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Atmosphere and Global Climate Change
Nitrogen (78%)
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Fundamental nutrient for __________________________
Deposits on Earth through _________________________ and reactions involving lightening and
precipitation
Returns to the atmosphere through combustion of biomass and denitrification.
Oxygen (21%)
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Oxygen molecules are produced through photosynthesis and are utilized in _________________________
Water Vapor (0-4%)
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Largest amounts occur near the _________________________, over oceans and in tropical regions
Areas where atmospheric water vapor can be low are polar areas and desert
Carbon Dioxide (<<1%)
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Volume has increased about _________________________because of the burning of fossil fuels
CO2 is produced through cellular respiration and the decay of organic matter
It is a reactant in photosynthesis
CO2 is also a major _________________________
Humans are responsible for 5,500 million tons of CO2 per year
The average time CO2 molecules stay in the atmosphere is about _________________________.
Methane (<<<1%)
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Contributes to the greenhouse effect
Since 1750, methane has increases 150% due to the use of fossil fuels, mining, landfills, grazers and flooding
of rice fields
Human activity is responsible for about _________________________compared with the 200 million tons
produced naturally
Average cycle of a methane molecule in the atmosphere is about _________________________.
Nitrous Oxide (<<<1%)
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Concentrations have increased about 0.3% per year.
Burning fossil fuels, use of fertilizers, burning biomass, deforestation and conversion to agricultural land
increase concentrations
Humans are responsible _________________________
Contributes to the greenhouse effect
Average time of a N2O molecule in the atmosphere is about _________________________.
Ozone (<<<1%)
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97% of the Ozone is found in the stratosphere
Ozone absorbs UV radiation
Ozone is produces in the production of _________________________
A “hole” in the Ozone layer occurs over Antarctica.
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_________________________ are the main cause of the breakdown of the ozone layer.
Layers of the Atmosphere
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Troposphere: 0-7 miles above surface. 75% of atmosphere’s mass. Temps decrease with altitude reaching -76 F
near the top. _________________________ occurs in this layer
Stratosphere: Temps increases with altitude due to absorption of heat by ozone. Ozone is produced by UV
radiation and lightening. Contains the _________________________.
Mesosphere: Temps decrease with altitude. Coldest layer. Ice clouds occur_________________________
Thermosphere (Ionosphere): Temps increase with height due to gamma rays, X-rays, and UV radiation.
Molecules are converted into ions which results in the aurora borealis in the northern hemisphere and the
aurora australis in the southern hemisphere.
Weather
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Weather is caused by the movement of heat energy which influences the following physical properties:
o Temperature
o Available sunshine
o _______________
o Air pressure
determined by
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o Humidity
cloud cover
o Wind direction
o Precipitation
Climate
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Describes the total of _________________________occurring over a period of years in a given place
Energy
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Energy can be transferred wherever there is a temperature difference between two objects.
Radiation: flow of _________________________. It is the method by which Earth received solar energy
Conduction: transferred by the collisions that take place between heat-carrying molecules
Convection: primary way energy is transferred from hotter to colder regions in the atmosphere and the primary
determinant of weather patterns
Involves the movement of warmer and therefore more _________________________
Takes place both vertically and horizontally
When air near the ground becomes warmer and therefore less dense, _________________________.
Pressure differences that develop because of temperature differences result in wind or horizontal convection.
Regions nearer the equator receive much more solar energy that near the poles and are much warmer.
There latitudinal differences in surface temp create global-scale flows of energy within the atmosphere, giving
rise to the major _________________________of the world.
Without convection and the transfer of energy, the equator would be about 27 F warmer and the Arctic would
be about 45 F colder
Evidence for Climate Change
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Comes from data used to measure climate (only available for the last 100 years or so), written accounts
(subjective), and data materials present at the time:
o Tree rings
o Deep ice core
o Sediments
o Gas bubbles
samples
o Dust analysis
trapped in glaciers
o Lake sediments
o Isotope ratios
o Marine fossils
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in fossilized remains
Bottom line: the earth has gone through periods of warming and _________________________
Factors the influence climate
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Air Mass: large body of air that has similar temperature and moisture contents. Can be categorized as
equatorial, tropical, polar, arctic, __________________________________________________
Air Pressure: Gravity on an air mass results in air pressure. Air pressure decreases with altitude. Low pressure
usually produces cloudy and stormy weather. High pressure masses contain cool, dense air that descends
towards the surface and becomes warmer. High pressure is associated with _________________________.
Factors the Influence Climate
Albedo: Reflectivity. Ocean = Low albedo, Land = moderate albedo. Snow and Ice = Largest albedo. Dust in the
atmosphere has a _________________________. Dust forms a high albedo veil around earth so solar radiation
is reflected.
Altitude: for every 1,000 feet up there is a 3 F drop in temp. Every 300 feet up is equivalent to a
_________________________in latitude north.
Angle of Sun: in the Northern Hemisphere winter, the earth is closest to the sun. Areas closest to the equator
receive the most sun and therefore have higher temps.
Carbon Cycle: Consumption of carbon in the form of CO2 results in _________________________. Consuming
CO2 from: carbonate rock weathering and silicate rock weathering. Production of CO2 results in warming.
Breakdown of carbonate rocks and carbonate formation in oceans lead to warming.
Clouds: collections of water drops or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere. As warmer air rises it expands
due to decreasing air pressure and drops in temp- __________________________________________________.
Distance to Oceans: Oceans are thermally more stable than landmasses. The specific heat of water is 5X greater
than that of air. Because of this, changes in temp are more __________________________________________
Fronts: when 2 air masses meet, the boundary is called a _________________________. A warm front is a
boundary between an advancing warm air mass and the cooler one replacing it. Since warm air is less dense, it
rises and cools and the moisture it contains is released as rain. A cold front is the leading edge of an advancing
cool air mass. Cold fronts are associated with thunderhead clouds, _________________________.
Greenhouse Effect: most important greenhouse gasses are: water, carbon dioxide, and methane. Without the
effect the earth would be too cool to live on
Heat (Convection): Climate is influenced by how heat energy is exchanged between air over the ocean and air
over the land
Land Changes: Climate is influenced _________________________and deforestation.
Latitude: higher latitudes mean _________________________
Location: location of high and low air pressure zones and where land masses are distributed
Moisture Content of Air (Humidity): determinant of plant growth and distribution of biome type. More water
vapor in the air leads to more clouds and rainfall. Water vapor is also a _________________________and traps
heat energy . The dew point is the temperature where _________________________.
Mountain Ranges: _________________________. Side facing the ocean is the windward side and receives the
rain. Side opposite the ocean is the leeward side and is dry. Orographic lifting occurs when an air mass is forces
from low elevation to a high elevations. As it rises it expands and cools that can create clouds and precipitation.
Plate Tectonics and Volcanoes: Plate tectonics affect CO2 (a greenhouse gas). Volcanoes produce it.
Pollution: Greenhouse gasses are emitted from both natural and _________________________
Precession: the wobble of the Earth on its axis changes the amount of energy received by the sun
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Human Activity: Deforestation, urbanization and heat island effects, release of pollutants, burning of fossil fuels
and production of acid rain are factors that affect climate. Increased pollution alone, combined with an increase
in convectional uplift in urban areas increases the amount of rainfall as much as 10% compared to undeveloped
areas.
Rotation: Daily temp cycles are primarily influenced by earths rotation on its axis. At night, heat escapes. Daily
minimum temps occur just _________________________
Solar output: Changes in solar output only 1% per 100 years would change the temp by 1 F. Times of sunspot
activity correspond to decreases in solar radiation reaching Earth. The sun’s magnetic field reverses every 22
years.
Volcanoes: Sulfur-rich volcanic eruptions can eject material into the stratosphere and cause troposphereic
cooling and stratospheric warming. They stay in the _________________________. Over the course of millions
of years volcanic ash deposited in oceans can increase iron content in seawater which can promote biotic
activity. But that decreases CO2 levels in the water and therefore in the atmosphere result in in global cooling.
Recent research also suggest that large eruptions may trigger _________________________.
Wind Patterns: Influenced by temp and pressure differences (gradients).
– 1. The sun heats the atmosphere unevenly. 2. The air closest to the surface is warmer and rises 3. Air at
higher elevations _________________________- this creates a convection process and is the primary
cause of winds.
– Winds are effected by:
• Uneven heating of the surface
• Seasons
• The Coriolis Effect
• Amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth over a period of time
– Convection cells created by areas of warm ocean water which in turn are caused be differences in water
density, winds and earths rotation.
Winds: During calm sunny days, __________________________________________________. This causes the
air above the land to become more dense than air above the sea. This creates sea breezes.
– Anabatic Winds: develop in hilly or mountainous areas during __________, especially if weather is calm
and has some sun. In situations like this, the air around the hilltops becomes warmer than the air at the
same altitude over adjacent valleys.
– Katabactic Winds: occur on clear still __________ when the air that is in contact with the ground loses
heat quickly by radiations back to space. The result is that the air near the ground over hill and mountain
summits becomes colder than air at that same altitude over adjacent valleys.
Atmospheric Circulation
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Air closer to the earths surface is the ________________________________________
At high elevations air is cooler and much __________________________________________________
This sets up a convection process and is the primary cause of winds
Global Air Circulation is also affected by: seasons, the Coriolis Effect, ____________________.
Trade winds are the prevailing pattern of easterly surface winds found in the tropics, within the lower
portion of the earths atmosphere.
Trade winds blow mainly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere (northeast trade winds) and from
the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere (southeast trade winds)
Trade winds act as the steering flow for tropical storms that form over the Atlantic, pacific and south Indian
oceans.
Horizontal winds move from areas of high pressures to areas of ____________________.
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Wind speed is determined by pressure differences between the air masses
More pressure= ______________________________
Wind direction is based on where the wind is coming from, wind from the east is called an easterly.
Earths rotation on its axis causes winds not to travel straight- ____________________
It causes the prevailing winds in the Northern Hemisphere to spiral clockwise from high-pressure areas and
counter clockwise from low-pressure areas.
Hadley Air Circulation Cells
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Air heated near the equator rises and spreads our north and south
After cooling in the upper atmosphere it sinks back within earths surface within the subtropical climate zone
(25-49 degrees N and S of the equator)
The equatorial regions of Hadley Cells are characterized by ____________________, high clouds and heavy
rains
The subtropical regions of Hadley cells are characterized by low relative humidity, little cloud formation,
high ocean evaporation and many of the worlds deserts. Warm to hot summers and mild winters
The tropical wet and dry (or savanna) climate has a dry season more than 2 months long. Yearly loss of
water through evaporation exceeds water gains from precipitation
Ferrel Air Circulation Cells
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Form __________degrees north and south of the equator
The descending winds of Hadley cells diverge as moist tropical air moves toward the poles with westerly
winds
Mid latitude climates can have severe winters and cool summers due to mid-latitude cyclone patterns.
The climate of this area is governed by both tropical and polar air masses.
They have distinct winters and have lots of broadleaf deciduous and coniferous evergreen forests.
Polar Air Circulation Cells
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Originate as icy cold, dry , dense air descending from the troposphere to the ground
The air meets with warm tropical air from mid-latitudes.
Air then returns to the poles, cooling than sinking. The sinking suppresses precipitations (thus polar regions
are deserts)
Two major biomes are ______________________________.
Hurricanes
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Begin over warm oceans in areas where tread winds converge
A subtropical high-pressure zone creates hot day temps with low humidity that allows for large
evaporations. The Coriolis effect initiates the ____________________
The cyclonic circulation allows them to pick up moisture and latent heat energy from oceans
In the center of the hurricane is the eye, a descending air and low pressure area
In 2005, Hurricane ____________________ hit New Orleans and was responsible for 1,830 deaths and $75
billion in damages
Tornadoes
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Swirling masses of air with wind speeds close to __________.
The center or the tornado is an area of ____________________
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Diameters of hundreds of meters and are produced from a single convection storm
In the US tornado season is ______________________________
Because of advances in weather modeling, forecasting and warning systems, deaths are rare.
Tropical Cyclones
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Diameters of hundreds of meters and comprised of many convection storms.
An oceanic phenomenon and die out over land.
Lifetimes measured in __________.
Monsoons
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Strong and violent winds that change direction with the seasons
Monsoon winds blow from cold to warm regions because cold air takes up more space
India’s climate is dominated by ____________________
During the Indian winter, which is hot and dry, the monsoon winds blow from northeast and carry little
moisture.
The temp is high because the Himalayas form a barrier that prevents cold air from passing onto the
subcontinent
India lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the equator so the suns rays shine directly on the land
During the summer monsoons move onto the subcontinent from the southwest
The winds carry moisture from the Indian ocean and bring heavy rains from June to September.
Farmers in India rely on these torrential summer rainstorms to ____________________ their land
Large amount of India’s electricity is generated by water power provided by monsoon rains.
Rain Shadow
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A rain shadow is a dry area on the mountainside facing away from the direction of the wind
The mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems, casting a “__________” of dryness
behind them
Warm, moist air rises through orographic lifting on the top of a mountain range or large mountain, where,
due to decreasing atmospheric pressure with increasing altitude, it expands and cools reaching its dew point
At the dew point moisture condenses onto the mountain and precipitates on the top and windward side of
the mountain
Typically, descending air also gets warmer down the __________ side of the mountain creating an arid
region.
Normal Conditions (El Nino, La Nina)
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During normal conditions, easterly trade winds move water and air warmed by the sun toward the west
(Walker circulation).
The ocean is generally around ____________________in the western Pacific and water about 14 F warmer
The trade winds, in piling up water in the western Pacific, make a deep – 450 ft- warm layer in the west that
pushes the thermocline down while it rises in the east
The shallow -90 ft- eastern thermocline allows the winds to pull up nutrient rich water from below,
increasing fishing stocks.
The western side of equatorial pacific is characterized by warm, wet, low-pressure weather, as the collected
moisture is released in the form of typhoons and thunderstorms.
El Nino
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When the air pressure patterns In the South Pacific reverse direction (the air pressure at Australia is higher
than at Thaiti), the trades winds decrease in strength (or reverse).
The result is that the normal flow of water away from S America decreases and the ocean water piled up off
the coast of S America.
This pushes the thermocline deeper and decreases the upwelling of nutrient-rich deep water which results
in massive fish kills off the S American coast
With a deeper thermocline and decreased westward transport of water, the surface temp increases in the
eastern Pacific
The net result is a shift of prevailing rain pattern from the normal western Pacific to central Pacific; rainfall is
more common in the central pacific while the western pacific becomes dry
La Nina
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When trade winds that blow west across the tropical Pacific are stronger than normal leading to increased
upwelling off S America and __________ sea surface temperatures
Prevailing rain pattern also shifts farther west than normal
These winds pile up warm surface water in the western Pacific
Characterized by unusually cold ocean temps in eastern equatorial Pacific
Tends to bring opposite effects of El Nino to the US with wetter than normal conditions across the Pacific
NW and both dryer and warmer condition in the southern states
Winter temps are warmer than normal in the SE US and cooler than normal in the NW
Increased temps in the SE lead to more hurricanes
La Nina is also responsible for heavier than normal monsoons in India and SE Asia.
Global Change: __________of your APES Exam
Stratospheric Ozone
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Stratosphere contains __________of Ozone
Most Ozone is formed over the tropics. However, slow circulation currents carry the majority of it to the poles,
resulting in the thickest layers over the poles and the thinnest layers over the tropics
Formed in the stratosphere by the reaction of UV radiation striking an oxygen molecule and splitting it into two
free radical Oxygens
That free molecule reacts with atmospheric ozone to form O3.
The reverse reaction also happens so generally these reactions balance each other out keeping the level of
ozone fairly constant
Formula: ______________________________
Ultraviolet Radiation
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UVA- usually causes skin tanning. ______________________________than UVB in producing skin redness
but more of it reaches the surface than UBV. Many fruits, flowers seeds and patterns of bird plumage are
only visible in UV light as well as the urine of some animals.
UVB- causes blistering sunburns and is associated with __________
UVC- found only in the stratosphere and is responsible for creating __________.
Causes of Ozone Depletion
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Thinning of the Ozone layer was first discovered in__________
It occurs seasonally and due to human made compounds containing halogens (chlorine, bromine, fluorine or
iodine)
Measurements indicate that ozone over the Antarctic has decreases about 60% since the late 1970s with an
average loss of __________per year.
The main culprits are __________s
First manufactured during the 1920s they are used as refrigerants (__________), aerosol propellants,
electrical part cleaning solvents and in the manufacture of foam products and insulation
By 1974, nearly ____________________of CFCs were produced per year
The largest source of CFCs to the atmosphere were from leaking AC units
The average time of CFCs in the atmosphere is __________.
One chlorine atom released from CFCs can destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules
Much destruction is from CFCs released many years ago as it takes __________for a CFC molecule to reach
the ozone layer
Bromine, found in much smaller quantities than chlorine, is about 50X more effective in its effect on ozone
depletion and is responsible for about __________of the problem
Bromine is found in halons, found in fire extinguishers. Methyl Bromide is used fumigation and agricultures
and is naturally released from phytoplankton and biomass burning
Effects of Ozone Depletion
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During the onset of the 1998 Antarctic spring, a hole __________ the size of Australia (over 3,500 miles in
diameter) developed in the ozone layer over the South Pole.
Stratospheric Ozone protects life from harmful UV radiation. Harmful effects of increased UV radiation include:
o Increases in ____________________,
o Reduction in the growth of
sunburns and damage
phytoplankton and cumulative effect on
o Increases in cataracts of the eye
food webs
o Reduction in crop production
o Cooling of the stratosphere
o Deleterious effects to animals (they
o Reduction in immune system
don’t wear sunscreen)
o Climate
o Change
Reducing Ozone Depletion
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Although most developed countries have phased out ozone-destroying chemicals, they are still legal in
______________________________
HCFC replaces chlorine with hydrogen. Unfortunately, it is still capable of destroying ozone but less
effectively because it breaks down ozone more in the troposphere
alternatives to halons can be used in fire extinguishers
helium, ammonia, propane or butane can be used as a __________t. Helium-cooled refrigerators use
__________ less electricity.
Use a pump spray instead of aerosol sprays
Comply with disposal of oil refrigerators and AC units via instructions from the Clean Air Act.
Relevant Laws and Treaties
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________________________designed to protect the stratospheric ozone layer. Stipulated that production
and consumption of compounds that deplete ozone in the stratosphere were to be phased out by 2000
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London (1990): Countries that signed Montreal Protocol met again in London and decided that a total
phase-out of CFCs was necessary. They agreed this could happen by __________
Copenhagen (1992): Phase-out schedule for CFCs was accelerated, with the industrialized countries agreeing
to stop production by 1996. This goal had already been prescribed in the US in 1990 by the amendments of
the Clean Air Act. In 1994, Europe decided that a phase-out could be achieved in Europe by __________
Greenhouse Gases
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Levels of greenhouse gases have increased by __________since the industrial revolution
During the last 20 years, __________of all human-made CO2 was from burning fossil fuels
Energy related green house gases represent 82% of the US anthropogenic emissions
Although the carbon cycle takes up __________metric tons of anthropogenic CO2 emissions, 3.2 billion
metric tons are still added annually
Impacts and Consequences of Global Warming
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Acidification: The ocean can absorb CO2 but increased CO2 levels in the ocean __________ the pH of the
water causing it to be more acidic. This adversely affects corals, plankton, and reproduction rates
Forest fires: Boreal forest fires in N America used to average 2.5 million acres but now average about 7
million acres. This may also be because of forest management practices
Air temps average 5-9 F warmer than they were before the Industrial Revolution
Historic increases in temp average less than 2 F per __________
Higher temps will result in higher amounts of rain due to higher rates of evaporation
Hurricanes of category 4/5 have risen from 20% in the ____________________in the 90s
Precipitation due to hurricanes is up __________in the US
More rainfall increases erosion which then leads to higher rates of desertification due to deforestation… this
leads to loss in biodiversity from loss in__________
El Nino and La Nina Patterns and their frequencies have also changed
Displacement of People: The UN estimates that by 2050, ____________________people will need to
relocate worldwide. This is because of effects of coastal flooding, shoreline erosion and agricultural
disruption
Increases Health and Behavioral Effects: Higher temps result in a higher rate of heat-related deaths.
Estimates indicate that a temp increase of just 2F will result in about __________additional homicides in the
US due to stress and resulting rage.
Ecological Productivity: Satellite photos have shown that productivity in the N hemisphere has increased
since 1982, BUT, biomass increases due to warmer temps reaches a certain point- the point where
____________________of water and nutrients curb future productivity increases. In the tropics, plants
increase productivity more so than trees (which are carbon sinks). With higher % of plants due to increase
temps and CO2 concentrations, the rates of decomposition increase because the plants are shorter lived. As
a results, more carbon enters the carbon cycle.
Glacier Melting: Total surface area of glaciers worldwide has decreased __________ since the end of the
19th century. Temps in the Antarctic Southern Ocean rose 0.31 F between the 50s-80s. Glacier melting
causes: landslides, flash floods, lake overflow and increased variation in water flows into ricers
o Hindu Kush and Himalayan glacier melts are reliable ____________________for many people in
China, India and much of Asia.
o Global warming initially increases water flow causing flooding and disease. Flow will then decrease
as the glacier volume dwindles, resulting in ____________________.
Eventual decreases in glacial melt will also affect ____________________ productions
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Increase in____________________: Rates of Malaria, cholera and other waterborne diseases will increase.
Remediation and mitigation efforts will end up costing more
Increased ____________________: Weather-related disasters have increased 3-fold since the 60s.
Insurance payouts have increased 15-fold (adjusted for inflation) during the same time period. Much of this
can be attributed to people moving to vulnerable coastal areas.
Increase in ______________________________: Money that was designed to increase education, improve
health care, reduce hunger and improve sanitation and fresh water supply will now go to mitigating the
effects of climate change
Releases of Methane from Hydrates in Coastal Sediments: Methane hydrate is a form of
____________________that contains methane within its crystal structures. Extremely large deposits of this
resource have been discovered in ocean sediments.
Loss of Biodiversity: Arctic fauna will be most affected. The food webs of polar bears that depend on ice
flows, birds and marine mammals will be negatively impacted. Many refugee species have shifted their
ranges toward the poles, averaging __________per decade. Bird migrations are averaging over two days
earlier per decade. Grasses have become established in Antarctica for the first time. Many species of dish
and krill that require cooler waters will be negatively impacted. Decreased glacier melt will impact migratory
fish, such as salmon, that need sufficient river flow
Releases of Methane from Thawing Permafrost: would increase bacterial levels in the soil and eventually
lead to higher releases of methane. Estimates of melting of permafrost peat bogs in Siberia could release as
much as 70,000 million metric tons of methane in the next few decades
o POSITIVE FEED BACK LOOP
Rise in Sea Level: sea levels have risen__________since the peak of the last ice age. From 3,000 years ago to
the start of the industrial revolution, a rate of sea level rise averaged 0.1-0.2 mm per year. Since 1900, sea
level has risen about 3 mm per year (over a 10-fold increase). As increase in global temperatures of 3F-8F is
estimated to lead to an increase of 6-37 inched in seal level rise. If all the glaciers, ice caps and ice sheets
melted on earth the sea level would rise __________.
o Increase coastal erosion
o Create higher storm surge flooding
o Increase loss of property and ____________________
o Cause losses in fish and shellfish catches
o Cause loss of cultural resources and values such as tourism and recreation
o Cause losses in agriculture and____________________due to diminishing soil and water quality
o Result in the intrusion of salt water into aquifers.
Slowing or Shutdown of Thermohaline circulation: Melting of the glaciers in Greenland would shift the salt
water- freshwater balance of the North Atlantic. This would result in a decrease of heavier saline waters
sinking than in traditional ocean circulation patterns. This would have significant effects on the fishing
industry. Localized cooling in ____________________brought about through the reduction of thermohaline
circulation currents would result in much colder temps in Great Britain and Scandinavia
Reducing Climate Change
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World carbon dioxide levels are expected to increase by __________ annually between 2001-2025.
Much of the increase in these emissions is expected to occur in the developing world (China and India) where
emerging economies fuel economic development with fossil energy.
Developing countries emissions are expected to grow by __________ annually between 2001-2025 and will
surpass emissions of industrialized countries by 2019 .
The US produces about __________ of global CO2 emissions by burning fossil fuels.
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This is due to a robust economy and 85% of the US’s energy needs are met through burning fossil fuels.
To stabilize the current global warming crisis would require:
o A decrease in methane emissions by __________
o A decrease in Nitrous Oxide emissions by __________
o A decrease in carbon dioxide emissions by up to __________
Increasing the efficiency of cars, this would decrease dependence on oil and other fossil fuels. Cars currently
represent __________of the CO2 emissions in the US
Use more energy efficient sources or move to ____________________.
Finding chemical substitutes that don’t impact global warming and banning ones that do
Slow down the rate of deforestation and increase reforestation
Reduce dependence on inorganic, nitrogen-based fertilizers and substituting conservation tillage techniques
Support treaties, protocols and legislation that require a reduction in greenhouse gases