolas, Coos,
Kwakiutis, Tlingits
Lived in villages; benefited
from rich natural resources
in forests, rivers, and ocean;
held potlatches, or
ceremonial dinners, where
host families gave gifts to
guests to show wealth and
gain status
Lived as hunters and
gatherers in small family
groups; ate mainly fish,
berries, acorns
In the 1990s, the Canadian
government agreed to restore
140,000 square miles of Inuit
lands. The Inuits called the new
territory Nunavit, or “our land.”
Artists, such as Jesse Cooday, a
Tlingit, are merging many
traditional Native American
themes with modern styles.
Their works are featured in
museums and galleries, where
they inspire new generations.
California/Great Basin/Plateau
Southwest
Apaches, Hopis, Navajos,
Pueblos
Lived in villages in homes
made of adobe; built
irrigation systems to grow
corn and other crops;
honored earth, sky, and
water spirits
Great Plains
Arapohos, Blackfeet,
Cheyennes, Comanches,
Crows, Lakotas, Mandans,
Osages
Lived in tepees; animals
hunted by men; crops grown
by women; relied on buffalo
to meet basic needs of food,
shelter, and clothing
Eastern Woodlands
Algonquins, Chippawas,
Herons, Iroquois, LeniLenapes, Miamis, Pequots,
Shawnees
Lived in farming villages,
but also hunted for food;
long houses shared by
several families; women
held much social and
political power
Grew corn, squash, beans,
and other crops; held yearly
Green Corn Ceremony to
mark end of year and
celebrate harvest
Southeast
Cherokees, Natchez
Like many Native Americans,
Lillian Valenzuela Robles of
southern California is working to
stop development of a plot of
land that is part of her people’s
ancestral homeland.
Like many other tribes,
Mescalero Apaches in New
Mexico have improved the
quality of life on their reservation
through successful businesses,
including a sawmill and a ski
lodge.
The Crows in Montana have set
up a two-year college that
teaches such subjects as math,
science, and Crow history. It is
one of 28 tribally controlled
colleges in the United States.
The Pequots in Connecticut, like
other tribes around the country
have built a gambling casino.
The profits support education and
provide health services
Throughout the country,
including the Southeast, Native
Americans gather at intertribal
pow-wows to celebrate with
singing, dancing, food, games,
and sports
3. In the far north, the Inuits adapted to a harsh climate, using the resources of the frozen land
to survive.
a. Small bands lived by hunting and fishing.
b. Seals and other sea mammals provided them with food, skins for clothing, bones for
needles and tools, and oil for cooking.
c. They paddled kayaks in open water or used dog sleds to transport goods across the ice.
d. In some areas, Inuits constructed igloos, or dome-shaped homes made from snow and
ice.
e. In others, they built sod dwellings that were partly underground.
4. The people of the Northwest Coast lived in a far richer environment than the Inuits.
a. Rivers teamed with salmon, while the Pacific Ocean offered other fish and sea
mammals.
b. Hunters traded deer, wolves, and bears in the forests.
c. People built large permanent villages with homes made of wood.
d. They traded their surplus goods, gaining wealth that was shared in ceremonies like the
potlatch.
5. The Eastern Woodlands, stretching from the Atlantic Coast, was home to a number of
groups, including the Iroquois.
a. They cleared land and built villages in the forests.
b. While women farmed, men hunted and frequently arred against rival nations.
c. In the late 1500s, the prophet Dekanawida and his ally Hiawatha formed the unique
political system known as the Iroquois League.
d. This was an alliance of five nations who spoke the same language and shared similar
traditions.
e. Member nations governed their own villages but met jointly in a council when they
needed to resolve larger problems.
CHAPTER 8: THE RISE OF EUROPE
A. The Early Middle Ages
1. Rome had linked European territories with miles of fine roads, had spread classical
ideas, the Latin language and Christianity to the peoples of Western Europe.
2. The Germanic peoples who had ended Roman rule in the West shifted their focus to
the North.
a. There the peoples of Europe had began to create a new civilization.
3. The Germanic tribes who migrated across Europe were had had a greatly different
culture than that of the Romans.
a. They had no cities and no written laws.
b. They lived in small communities governed by unwritten customs.
c. They were ruled by elected kings, whose chief role was to lead them in war.
4. Between 400 and 700, The Germanic tribes carved up Western Europe into small
kingdoms, the strongest and most successful of which was that of the FRANKS.
a. In 481, CLOVIS became king of the Franks and were able to conquer the former
Roman province of GAUL.
b. He converted to Christianity and gained a powerful ally in the Roman Catholic
Church.
5. ISLAM emerged in 632 in ARABIA and swept out of the Middle East and into the
Mediterranean world.
a. Christians watched in fear as the MUSLIMS, believers in the Islamic faith,
headed into Europe.
b. At the BATTLE OF TOURS, the armies of CHARLES MARTEL, defeated the
Muslims and took this to be a sign that God was on their side.
c. Muslims continued to rule Spain, but advanced no further into Western Europe.
6. Around 800, the grandson of Charles Martel, named CHARLEMAGNE, or
CHARLES THE GREAT, built an empire reaching across France, Germany and
parts of Italy.
a. POPE LEO II called on Charlemagne to help against rebellious nobles in Italy.
The Pope was so grateful for his help putting down the rebellion that on
Christmas day in the year 800 Charlemagne was crowned emperor.
b. This caused a lot of problems in the future between the popes and the kings.
c. If the Pope can crown a king, can he not also take it away? If so, who has more
power?
d. In order to check on the local lords, Charlemagne sent out MISSI DOMENICI,
officials who would check on the roads, listen to complaints and see that justice
was done.
e. Charlemagne could neither read nor write put set up a palace school at his capital
AACHEN, which he hoped to make a “second Rome”.
f. The school, run by ALCUIN, was to ensure a supply of educated officials.
g. After his death in 814, the empire fell apart as his three grandsons fought bitter
wars against each other for control for nearly 30 years.
h. Finally, in 843, they drew up the TREATY OF VERDUN, which ended the wars
and split the empire into three parts.
i. Charlemagne’s empire now broken, still faced the threats of invaders and raiders.
The most destructive of which were the VIKINGS.
B. FEUDALISM AND THE MANOR ECONOMY.
1. In the face of these invasions, kings and emperors were too weak and or too far away to
maintain law and order.
a. In response to the basic need for safety and protection a new system called feudalism
evolved.
b. FEUDALISM was a loosely organized system of rule in which powerful lords
divided their large landholdings among lesser lords, called VASSALS, in exchange
for pledges of loyalty and service; usually 40 days of military service a year, certain
money payments and advice. The lord also promised to protect his vassal.
c. In this system a lord could BE a vassal and yet HAVE vassals under him.
d. Feudal relationships could get very complex, especially if a vassal had several
overlords, who quarreled among themselves. Having a LIEGE LORD, the person to
whom he owed first loyalty, solved this.
e. A lord granted his vassal a FIEF, or estate, which could run from a few acres to
hundreds of square miles; it also included all the peasants living there and any towns
or buildings on the land.
f. Feudal lords battled constantly for power and therefore trained many nobles from
boyhood to become KNIGHTS, mounted warriors.
g. As the wars of the early Middle Ages lessened in the 1100’s, TOURNAMENTS, or
mock battles came into fashion.
h. At first these mock battles were as dangerous as real ones and captured knights were
held for ransom.
2. Women’s rights were severely restricted under the feudal system.
a. It was the oldest son who inherited the land though women did receive a small part as
a DOWRY, or bride price.
b. Daughters of nobles were sent to friends or relatives for training; a young woman was
expected to know how to spin, weave, and supervise servants before she was ready
for her parents to arrange her marriage.
3. In the late Middle Ages, knights adopted a code of conduct called CHIVALRY, which
required knights to be brave, loyal and true to their word. It applied to nobles only,
NOT COMMONERS.
4. Chivalry called for women to be protected and cherished. As was seen in the love songs
of the TROUBADOURS, or wandering poets.
5. Most of the peasants on a MANOR, or lord’s estate, were SERFS who were bound to
the land.
a. They were not slaves and could not be bought and sold, but they were not free. They
could not leave the land without the lord's permission and if the manor were given to
a new lord, the serfs went with it.
b. Peasants had to work several days a week on the lords lands, farming, repairing
fences, bridges or roads. They paid the lord a fee when they married, inherited their
father’s lands or used the mill to grind the grain into flour.
c. As there was little to no actual no money in the Middle Ages, peasants paid in
products or work.
d. At night, the family plus any cows, chickens, pigs or sheep slept together in their one
room hut.
C.
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
1. After the fall of Rome, the Christian church split into the eastern and western church.
a. The western church became the Roman Catholic Church and grew stronger and
wealthier during the Middle Ages to the point where it was the most powerful
SECULAR, or worldly, force in Western Europe.
b. The Pope was the spiritual leader of the Church and rules vast lands in central Italy
known as the PAPAL STATES.
c. As the representative of Christ on Earth, the pope claimed to have authority over all
secular rulers.
d. Medieval Christians believed that ALL people were sinners doomed to eternal
suffering and the only way to avoid the tortures of hell was to participate in the
SACRAMENTS, which are the sacred rituals of the Church.
e. The Church had its own body of law called CANON LAW, which applied to
religious teachings, the behavior of the clergy and marriage and morals.
f. Anyone who refused to obey the Church laws faced a wide ranged of penalties. The
most severe was EXCOMMUNICATION. People who were excommunicated
could not receive the sacraments, or the protection of the Church and all Christians
were REQUIRED to shun them.
g. A powerful noble, including a king, who violated Church law could also face
INTERDICT, which excluded an entire town, region or kingdom from receiving the
sacraments.
h. To support the Church, all Christians were required to pay a TITHE, or tax equal to
one tenth of their incomes.
2. About 530, a monk named BENEDICT drew up a set of rules to regulate religious life.
These rules spread to other monasteries and convents and became known as the
BENEDICTINE RULE.
a. In a world without hospitals, public schools, or social programs, convents and
monasteries provided basic social services.
b. Monasteries and convents performed the vital cultural function of preserving the
writings of the ancient world.
c. HILDEGARD OF BINGEN was an extraordinary woman who became a composer,
writer, abbess, advisor to great men and women and was even recognized by the pope
for her special gifts of visions and as a prophet.
d. But as the Church grew more powerful it withdrew from women the rights they once
had to preach the Gospel and hear confessions and frowned on too much learning for
women, preferring that they accept the Church’s authority.
3. With the growth in power and wealth of the Church came serious problems.
a. Clergy became more worldly and many lived in luxury ignoring their vows. The
growing corruption and moral decay led to demands for reform.
b. In 1073, POPE GREGORY VII. Prohibited SIMONY, the selling of positions in
the Church, outlawed marriage for priests and called on Christians to renew their
faith.
c. He insisted that the Church, not kings and nobles, choose Church officials.
d. FRIARS, monks who traveled widely preaching to the poor, took a different
approach to reform.
e. The first order of Friars was the FRANCISCANS founded by St., Francis of Assisi
was devoted to preaching the Christian message and teaching good works by
example.
f. Another group, the DOMINICANS, founded by a Spanish monk, St. Dominic,
dedicated themselves to educating people about church doctrines and disputing the
ideas of heretics.
g. The BEGUINES were an organization of nuns who did not have sufficient financial
means to enter other convents, who supported themselves through weaving and
embroidery and ministered to the poor and set up hospitals.
4. Medieval Europe was home to numerous Jewish communities.
a. The Mediterranean or SEPHARDIC, Jews flourished particularly in Spain under the
Arabs who had gained control in the 700’s, often serving as officials in Muslims royal
courts. Jews also spread into northern Europe were known as the ASHKENAZIM,
or German Jews.
b. For the most part, medieval Christians persecuted the Jews. The Church barred them
from owning land, or practicing most occupations and blamed them for the death of
Jesus Christ, thus laying the foundations for ANTI-SEMANTISM or prejudice
against the Jews.
D. ECOMONIC EXPANSION AND CHANGE.
1. By 1000, peasants were adapting to new farming technologies that made their fields more
productive. The result was an agricultural revolution that transformed Europe.
a. Iron plows that dug deeper than wooden ones; new harnesses that allowed horses
rather than slow moving oxen to plow; the new three field farming system and the
invention of the windmill, where there were no fast moving streams to turn water
wheels to grind grain into flour all allowed the farmers to produce more food which
in turn allowed the population to grow.
b. Between 1000 and 1300 the population of Europe doubled.
c. Europe’s growing population needed goods not available on the manor so
enterprising traders set up merchant companies that traveled around in armed
caravans for safety.
d. They set up regular trade routes where traders and customers could meet at local trade
fairs. The peasants exchanging goods and produce for crafts and other goods not
available on the manor.
e. The feudal lords and churchmen were the customers for the luxury items such as
sugar and silks and fine woolens.
2. The fairs closed in the autumn when the roads became impassable and merchants sat out
the winter months near a castle or in a town with a bishop’s palace. These temporary
settlements became centers of trade and developed into the first medieval cities.
a. To protect their interests, the merchants who set up these towns would ask the local
lord, or better yet the king himself for a CHARTER, a written document that set out
the rights and privileges of the town.
b. Most charters granted the townspeople the right to choose their own leaders and
control their own affairs. They also had a clause that declared anyone living in a
town for a year and a day was free. A statement very popular with the serfs.
3. As trade revived the need for money reappeared.
a. The use of money undermined serfdom as feudal lords needed money to buy fine
clothes, spices and other goods. The peasants began selling excess farm products to
towns people and paying their lords in rent money rather than in service.
b. By 1000 a new class of traders, artisans and merchants appeared called the MIDDLE
CLASS, that stood between the nobles and the peasants.
c. Nobles and clergy despised the middle class because the towns were now beyond
their control and the lending of money at interest called USURY, was considered
immoral.
4. Merchant GUILDS or associations dominated life in medieval towns. They passed
laws, levied taxes and decided on what to spend funds.
a. In time artisans began to resent the power of the merchants and established their own
CRAFT GUILDS. Each guild represented workers in one occupation.
b. To become a guild member, a child was taken at the age of seven or eight as an
APPRENTICE or trainee where he or she spent the next seven learning the trade.
The only pay an apprentice received was bed and board.
c. Next step was as a JOURNEYMAN where they were given some, though usually
very little, pay.
d. Final stage was as MASTER, which few every achieved.
e. Women worked in dozens of crafts and not only were allowed to inherit from their
fathers but could become guild masters in their own right.
f. Even rich towns had no garbage collection or sewer service and remained filthy,
smelly, noisy and crowded.
CHAPTER 9 THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES
A.
The Growth of Royal Power in England and France
1. In medieval Europe, kings stood at the head of society yet often had limited power.
a.
They may have ruled their own domains, but relied on vassals for military support.
Nobles and the Church had as much, if not more, power than the king.
2. Although feudalism developed, English rulers generally kept their kingdoms united.
3. In 1066, the Anglo-Saxon king of England, EDWARD, died without an heir, his brotherin-law, HAROLD, was chosen by a council of nobles to rule.
a. DUKE WILLIAM OF NORMANDY, a French nobleman, won the backing of the
pope, raised an army and at the BATTLE OF HASTINGS defeated Harold for the
throne.
b. On Christmas day 1066, WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR, assumed the crown of
England. He granted large to nobles and the Church but kept a large amount for
himself.
c. In 1086, he had a census taken of the kingdom that included every castle, field and
pigpen. It was called the DOMESDAY BOOK, because it was to be as complete an
accounting as God Himself would do on Judgement day.
4. In 1154, King Henry II inherited the throne and broadened the system of royal justice
through the use of COMMON LAW, or law common to all the people.
a. He sent out traveling justices to enforce the law and their decisions became the basis
for common law.
b. When the traveling justice arrived in an area, local officials collected a JURY, or
group of men sworn to speak the truth. They determined which cases should be
brought to trial and are the ancestors of today’s GRAND JURY.
c. Later, another jury of 12 male neighbors of the accused evolved. This was the
ancestor of today’s TRIAL JURY.
3. Henry’s efforts to extend royal power led to a bitter dispute with the Church. Henry
claimed the right to try clergy in royal courts, but THOMAS a’ BECKETT,
ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY, the highest church position in England, opposed
him.
a. In 1170, in a fit of drunken rage, or so the legend goes, Henry called out, “Will no
one rid me of this troublesome priest?” Four knights, taking Henry at his word,
found the archbishop praying in his cathedral and killed him there in front of the
altar.
b. To make peace, Henry submitted to the Church’s justice and was whipped in front of
his own subjects. He did not try to wrest power from the Church again.
4. Henry’s son John, faced three powerful adversaries and lost each time.
a. He lost a war with King Philip of France and had to give up lands in France.
b. He fought Pope Innocent III over who had the right to appoint the Archbishop of
Canterbury. He was excommunicated and England put under interdict. In order to
save his crown he had to make England a fief of the Pope and pay a yearly tribute.
c. In 1215, a band of rebellious nobles cornered him and forced him to sign the
MAGNA CARTA, or Great Charter.
5. The Magna Carta contained two basic ideas that in the long run would shape government
traditions in England.
a. First, it asserted that the nobles had certain rights. Over time these rights would be
granted to all English citizens
b. Second, the Magna Carta made it clear that the king must obey the law.
c. The king also agreed not to raise taxes without first consulting with the GREAT
COUNICL of lords and clergy.
d. During the 1200’s English rulers often called upon the Great Council for advice.
Eventually, this body evolved into PARLIAMENT. As it acquired a larger role in
government, it helped unify England.
e. Over the centuries, Parliament gained the “POWER OF THE PURSE”, that is, it
gained the power to approve any new taxes. With this power, they could now insist
that the monarch met their demands before voting for the new taxes.
f. In this way it could check or limit the power of the monarch.
6. Monarchs in France did not rule over a unified country. Instead they had little power
over a patchwork of territories ruled by great feudal lords.
a. In 987, these feudal lords elected HUGH CAPET, the count of Paris, to fill the
vacant throne. They probably chose him because he was too weak to be a threat to
them. His own lands were smaller than those of his vassals.
b. Hugh and his heirs slowly increased royal power. First by making the throne
hereditary. Second by playing the nobles against each other. Third they won the
support of the Church.
7. An outstanding French king of the time was PHILIP II, often called PHILIP
AUGUSTUS. He was a shrewd and able ruler who strengthened royal government.
a. He hired middle-class officials whose loyalty would be to him to fill government
positions rather than appointing nobles.
b. He granted charter to many new towns, organized a standing army and introduced a
new national tax. He quadrupled royal landholdings in France.
c. Before his death in 1223, he was the most powerful ruler in Europe.
8. Perhaps the most admired French ruler of his time was LOUIS IX,(9th ), grandson of
Philip, who ascended to the throne in 1226, Within 30 years of his death he was declared
a saint.
a. He was a deeply religious man and pursued religious goals that were acceptable to the
people of his day. He persecuted heretics and Jews and led thousands of French
knights in two wars against the Muslims.
b. He expanded royal court, outlawed private wars, ended serfdom in his lands and sent
out officials to check on local officials. (MISSI DOMINICI)
c. By the time of his death in 1270, France was an efficient centralized, monarchy.
9. Louis’ grandson PHILIP IV (4th ), ruthlessly extended royal power because he was
pressed for cash issued a tax on the clergy. This put him in direct conflict with POPE
BONIFACE VIII, (8th).
a. Boniface forbad Philip to tax the clergy without papal consent and Philip threatened
to arrest any clergy who did not pay. Philip sent troops to arrest him. Boniface
escaped but was so badly beaten, he died shortly thereafter.
b. A Frenchman was next elected pope who moved the PAPAL COURT to the town of
AVIGNON, France ensuring the kings would be able to control religion within their
own kingdom.
c. Philip established the ESTATES GENERAL in 1302 with representatives from all
three estates or classes; clergy, nobles and townspeople.
d. It never gained the power of the purse or otherwise served as a balance to royal
power.
B.
THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE AND THE CHURCH
1. In 936, Duke Otto I of Saxony took the title of King of Germany. In 962, Otto was
crowned Emperor by the pope.
a. His successors took the title HOLY ROMAN EMPEROR
- holy because they were crowned by the pope
- Roman because they saw themselves as the heirs to the emperors of ancient Rome.
b. He, like the kings of France and England, often decided who would become a bishop
or an abbot, which led him into conflict with the pope who was trying to end such
outside interference.
c. Pope Gregory VII banned LAY INVESTITURE, which was the practice of the
ruler or other person who is not a member of the clergy, “ invested” or presented
bishops with the ring and staff of their office.
d. Holy Roman Emperor, Henry IV, claimed the bishops held their lands as fiefs to the
king. It was only right the king decide who would hold that position.
e. In 1076, Pope Gregory excommunicated Henry, freeing his subjects from their
allegiance to him and allowing his rebellious nobles to choose a new emperor.
f. Henry, knowing he was beaten crossed the Alps barefoot and for three days stood in
the snow outside of Canossa castle begging the pope to forgive him.
g. Henry was forgiven and quickly returned to home to settle with his nobles who
supported the pope.
h. In 1122, the CONCORDAT OF WORMS stated that only the Church had the right
to invest bishops. The king did however have the power to invest them with fiefs.
i. In 1209, Pope Innocent III, aided by King Philip II, launched a CRUSADE, or holy
war, against the Albigensians of southern France in order to purify the Church
C. EUROPEANS LOOK OUTWARD
1. In 1050, when Western Europe was barely emerging from isolation, other civilizations
had been a major world power.
a. The Islamic Empire was at its height in culture, trade and contact with other parts of
the world.
b. The Byzantine Empire was Islam’s rival in power and glory.
c. In 1050, the SELJUK TURKS invaded the Byzantine Empire. They extended power
over PALESTINE, the HOLY LAND, and attacked Christian pilgrims.
d. The emperor of the Byzantine Empire pleaded with Pope Urban for help. At the
COUNCIL of CLERMONT, the Pope called upon Christian knights to join in a
Crusade to free the Holy Land.
e. They were called Crusaders because they sewed large crosses, CRUSES in Latin, on
their tunics.
Reasons why people joined the Crusades:
- Religious desire
- Dream of winning land and wealth
- Escape troubles at home
- Looking for adventure
Reasons the Pope wanted the Crusades:
- - increase his power in Europe
- - heal the split between the two churches
- - outlet for Europe’s growing population
- - give Christian knights someone else to fight rather than each other.
2. The Crusades lasted for 200 years. Only the First Crusade was even temporarily
effective in freeing the Jerusalem.
a. Christian Knights finally captured Jerusalem in 1099 and capped their victory
with a massacre of Muslim and Jewish residents of the city.
b. They divided the captured lands into four small Christian kingdoms. Muslims
constantly tried to destroy these kingdoms, each attempt launching a new
Crusade.
c. By 1187, Jerusalem has fallen to SALAH al-DIN, known to Europeans as
SALADIN. Who after defeating the Christian knights in a THIRD CRUSADE,
did allow Christian pilgrims to visit the holy city.
d. Europeans also mounted Crusades against other Muslim lands, especially in
Northern Africa
e. The Crusades failed in their chief goal – freeing the Holy Land.
f. There were however many positive changes that came from the Crusades such as
-Increased Trade
-Increased power of feudal monarchs
-Encouraged the growth of a money economy
-led to a wider world view
3. The Crusades continued against the Muslims in Spain. The campaign to drive
Muslims out of Spain was called the RECONQUISTA or reconquest.
4. The Muslims had conquered most of Spain by the 700’s. By the 1300’s much of it
was Christian controlled.
a. Under Muslim rule, Spain had enjoyed a tradition of religious toleration.
Christians, Muslims and Jews lived in relative peace.
b. In 1492 , the last Muslim stronghold, Granada, fell and Spain was controlled by
Isabella of Aragon and Ferdinand of Castille.
5. Determined to have religious unity in her country, aided by the INQUISITION, a
church court set up to try and accuse people of heresy, Isabella launched a brutal
crusade against Jews and Muslims in Spain. More than 150,000 people fled into
exile.
D. LEARNING, LITERATURE AND THE ARTS
1. The revival of trade and the growth of towns were signs of increased prosperity.
Rulers and the Church needed better educated men to run their bureaucracies. By
1100, schools sprang up around cathedrals.
2. “New learning” from the Middle East posed a challenge to the Christian scholars.
a.
Aristotle and other philosophers believed man should use reason to discover
basic truths. The Church believed they were the final authority on all
questions and should be accepted on faith.
3. Christian scholars, known as SCHOLASTICS taught SCHOLASTICISM which used
reason to support Christian beliefs.
a. THOMAS AQUINAS, a scholastic wrote the SUMMA THEOLOGICA that
examined Christian teachings in the light of reason
b. He believed that faith and reason come to the same conclusion, that God rules
an orderly universe. Yet science made little real progress in the Middle Ages
because most scholars believed all TRUE knowledge must fit with Church
teachings.
4. While Latin was the language of scholars and the Church, new writings appeared in
the VERNACULAR, the everyday language of ordinary people.
a.
b.
Dante Alighieri wrote the DIVINE COMEDY, an imaginary journey
through hell, purgatory and into heaven. It was written in Italian, Dante’s
vernacular.
t
Geoffrey Chaucer wrote the CANTERBURY TALES which follows a
group of pilgrims on their way to visit the grave of Thomas a’ Beckett. It
was written in English, Chaucer’s vernacular.
E. A Time of Crisis
1. FOUR HORSEMEN OF THE APOCALYPSE: Famine, disease, war and Death
a. The end of the world seemed to at any moment.
b. There were widespread crop failures, famine, malnutrition, starvation, plague
and war.
2. The BLACK DEATH, Bubonic Plague, was spread by fleas on rats in the early
1300’s. At the time it was not known what or how the disease was spread. People
blamed witches, Jews and God.
a. Unsanitary condition is towns and homes guaranteed that this disease would
spread.
b. Victims suffered from swelling and black bruises, heavy sweats, and coughing.
They spat blood, stank terrible and died in agony. Not knowing what
caused it made it impossible to fight.
c. 1/3 of the entire population of Europe died from the plague, known as the
Black Death. It spread beyond Europe to the rest of the known world. In Cairo,
Egypt, one of the world’s largest cities, more than 7,000 people died a day.
3. People asked the Church why some and not others? Without strong leadership, people
began to question the church itself. Critics complained about the lavish lifestyle of the
Pope and Church officials.
a. In 1309, Pope Clement V moved the Papal court from Rome to Avignon, France
where it remained for about 70yrs. under French domination.. This is known as
the BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY.
b. In 1378, “reformers”, angered at the Pope’s extravagant lifestyle elected their own
pope to rule from Rome. French cardinals responded by electing a rival pope.
c. There were two, at one point three popes at one time. This was finally settled in
1417 by the Council of Constance, which returned the Papal Court to Rome.
4. In addition there were new heresies to fight.
a. John Wycliffe attacked church corruption and insisted the Bible, not the church
was the source of Christian truth. He translated the Bible into English so people
could read it for themselves.
5. On top of the disasters of famine plague, economic decline and spiritual uncertainty
came war. Between 1337 and 1453 England and France fought a series of wars
known as the HUNDRED YEARS WAR.
a. At first the English won a string of victories. Their success due not to braver
or more skillful knights, but to the LONGBOW, which revolutionized
warfare in Europe.
b. It could fire three arrows in the time a French crossbow took to shoot one. It
went further and faster and could pierce almost all armor, making knights in
armor, unnecessary.
6. Out of this, JOAN OF ARC, a peasant girl, convinced she heard messages from God,
led the French forces to victory in order to crown the DAUPHIN, uncrowned heir
apparent.
a. She was captured by allies of the English, tried, convicted and burned at the
stake for being a witch. Though she died, she became a rallying point for the
French and they finally drove the English out of France.
b. The English lost the war and with their dreams of a continental empire
shattered, looked at new trading ventures overseas.
Chapter 10: The Byzantine Empire and Russia
I. The Byzantine Empire
A. Heir to Rome
1. The vital center of the Byzantine empire was Constantinople.
a. Constantine had located his capital wisely on the shores of the Bosporus, a strait that
linked the Mediterranean and Black Seas.
b. The city had an excellent harbor and was guarded on three sides by water.
2. Constantinople commanded the key trade routes linking Europe and Asia.
a. Merchants sold silks from China, wheat from Egypt, gems from India, spices from
Southwest Asia, slaves from Western Europe, and furs from the Viking lands in the
north.
3. As the heir to Rome, it promoted a brilliant civilization that blended ancient Greek,
Roman, and Christian influences with other traditions of the Mediterranean world.
B. The Age of Justinian
1. Emperor Justinian (527-565) was determined to revive the grandeur of ancient Rome by
recovering the western provinces that had been overrun by Germanic invaders.
2. Led by the brilliant general Belisarius, Byzantine armies reconquered North Africa, Italy,
and southern Spain.
a. In the end, Justinian’s successors lost the bitterly contested lands in the west.
3. Justinian left a more lasting monument in his buildings, especially the Church of Hagia
Sophia (“Holy Wisdom”).
4. Justinian is best remembered for his reform of the law.
a. Early in his reign, he set up a commission to collect, revise, and organize all the laws
of ancient Rome, resulting in the Corpus Jurius Civilis, “Body of Civil Law,”
popularly known as Justinian’s Code.
(1) This massive collection included laws passed by Roman assemblies or
decreed by Roman emperors, as well as he legal writings of Roman judges
and a handbook for students.
b. By the 1100s, Justinian’s Code had reached Western Europe and both the Roman
Catholic Church and medieval monarchs modeled their laws on its principles.
5. To Justinian, the law was a means to unite the empire; he was an autocrat, or sole ruler
with complete authority.
6. Taxes from trade and industry enabled him to maintain a strong military nd project
Byzantine power abroad.
7. Justinian had power over the Church as he was deemed Christ’s co-ruler on Earth.
8. Powerful though he was, Justinian might never have achieved his goals without hthe help
of his wife, Theodora.
C. Empress with an Iron Will
1. Theodora proved a shrewd, tough politician who did not hestitate to challenge the
emperor’s orders and pursue her own policies.
a. She took a hand in diplomacy, trying to persuade the Persians to abide by a peace
treaty.
b. Theodora championed the rights of women and set up hospitals for the poor.
2. The Byzantine historian Procopius, in his Secret History, painted the empress as an evil,
scheming monster who would either throw you out of office or have you conveniently
“disappear” if you opposed her.
D. Changing Fortunes of Empire
1. During the early Middle Ages, the Byzantine empire served as a buffer, protecting
Western Europe from the harshest onslaught of invaders from the east.
2. The empire’s greatest strengths came from a strong central government and prosperous
economy.
3. Peasants formed the backbone of the empire, working the land, paying taxes, and
providing soldiers for the military.
E. Byzantine Christianity
1. Although the Byzantine emperor was not a priest, he controlled Church affairs and
appointed the patriarch, or highest Church official, in Constantinople.
2. Byzantine Christians rejected the pope’s claim to authority over all Christians.
3. Unlike priests in Western Europe, the Byzantine clergy retained their right to marry.
4. Greek, not Latin, was the language of the Byzantine Church.
5. The chief Byzantine holy day was/is Easter.
6. In 1054, controversies provoked a schism, or permanent split, between the Eastern (Greek)
Orthodox and the Roman Catholic Church.
F. Crisis and Collapse
1. The Normans conquered southern Italy.
2. In the 1090s, the Byzantine emperor called for western help to fight the Seljuk Turks,
resulting in the First Crusade.
3. During later crusades, however, trade rivalry sparked violence between the Byzantine
empire and Venice.
4. In 1453, Ottoman Turk forces surrounded Constantinople.
a. The Ottoman ruler Muhammad II entered the city in triumph and renamed it Istanbul.
b. The ancient Christian city became the capital of the Ottoman empire.
c. Hagia Sophia was turned into an Islamic house of worship, and Istanbul soon emerged
as a great center of Muslim culture.
G. The Byzantine Heritage
1. Byzantine civilization blended Christian beliefs with Greek science, philosophy, arts, and
literature.
2. The Byzantines also extended Roman achievements in engineering and law.
3. Icons, designed to evoke the presence of God, gave views a sense of personal contact with
the sacred.
4. In architecture, Byzantine palaces and churches blended Greek, Roman, Persian, and other
Middle Eastern styles.
5. Byzantine scholars preserved the classic works of ancient Greeks as well as their own.
6. Byzantine historians were mostly concerned with writing about their own times.
a. Procopius: wrote Secret History which criticized Justinian and Theodora
b. Anna Comnena: first female historian; wrote Alexiad which analyzed her father’s
reign and portrayed Latin crusaders greedy barbarians.
II. The Rise of Russia
A. Geography: The Russian Land
1. Today, Russia is the largest nation in the world by area.
2. Its early history, however, began in the fertile area of present-day Ukraine and its political
center shifted toward Moscow.
3. Russia lies on the vast Eurasian plain that reaches from Europe to the borders of China.
4. Three broad zones with different climates and resources helped shape early Russian life.
a. The northern forests supplied lumber for building and fuel, plus fur-bearing animals
attracted hunters.
b. Further south, a band of fertile land attracted early farmers.
c. A third region, the southern steppe, is an open, treeless grassland that offered splendid
pasture for the herds and horses of nomadic peoples.
5. Russia’s network of rivers, especially the Dnieper and Volga, provided transportation for
both people and goods.
B. Growth of Kiev
1. During Roman times, the Slavs expanded into southern Russia.
2. The Slavs had no political organization more complex than the clan.
3. In the 700s and 800s, the Vikings steered their long ships out of Scandinavia.
4. The Vikings, called Varangians by later Russians, worked their way south along th rivers,
trading with and collecting tribute from the Slavs.
5. Located at the heart of this vital trade network, the city of Kiev would become the center
of the first Russian state.
6. Trade had already brought Kiev into the Byzantine sphere of influence.
7. About 863, two Greek monks, Cyril and Methodius, adapted the Greek alphabet so they
could translate the Bible into Slavic languages (Cyrillic alphabet).
8. With Byzantine Christianity came many changes.
a. The Russians acquired a written language, and a class of educated Russian priests
emerged.
b. Russians adapted Byzantine religious art, music, and architecture.
c. Byzantine domes capped with colorful, carved “helmets” became the onion domes of
Russian churches.
d. Byzantine Christianity set the patterns of close ties between Church and state,
eventually having the Russian rulers controlling the Church.
9. Kiev enjoyed its golden age under Yaroslav the Wise, who rule from 1019 to 1054.
a. To improve justice, he issued a written law code.
b. A scholar, he translated Greek works into his language.
C. The Mongol Conquest
1. Between 1236 and 1241, Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, led Mongol armies into
Russia.
2. Known as the Golden Horde, from the color of their tents, they looted and burned Kiev
and other Russian towns.
3. The Mongols, while fierce conquerors, were generally tolerant rulers.
a. They demanded regular payments of heavy tribute, and Russian princes had to
acknowledge the Mongols as their overlords.
b. As long as the tribute was paid, the Mongols left Russian princes to rule without much
interference.
4. Peasants felt the burden of heavy taxes.
5. Even though the Golden Horde converted to Islam, the Mongols tolerated the Russian
Orthodox Church, which grew more powerful during this period.
6. The Mongol conquest brought peace to the huge swath of land between China and Eastern
Europe, and Russian merchants benefited from new trade routes across this region.
7. During the period of Mongol rule, Russians adopted the practice of isolating upper-class
women in separate quarters.
8. The absolute power of the Mongols served as a model for later Russian rulers.
9. Perhaps most important, Mongol rule cut Russia off from contacts with Western Europe at
a time when Europeans were making rapid advances in the arts and sciences.
D. Moscow Takes the Lead
1. During the Mongol period, the princes of Moscow steadily increased their power.
2. Their success was due in part to the city’s location near important river trade routes, and,
as tribute collectors for the Mongols, subdued neighboring towns.
3. When the head of the Russian Orthodox Church made Moscow his capital, the city became
Russia’s spiritual center as well.
4. As Mongol power declined, the princes of Moscow took on a new role as patriotic
defenders of Russia against foreign rule.
5. The driving force behind Moscow’s rising power was Ivan III, known as Ivan the Great.
a. He brought much of northern Russia under his rule.
b. Ivan tried to limit the power of the boyars, or great landowning nobles.
c. Like the Byzantine emperors, he used the double-headed eagle as his symbol.
d. Ivan and his successors took the title czar, the Russian word for Caesar.
6. Ivan IV, grandson of Ivan the Great, further centralized royal power.
a. He undercut the privileges of the old boyar families and granted land to nobles in
exchange for military or other service.
b. Ivan IV introduced new laws that tied Russian serfs to the land.
c. About 1560, Ivan IV became increasingly unstable, trusting no one and subject to
violent fits of rage.
(1) In a moment of madness, he killed his own son.
d. He organized the oprichniki, agents of terror who enforced the czar’s will.
(1) Dressed in black robes and mounted on black horses, they slaughtered
rebellious boyars and sacked towns suspected of disloyalty.
(2) Their saddles were decorated with a dog’s head and a broom, symbols of their
constant watchfulness to swap away their master’s enemies.
7. Disputes over succession, peasant uprisings, and foreign invasions soon plunged Russian
into a period of disorder known as the “Time of Troubles.”
8. Finally, the zemsky sobor, an assembly of clergy, nobles, and townsmen, chose a new
czar, 17 year-old Michael Romanov who established the Romanov dynasty that ruled until
1917.
III. Shaping Eastern Europe
A. Geography: Eastern Europe
1. Much of the region lies on the great European plain that links up with the steppes of
southern Russia.
2. Goods and cultural influences traveled along the river routes such as the Danube and the
Vistula.
3. Due to the travel on the rivers, the Balkans in the south felt the impact of the Byzantine
and Ottoman empires whereas the northern regions bordering Germany and the Baltic Sea
forged closer links to Western Europe.
4. Many ethnic groups (people with the same language and cultural heritage) settled in
Eastern Europe.
a. Slavs spread out from Russia
b. West Slavs: Poland, Czech, and Slovak republics
c. South Slavs: ancestors of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes
d. Huns
e. Avars
f. Bulgars
g. Khazars
h. Magyars
i. Vikings
j. Germans
5. Powerful neighboring states exercised strong cultural influences on Eastern Europe,
adding further to the diversity.
a. Byzantine missionaries
b. Catholic missionaries
c. Ottomans spreading Islam
d. Russia
6. In the late Middle Ages, Eastern Europe was a refuge for many Jewish settlers.
B. Early Kingdoms
1. During the Middle Ages, Eastern Europe included many kingdoms, duchies (lands ruled
by dukes), and principalities (lands ruled by princes).
2. Wars constantly shifted boundaries.
3. Poland
a. Western missionaries brought Roman Catholicism to the West Slavs of Poland in the
900s.
b. To survive, the new kingdom often had to battle German, Russian, and Mongol forces.
c. Poland’s greatest age came after its Queen Jadwiga married Duke Wladyslav Jagiello
of Lithuania in 1386.
d. Under the Jagiello dynasty, Poland-Lithuania controlled the largest state in Europe, an
empire stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea.
e. Jadwiga patronized the fine university at the city of Cracow, which became a major
center of science and the arts.
f. Polish nobles gradually gained power at the expense of the monarch.
(1) They met in a diet, or assembly, where the vote of a single noble was enough
to block the passage of a law.
(2) Their liberum veto, or “free veto,” made it hard for the government to take
decisive action.
g. Without a strong central government, Poland declined in the 1600s.
4. Hungary
a. Hungary was settled by the Magyars who had raided Europe from the Asian steppes in
the century after Charlemagne.
b. About 970, the Magyars adopted Roman Catholic Christianity.
c. Traditionally, Hungarians credit Stephen I with converting the entire country when he
was crowned Hungary’s first Christian king on Christmas Day in 1000.
d. The Hungarian king was forced to sign a charter, the Golden Bull, recognizing the
rights of his nobles in 1222.
e. The Mongols overran Hungary in 1241, but quickly retreated and did not have as great
an impact as they did on Russia.
f. The expansion of the Ottoman Turks did end Hungarian independence in 1526.
5. Serbia
a. Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and other Slavic peoples in the Balkans had different histories
during the Middle Ages.
b. The Serbs accepted Orthodox Christianity.
c. By the late 1100s, they had set up their own state, which reached its height under
Stefan Dusăn.
d. Stefan’s successors lacked his political gifts, and Serbia could not withstand the
Ottoman advance.
6. Migration, conquest, dynastic marriages, and missionary activity helped produce a tangle
of overlapping claims to territories in Eastern Europe.
CHAPTER 11: THE MUSLIM WORLD
A. THE RISE OF ISLAM
1. Nomadic herders, called BEDOUINS, adapted to life in the desert of the Arabian
Peninsula. Bedouins would form the backbone of the armies that would conquer
a huge empire.
2. MECCA was a bustling market town at the crossroads of two main caravan routes.
Arabs came to pray at the KABBA, an ancient shrine that Muslims today believe
was built by the prophet ABRAHAM.
3. MUHAMMAD was born in Mecca about 570. He was orphaned at an early age and
raised by his uncle. At about 25, he married an older, wealthy widow named Kjadija,
who ran a prosperous caravan business.
a. At the age of 40 he claims to have had a vision of the angel GABRIEL who
told him to “Proclaim”. His wife KHADIJA, became his first convert, and
encouraged him to accept this call from God.
b. Muhammad devoted the rest of his life to spreading Islam. ISLAM comes
from the Arabic word meaning submission to the will of ALLAH.
4. At first, few people listened to Muhammad. In fact in 622, Muhammad was faced
with the threat of murder and he and his followers left Mecca for YATHRIB,a
journey known as the HIJRA.
a. Later Yathrib was renamed MEDINA, or city of the Prophet and 622 became the
first year of the Muslim calendar.
b. In Medina, Muhammad was welcomed as a ruler and lawgiver, as well as God’s
prophet. Thousands of Arabs adopted Islam and launched an attack on Mecca.
c. Muhammad returned in triumph to Mecca in 630, where he destroyed the idols in
the Kabba.
d. His death in 632 plunged his followers into grief. Islam survived the death of their
prophet and elected ABU BAKR as the first CALIPH, or successor to
Muhammad.
5. Islam is a strict monotheistic religion that believes in an all powerful, compassionate
God whose name in Arabic is ALLAH. Islam teaches that people are responsible for
their own actions. Muslims recognize no official priests who mediate between the
people and God.
a. The QURAN is the sacred text of Islam. It is the final authority on all matters. It
is the inimitable word of God and therefore must be read in the original Arabic.
6. All Muslims accept the five basic duties, known as the FIVE PILLARS.
a. The first is the declaration of faith, “ There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad
is His prophet.”
b. The second is daily prayer done five times a day facing the holy city of Mecca.
- - Prayer may be done anywhere but people often gather in Mosques
which are houses of worship.
c. The third is giving charity to the poor
d. The fourth is fasting from sunrise to sunset during the holy month of RAMADAN.
e. The fifth is the HAJJ, or pilgrimage to Mecca.
- - All Muslims who are able to are expected to visit the Kabba at least
once in their lifetime.
f. Some Muslims look on the JIHAD, or effort in God’s service as another duty.
- - Jihad has often been mistakenly translated as holy war.
- - It actually means any inner struggle to achieve spiritual peace as well
as any battle in defense of Islam.
7. Over time, Muslim scholars developed an immense body of law interpreting The
Quran and applying its teachings to daily life.
a. This system of law, the SHARIA,, regulates moral conduct, family life,
business practices, government and other aspects of a Muslim community.
b. The Sharia does not separate religious matters from civil or criminal law.
Islam became a religion and a way of life
8. Muslims believe in the same God as the Jews and the Christians, recognize many of
the same prophets and accept the idea of heaven and hell. The Quran teaches that
while Islam is God’s final and complete revelation, the Torah and the Bible contain
partial revelation from God.
a. Therefore, Jews and Christians are , “PEOPLE OF THE BOOK”, spiritually
superior to idol worshippers but not quite on the same level as Muslims. In
general, people of the Book, enjoyed religious freedom in early Muslim societies.
9. Islam affirmed the spiritual equality of women and men. Though spiritually equal,
men and women had different roles and rights.
10. As Islam spread, Arabs sometimes absorbed customs and attitudes from non-Arab
peoples.
a. For example, Arabs adopted the practice of veiling women from the Persian
and Byzantine cultures and secluding them in a separate part of the house.
The women’s quarter was called the HAREM, because it was haram, or
forbidden to violate it.
B. ISLAM SPREADS
1. Abu Bakr’s immediate crisis after the death of Muhammad was to reunify the Arabs.
Many saw their loyalty to Muhammad, not to Islam.
2. Under the first four Caliphs, Muslim armies marched from victory to victory. In less
than 150yrs., Islam had spread across southwest Asia into Africa then Spain and
France in Europe.
a. In 732, the Arab push into Europe was turned back at the BATTLE OF TOURS
in France.
3. Part of the reason for the success of the Arab success was the common faith of
Muhammad.
a. Belief in the holiness of their cause and certainty of Paradise for those who fell in
battle spurred them on to victory.
b. Many people in North Africa and Central Asia joined Islam because of its simple
and direct message and its success in battle as a sign of God’s favor.
4. Muslim leaders imposed a special tax on the non-Muslims they conquered, but
allowed Christians, Jews and Zoroasterians to practice their own religion. Many Jews
and Christians played key roles as officials, doctors and translators.
a. Islam had no hierarchy of priests and, in principle, emphasized the equality of all
believers regardless of race, sex, class or wealth.
5. The Arabs and their North African allies overran Spain in the beginning of the 700’s.
Rivalries among Muslim princes divided Spain politically. European Christians
called the North African Muslims, MOORS.
a. Gradually, Spanish Christian forces forced the Moors back into southern Spain,
though the Moors kept a presence there until 1492.
b. For centuries Spain was one of the most brilliant corners of the Muslim world. It
encouraged poetry, the art, and learning. It studied and translated the great works
of Greek, Hindu and Muslim thinkers.
c. Rulers employed Jewish officials and welcomed Christian students to learn.
6. Not long after Muhammad’s death, division arose over his successor. The SUNNIS
felt that the caliph should be chosen by the leaders of the Muslim community.
- - They viewed him as a leader, not a religious leader.
- - Traditionally, Sunnis have been the majority within Islam.
7. The SHIITES argued that only the descendants of Muhammad’s daughter, FATIMA,
and son-in-law, ALI, were the true successors of the Prophet.
- - They believed the descendants of the Prophet were divinely inspired.
- a. A third tradition emerged with the Sufis. SUFIS were Muslim mystics who
sought communion with God through meditation, fasting and other rituals.
9. Ali became the fourth caliph, but was assassinated in 661. Later his son would also
be killed. After the death of Ali, the UMAYYAD family set up a dynasty that ruled
the Islamic world until 750.
a. The Shiites hated the Umayyads because they killed Ali and his son, thereby
dishonoring the Prophet. Many non-Arab Muslims also hated the Umayyads
because they has less rights than Arabs.
10. The discontented Muslims found a leader in ABU al-ABBAS who founded the
ABBASSID dynasty which lasted until 1258. One of his generals invited the
Umayyad family to a banquet and killed them.
a. Only one member of the family escaped to Spain where he set up an
independent caliphate.
b. The Abbassid dynasty ended Arab domination and helped make Islam a
universal religion. Under the early Abbassids, the empire of the caliphs
reached its greatest wealth and power.
c. The Abbassid caliph chose as his new capital, the city of BAGHDAD.
d. Above the streets loomed domes and MINARETS, the slender towers of
mosques, from which the MUEZZIN, or crier, called the faithful to prayer.
11. Starting about 850, Abbassid control over the Arab empire began to fragment.
As the caliph’s power faded civil war erupted and Shiite rulers took over
parts of the empire.
12. In the 900’s the SELJUK TURKS came out of Central Asia, adopted Islam and built
a large empire in the Fertile Crescent. By 1055, a Seljuk SULTAN, or authority,
controlled Baghdad, but left the Abbassid caliph as a figurehead.
a. Stories of the Seljuks interfering with Christian pilgrims on their way to
Jerusalem led POPE URBAN II to call for the FIRST CRUSADE in 1095.
For over 200yrs.Jerusalem passed back and forth between Christian and
Muslim hands.
13. In 1216, GHENGIS KHAN, led the Mongols out of Central Asia to attack and
the Arab empire. In 1258, his grandson, HULAGU, burned and looted Baghdad
killing the last Abbassid caliph.
C.
GOLDEN AGE OF MUSLIM CIVILIZATION
1. The Muslim empire united people from diverse cultures. Muslim society was more
open than that of medieval Europe. People could move up in society, especially through
religious, scholarly or military achievements.
a. As in Greece and Rome, slavery was common in the cities of the Muslim world.
Islamic law encouraged the freeing of slaves.
2. Merchants were honored in the Muslim world, in part because Muhammad was a
merchant.
3. A common language and religion helped to establish a global trading network.
a.
To make the transfer of money easier, Muslims invented the ancestor’s of todays’s
bank checks. We get our word check, from the Arabic word SAKK.
4. Arab writers prized the art of storytelling. The best known collection is THE
THOUSAND AND ONE ARABIAN NIGHTS.
5. Building on the knowledge of the Greeks, Muslims made remarkable advances in
medicine and public health. Under caliphs, doctors and pharmacists had to pass tests
before they could practice.
a. Governments set up hospitals. People could receive quick treatment in what today
would be called emergency rooms.
D.
THE OTTOMAN AND SAFAVID EMPIRES.
1. The Ottomans were yet another Turkish speaking people who had migrated from
Central Asia into Asia Minor.
2. In 1453, Muhammad II captured Constantinople, which he renamed Istanbul. In the
next 200yrs, it continued to expand.
a. Although it failed to invade Europe, the Ottomans ruled the largest and most powerful
empire in both Europe and the Middle East for centuries.
3. The empire enjoyed its golden age under the sultan SULEIMAN, from 1520 to 1560.
He was known as Suleiman the Magnificent or the LAWGIVER. As sultan, he has
absolute power.
4. The Ottomans divided their subjects into four classes.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Men of the pen – scientists, lawyers and poets
Men of the sword – soldiers
Men of negotiation – merchants, tax collectors, artisans
Men of husbandry – farmers and herders
Men of the pen and the sword were ALMOST all Muslim.
Non-Muslims were organized into MILLETS, or religious communities.
5. Ottomans levied a “tax” on Christian families requiring them to turn over young sons to
the government to be converted it Islam and put into military service.
a. The best soldiers won a place in the JANISSARIES, the elite force of the Ottoman
army.
6. The Ottoman empire was a powerful force for 500yrs.
a. By the 1700’s, European advances in both commerce and military technology were
leaving the Ottomans behind.
7. By the early 1500’s, the SAFAVIDS, a Turkish speaking dynasty had united a strong
empire in present day Iran.
a. They were engaged in frequent warfare with the Ottoman empire. The Safavids
were Shiites and the Ottomans Sunnis.
8. The outstanding Safavid ruler SHAH ABBAS the GREAT revived the power of
ancient Persia.
9. Safavid glory slowly faded after the death of Shah Abbas, though the dynasty held on to
power until 1722.
CHAPTER 12: KINGDOMS AND TRADING STATES OF AFRICA
A.
EARLY CIVILIZATIONS IN AFRICA
1. Africa is the world’s second largest continent, covering one-fifth of all the Earth’s land
surface. Its largest and most populated climate zone is the SAVANNA, or grassy plains,
which generally has good soil and enough rainfall to support farming.
a. The savanna belts trail off into increasingly dry STEPPE, sparse grasslands, zones and
then into two major deserts; the blistering SAHARA in the north, the world’s largest
desert and the KALAHARI and NAMIB desert in the south.
b. Although Africa is surrounded by oceans, it has few natural harbors, much of the interior
is a high plateau and as the rivers run to the coast they cascade through a series of rapids
and cataracts that hinder travel between the coast and the interior.
c. Despite geographic barriers, people did migrate within Africa and to neighboring
continents.
2. Archeologists have uncovered evidence to pinpoint the GREAT RIFT of East Africa as the
home of the earliest people. Gradually their descendants spread to almost every corner of the
Earth.
a. By 5500 B. C., Neolithic farmers had learned to cultivate the Nile and domesticate
animals. Farming spread across North Africa, eventually setting up villages in the Sahara
region, which at the time was a well-watered zone.
b. About 2500 B. C., the climate changed, slowly drying out the Sahara. As the land became
parched the desert spread. This process is known as DESERTIFICATION and has
continued to the present.
c. As the region dried, people retreated.
3. Over thousands of years, other migrations contributed to the rich diversity of the African
people. Scholars have been able to trace these migrations by studying language patterns.
a. They have learned that West African farmers and herders migrated to the south and east
between about A. D. 500 and 1500. They spoke a variety of languages that derived from
a common root language, BANTU.
4. While the Egyptian civilization was developing another civilization took place to the south,
on the Upper Nile, called NUBIA, also known as KUSH, located in present day SUDAN.
a. About 750 B. C., the Nubian king PIANKHI, conquered Egypt. For a century, they
ruled until the invading Assyrians forced them to retreat.
b. By 500 B. C., Nubian rulers moved their capital to MEROE. This commanded both the
Nile trade routes and the east-west routes from the Red Sea across the savanna. Equally
important, Meroe was rich in iron ore.
c. Nubia sent gold, ivory, animal skins, perfumes and slaves to the Mediterranean world and
the Middle East. Trade may have spread iron technology across the savanna lands into
West Africa.
d. In the first century A. D., Nubia’s golden age dimmed. Desertification may have engulfed
its farmlands. Finally, in about A. D. 350, armies from the kingdom of AXUM, led by
king EZANA overwhelmed Nubia.
5. Early African civilizations had strong ties to the Mediterranean world. CARTHAGE, rose
as a great North African power. Like Nubia, its wealth came from trade. Its empire stretched
from present day Tunisia to southern Spain, as well as outposts in England and France.
Rome ended all that.
a. North Africa provided soldiers for Roman armies. One SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, later
became emperor of Rome.
b. Under Roman rule Christianity spreads to the cities of North Africa. St. AUGUSTINE,
the most influential Christian thinker of the late Roman empire was born in present day
Algeria.
6. By A. D., 200, camels had been brought to North Africa from Asia. These hardy SHIPS OF
THE DESERT, revolutionized trade across the Sahara. These camel caravans, created new
trade networks, bringing great profits to merchants on both sides of the Sahara.
7. Further changes came in the 600’s when Arab armies carried Islam into North Africa,
replacing Christianity as the dominant religion and Arabic replaced Latin as its language.
a. Muslim traders from North Africa carried Islam into West Africa.
D. KINGDOMS OF WEST AFRICA
1. As the Sahara died out, Neolithic people moved into the western savanna. Villagers traded
surplus food and gradually a TRADE NETWORK linked the savanna to the forests and then
continued across the Sahara.
a. Two products gold and salt dominated Sahara trade.
2. By A. D. 800, the rulers of the SONINKE people had united many farming villages to create
the kingdom of GHANA. The king controlled the trade of gold and salt across West Africa.
a. The king employed Muslims as counselors and officials. They introduced their written
language to Africa. Islam began to spread. Slowly in Africa.
3. About 1050, the ALMORAVIDS from North Africa overwhelmed Ghana, but were unable to
maintain control over such a distance.
a. By the late 1100’s, Ghana was in decline and swallowed by the West Africa kingdom of
Mali.
4. At the time of Ghana’s decline, the MANDINKE people were defeated. Their king and all of
his sons, but one, were killed. SUNDIATA was considered to weakly and sickly to be a
threat.
5. By A. D. 1250, he had crushed his enemies, won control of the trade routes and founded the
empire of MALI, means “where the king dwells”
a. Sundiata was the first emperor of Mali.
6. MANSA MUSA was their greatest emperor. MANSA means king. He ruled for 25 years,
expanded the empire and brought peace and prosperity.
7. He converted to ISLAM and embarked on his HAJJ.
a. A HAJJ is a pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca. It is one of the Five Pillars of
Islam that if one can afford to make the trip, it should be done at least once in a
lifetime.
b. He brought so much gold with him, that his visit to Egypt dropped the value of gold
for 10 years. He forged new trade and diplomatic ties with the Muslim world and
returned home with many scholars and artists.
8. By the 1400’s, the empire of Mali had weakened. By 1450, the wealthy trading city of GAO
had emerged as the capital of a new West African Kingdom of SONGHAI.
a. SONNI ALI, a soldier king, forged Songhai into the largest kingdom that had ever
existed in West Africa. He followed the traditional religious beliefs of his people.
9. ASKIA MOHAMMED followed Sonni Ali and set up a Muslim dynasty in Songhai. He
expanded the empire even further. He opened schools for the study of the Quran. He built
MOSQUES, which are Muslim houses of worship.
10. Songhai prospered until about 1856, when problems over succession led to civil war. Rulers
of Morocco, wanting control of the West African gold mines invaded Songhai using
gunpowder. Songhai was defeated.
a. The rulers of Morocco were not able to maintain control of Songhai. It splintered into
many small kingdoms.
11. From about 500 to 1500, other kingdoms flourished in West Africa. The HAUSA, in what is
now Nigeria, had built a number of walled city-states. Many rulers were women.
a. In the 1500’s, a woman by the name of AMINA conquered other city–states and
expanded her control. She came to dominate Sahara trade routes.
12. The forest kingdom of BENIN, south of the Savanna, rose, carving out farming villages,
trading pepper, ivory and later slaves. An OBA was both a political and religious leader.
C. TRADE ROUTES OF EAST AFRICA
1. About A. D. 350, King EZANA of AXUM conquered Nubia. Axum extended from the
mountains of what is now Ethiopia to the shores of the Red Sea.
a. African farmers and traders from Arabia merged and introduced Hebrew culture and
religious traditions to Axum. This gave rise to the unique written and spoken language of
GEEZ
b. Axum profited from its position, commanding a triangular trade network linking Africa,
India and the Mediterranrean.
c. King Ezana converted to Christianity and replaced older temples with Christian churches.
As Islam began to rise in the 600’s, Axum was more and more isolated and slowly
declined.
2. As Axum faded, ETHIOPIA maintained its independence through its unifying power of their
Christian faith.
a. According to Ethiopian tradition, the first emperor of Ethiopia was the son of MAKEDA,
the QUENN OF SHEBA and King SOLOMON OF ISRAEL
b. By the early 1200’s, King LALIBELA had a dozen churches carved into the mountains.
The last Ethiopian emperor fell in 1974.
3. By A. D. 1000 port cities like MOGADISHU, KILWA, SOFALA and the of shore island of
ZANZIBAR were thriving with trade from across the Indian Ocean.
WH CH 12 – 5
a. International trade created a rich and varied mix of cultures in the East African City –
States. Eventually, the blend of cultures gave rise to a new language, SWAHILI.
D. MANY PEOPLES, MANY TRADITIONS
1. As Neolithic people began to settle, farming communities developed. They practiced
SLASH AND BURN agriculture. They would cut down the trees and brush, then burn away
the rest, using the ash for fertilizer.
a. Because the land lost its fertility in a few years villagers would move on to clear other
land.
2. In these pre-urban societies, power was usually shared among a number of people rather than
centralized in the hands of a single leader.
a. Villagers often made decisions by CONSENSUS, open discussions which allowed
people to voice their opinions and come to a general agreement.
3. In hunting and gathering families, the NUCLEAR family, parents and children living
together, was typical. Other societies lived in JOINT families, several generations sharing
the same home.
4. Lines of descent could be PATRILINEAL, through the father’s side or MATRILINEAL,
through the mother’s side.
5. In West Africa, GRIOTS or professional poets kept the oral traditions of their people alive.
Chapter 13: Spread of Civilizations in East Asia
I. Two Golden Ages of China
A. After 400 years of disunity and disorder, the Tang and Song dynasties restored culture and
prosperity to China.
B. The Tang and Song dynasties presided over a well-ordered society, based on the Confucian
concepts of duty, rank, and proper behavior.
C. Under the Tang and Song, the Chinese enjoyed a golden age not only in the arts but in
science and technology as well. During this period, the Chinese made important
contributions in mechanics, medicine, printing, prose and poetry, porcelain, landscape
painting, and calligraphy.
II. The Mongol and Ming Empires
A. In the 1200s, powerful Mongol armies conquered China, much of the rest of Asia, and
portions of Europe. At it height, the Mongol empire was the largest the world had yet seen.
B. Under the Mongols, China enjoyed a long-lasting period of peace, order, and economic
prosperity. The Mongols built up foreign trade and thus increased Chinese contacts with the
western world.
C. After the fall of the Mongols, the Ming restored Chinese culture. Under the Ming, China
enjoyed an economic and cultural flowering and sent Chinese fleets on trading expeditions
around the world. In 1433, however, the Ming imposed a policy of isolation on China.
III. Korea and Its Traditions
A. Because of its location, Korea’s history and culture were closely linked to those of China and
Japan.
B. Koreans evolved their own ways of life before the first Chinese invaders arrived in their land.
C. While Korea absorbed many Chinese traditions, it modified these traditions to reflect its
unique identity.
IV. An Island Empire Emerges
A. Protected by surrounding seas, Japan was able to adopt elements of Chinese civilization
while remaining free from Chinese control.
B. In about 400, the Yamato clan set up Japan’s first and only dynasty, which took the rising sun
as its symbol.
C. The Japanese borrowed selectively from Chinese religious, political, and artistic traditions
and then modified them to produce their own unique civilization.
V. Japan’s Feudal Age
A. During the 1100s, Japan created a feudal society that was ruled by powerful military lords.
B. The Tokugawa shoguns created a system of centralized feudalism with new laws fixing the
old social order rigidly in place.
C. During Japan’s feudal age, Zen Buddhism gained wide acceptance. At the same time, new
art forms such as Kabuki theater, woodblock prints, and haiku poetry flourished.
CHAPTER 14: THE RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION
THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY
1. The Renaissance was a time of creativity and change in many areas – political, social,
economic and cultural. Perhaps the most important change was the way people viewed
themselves and their world.
a. RENAISSANCE means rebirth.
b. Unlike medieval thinkers who’s chief concern was the nature of life after death,
Renaissance thinkers were eager to explore human experiences here and now.
2. The Renaissance began in Italy in the mid 1300’s and reached its height in the 1500”s.
WHY ITALY?
a. classical learning
b. reminder of Ancient Rome
c. Italian merchants had the money to sponsor artists
3. In the 1400’s the MEDICI family of Florence, a prosperous city in northern Italy,
organized a banking business and soon became one of the richest merchant and bankers
in Europe.
a. By 1434 COSIMO de’ MEDICI gained control of the Florentine government and
the family continued as the uncrowned rulers of the city for years to come.
b. They were generous PATRONS, or financial supporters of the arts.
4. At the heart of the Italian Renaissance was an intellectual movement known as
HUMANISM, which focused on worldly subjects rather than on the religious issues
that had occupied medieval thinkers.
a. Humanist scholars hoped to use the wisdom of the ancients to increase their
understanding of their own times.
5. The Renaissance reached its most glorious expression in its paintings, sculpture and
architecture.
a. Renaissance artists learned the rules of PERSPECTIVE by making objects smaller
than those close to the viewer artists could paint scenes that appeared threedimensional. They also used shading to make objects look round and real.
b. One of the most brilliant of the Renaissance artists was LEONARDO da VINCI
who is admired for his artwork like the MONA LISA as well as his amazing mind.
c. He dissected corpses to have a better understanding of how the human body worked.
His notes and sketchbooks were used in universities for the study of anatomy.
d. He designed the first airplane, (flying machine), helicopter, submarine, movable
bridges and scuba gear centuries before they were actually built.
e. He was a RENAISSANCE MAN, meaning he had talents and interests in many
things.
f. Another Renaissance man was MICHELANGELO, a sculptor, engineer, painter,
architect and poet. He sculpted the PIETA, painted the SISTINE CHAPEL and
designed and built St. PETER”S BASILLICA in Rome.
6. NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI wrote a book called THE PRINCE, in which he
describes the perfect ruler as one who uses whatever means are necessary to stay in
power and achieve their goals.
THE RENAISSANCE MOVES NORTH
1. The Northern Renaissance began in the 1400’s in the prosperous cities of FLANDERS,
a region that included what is today northern France, Belgium, and the Netherlands.
a. ALBRECHT DURER traveled to Italy traveled to Italy in 1494 to study and
returned home to spread these new ideas and talents. He is known as the German
Leonardo.
b. Among the many talented artists of Flanders in the 1400’s, JAN and HUBERT van
EYCK, stand out. They developed oil paints, which allowed them to produce
strong colors and a hard surface that would survive for centuries.
c. The great Dutch humanist ERASMUS wrote a book called IN PRAISE OF
FOLLY, which challenged the worldliness of Church practices and urged a return to
early Christian traditions. He used humor to expose the ignorant and immoral
behavior of many people of his day, including the clergy.
d. The English humanist SIR THOMAS MORE wrote a book called UTOPIA, which
describes the ideal society. Private property does not exist, no one is idle all are
educated and justice exists to end crime rather than eliminate the criminal.
e. The towering figure of Renaissance literature was WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
who wrote among other things 37 plays. More than 1,700 new words appeared for
the first time in his works, including bedroom, lonely, gloomy, hurry and sneak.
f. The Renaissance in Spain in the 1600’s produce DON QUIXOTE, by MIGUEL de
CERVANTES, a book which mocked the romantic notions of chivalry.
2. The Chinese had learned to make paper and print books centuries before Europe. By the
1300’s, Europe had learned how to make pare and by the 1400’s German engravers had
developed movable type.
a. In 1456 JOHANN GUTTENBERG printed a complete edition of the bible using
movable metal type. With this, the European age of printing had begun.
b. Presses sprang up across Europe and by 1500, they had turned out more than 20
million volumes. The next century, between 150 million and 200 million books
were in circulation.
c. Books printed on rag paper with movable type were cheaper and easier to produce
than hand copied works. As there were more books, more people began to read and
write. They also gained more access to a much broader range of topics.
d. The printing press contributed to the religious turmoil of the period. Many
Christians could now read the Bible for themselves.
The Protestant Reformation
1. Beginning in the Middle Ages, the Church became increasingly caught up in worldly
affairs. Popes competed for political power, fought wars, built cathedrals and
intrigued against powerful monarchs trying to take their Church land.
a. To finance such projects, the Church promoted the sale of INDULGENCES,
which was a pardon for sins committed in a person’s lifetime, which previously
was only granted for “good deeds”.
b. In 1517, a priest named JOHANN TETZEL, with the approval of the pope sold
indulgences to anyone who would contribute money for the new cathedral of St.
Peter’s in Rome. These not only would work for you but for any dead relative.
c. MARTIN LUTHER, a German monk and professor of Theology, was so
outraged he drew up his 95 THESES, a list of arguments against indulgences and
nailed them to the door of the church.
d.
The Church ordered Martin Luther to RECANT, or give up his views. He
refused. In 1521 he was excommunicated and ordered to appear before the Holy
Roman Emperor, who also ordered him to recant. Again he refused. He was
declared an outlaw.
e. Thousands believed Martin Luther to be a hero, including Prince Frederick of
Saxony who gave him sanctuary for nearly a year.
f. At the heart of his teachings were, FIRST, that salvation could only be achieved
through faith; SECOND, the bible was the sole source of religious truth, not the
Catholic Church, and THIRD, that the pope and priest did not have “special
powers”.
g. His views gained wide spread support, especially in Germany and Scandanavia for
many reasons.
- - they were seen as an answer to the corruption in the Church
- - German princes saw this as a way of throwing off the control of the
Church and the Holy Roman Emperor
- - Others saw it as a chance to seize Church property
- - Some were tired of seeing German money pay for an Italian Pope.
h. During the 1530’ and 1540’s, the Holy Roman Emperor tried unsuccessfully to
force the German princes back into the Catholic Church.. THE PEACE OF
AUGSBURG, signed in 1555, allowed each prince to decide if his people would
be Catholic or Lutheran..
2. The most important reformer to follow Martin Luther was JOHN CALVIN. He
agreed with many of Luther’s beliefs and preached PREDESTINATION, the idea
that God had long ago decided who would gain salvation and there was little to
nothing you could do about it.
a. He was invited to the city-state Geneva, in Switzerland, where he set up a
THEOCRACY, or government ruled by church leaders. Reformers from all
over Europe visited Geneva and returned home to spread Calvin’s ideas.
b. In Scotland, JOHN KNOX, led a religious rebellion that overthrew the Catholic
Queen and set up the Scottish Presbyterian Church.
REFORMATION IDEAS SPREAD
1. In England, KING HENRY VIII, originally given the title of DEFENDER OF THE
FAITH by the pope, was seeking an annulment from his wife of 18yrs.
CATHERINE OF ARAGON, because she had not given him a son to follow him,
only a daughter, named MARY. The Pope refused.
a. Henry passed a series of laws placing the church in England under his control,
not the pope. The most notable was the ACT OF SUPREMACY, which made
him head of the Church in England.
b. He granted himself an annulment, married ANNE BOLEYN, who gave him
another daughter named, ELIZABETH. He had ANNE executed after 1000
days. He married four more times but only had one son, EDWARD.
c. Henry died in 1547, and his 10yr old son, inherited the throne though he died in
his teens. Edward’s half sister Mary, a pious Catholic became queen and
sought to return England to the Catholic Church. She was unsuccessful, but
gained the name BLOODY MARY, for the hundred of people she had burned
at the stake for being Protestants.
d. Six months after assuming the throne, Mary had Elizabeth imprisoned in the
Tower of London.
e. Upon Mary’s death in 1558, her half sister Elizabeth took the throne. Elizabeth
adopted a policy of religious toleration and would become one of the greatest
queens in English history.
2. As the Protestant Reformation swept Northern Europe, A vigorous reform
movement took hold within the Church known as the CATHOLIC REFORMATION.
a. The POPE PAUL III called the COUNCIL OF TRENT, in 1545 that met on
and off for the next 20yrs. It took steps to end the abuses of the Church, reaffirm
traditional Catholic views and revive the Church’s moral authority.
b. In 1540, the pope recognized an new religious order, the SOCIETY OF JESUS,
called JESUITS, founded by IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA who were determined
to combat heresy and spread the Catholic faith.
c. The reforms did stop the Protestant tide and even returned some areas to the
Catholic Church, but Europe remained divided between the Protestant North and
Catholic South.
3. During this period the Inquisition executed people for being heretics; Catholic mobs
attacked and killed Protestants; Protestants killed Catholic priest and destroyed
churches; and both Protestants and Catholics persecuted those who were different.
a. Between 1450 and 1750, tens of thousands of men and women died in the witch
hunting craze. The Reformation also brought hard times for Jews. By 1516, Jews
in Venice, Italy had to live in a separate quarter of the city known as a GHETTO.
Other cities soon set up walled ghettos of their own.
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
1. In 1543, Polish scholar NICOLAUS COPERNICUS, proposed a HELIOCENTRIC,
or sun centered, view of the universe. Most experts rejected this theory as it contradicted
Church teachings.
a. GALILEO GALILEI, using a new technology, an astronomical telescope, among
other things, again stated Copernicus’ theory. He was summoned before a Church
court in 1633 and threatened with death unless he withdrew this “heresy”.
He agreed and publicly stated that the Earth was the center of the universe.
b. Despite the opposition of religious authorities, by the early 1600’s a new approach to
science had emerged. It had as its foundation some radical ideas, observation and
experimentation.
c. At the Cambridge University in England, ISAAC NEWTON, developed a theory for
how all the planets moved as they did. Over the next twenty years he would perfect
this theory called GRAVITY.
d. There were new advances in chemistry and it was viewed as an actual science.
Medicine also improved, as faulty and flawed information from centuries past were
review and reevaluated.
e. Great thinkers like the Englishman FRANCIS BACON and the Frenchman RENE
DESCARTES helped to bring the scientific method to the pursuit of all knowledge.
Through reason, they argued, rather than traditional sources of knowledge, people
could discover basic truths.