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Download Sociology 100 Lecture 9 Racialization
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RACIAL RETURN: THE COLOUR OF CRIME; POLICING “RACE” © Dr. © © Francis Adu-Febiri, 2017 Presentation Contents Central Question, Main Thesis and Main Argument Major Concepts Racial Risk & Racial Profiling Stories of Policing Race Consequences of Policing Race Sociological Claims of Policing Race Social construction of Race and Ethnicity Major Concepts of Race and Ethnic Relations Theoretical Perspectives of Race/Ethnic Relations Sample final exam question CENTRAL QUESTION & MAIN THESIS To what extend does “race” matter in the 21st century Western societies [Canada include]? To a large extent “race” continues to matter in the 21st century Western society because the body continues to be central in racialization in ways that make the “racial risk” still very high and “racial return” still very low for non-whitened people. MAIN ARGUMENT: Discrimination: The Body Continues to be Central Although “race” is not a biological/genetic phenomenon, the BODY is central to race, in that “race” is socially ascribed to the body and the body is made the focus of racial identification (K. Anthony Appiah 2014, p. 432) and the basis of prejudice, discrimination, and accessibility to valued resources (Tepperman 2015, p. 276). MAIN ARGUMENT: Discrimination: The Body Continues to be Central Ethno-racial discrimination and prejudice remain problematic in many Western societies, where a majority of people claim to support the idea of ethno-racial equality, and legislation that would bring about that goal. Nonetheless, research continues to find that ethno-racial inequality is still evident in virtually all societies—especially in the areas of employment, housing, wealth, health, and criminal justice (Tepperman 2015, p. 276) MAIN ARGUMENT: Discrimination: The Body Continues to be Central …for black, Indigenous, and brown people in Canada, race and racism are a daily consideration in how we live, make decisions, and navigate the world. Like all of my black friends and family, I have been singled out (when in the company of whites) profiled by police and civilians in positions of power for [driving], shopping and walking while black. Many of us have been stopped for the "offense" of "driving while black"; a particularly prevalent police tactic when racist white officers perceive a black person to be driving a nice car, one above their assumed lower class status. (http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/charmaine-nelson/modern-racism-canada_b_14821958.html) Police departments developed out of the tradition of slave patrols. These were mainly white males, working independently or at the behest of a slave owner or plantation manager, to hunt down, capture or kill fugitive slaves. Fugitive slave advertising, ubiquitous across the Americas (with significant repositories in Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario by the way) reveal the pervasiveness of African resistance to slavery, Ibid.). MAIN ARGUMENT: Discrimination: The Body Continues to be Central But such advertisements also reveal that white participation in the criminalization and recapture of the enslaved was incentivized through the offer of rewards. When an enslaved person fled, slave owners provided detailed racialized descriptions of the people they held in bondage, including complexion, hairstyles, clothing, languages, accents and even gestures, countenance, physical habits, and bodily marks suffered from perilous labour, torture, and abuse. The nature and amount of such details demonstrate that the enslaved lived under constant surveillance. These descriptions helped to conflate blackness with slavery and criminality. Indeed, to abscond from one's owner was, under colonial law, as Marcus Wood has argued, a crime of "selftheft“ (Ibid.). While slavery was practiced in the territory that became Canada for over 200 years, it is rarely taught in our schools prior to university, and only sparingly in higher education (Ibid.). MAIN ARGUMENT ILLUSTRATED: Discrimination: The Body Continues to be Central in Racialization Quotes/Excerpts from UN CESR Concluding Observations on the Plight of African Canadians 1. Unemployment: In recognition of the disproportionate rate of unemployment among African Canadians. 2. Child welfare: Overrepresentation of African Canadian children in care institutions. 3. Right to health: Concerned that African Canadians face barriers in access to health care services due to stigma 4. Right to education: Recognizing the continuous lower educational and academic achievements by African-Canadian children. 5. Cultural rights: The Committee is concerned about the inadequate funding and promotion of African art and culture that adds to the structural discrimination faced by African Canadians in the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights in Canada. MAIN ARGUMENT ILLUSTRATED: Discrimination: The Body Continues to be Central “But equality legalized wasn’t [isn’t] equality realized” (http://europe.newsweek.com/green-book-jim- crow-era-travel-guide-saved-black-lives565430) MAJOR CONCEPTS Racial Risk and Racial Return Racialization and Criminalization Racialism Racialized Groups Racial Groups Race Ethnicity Racism Racist Racism and Racists Visible Minority Racialized Minority All these are representations of realities that are SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED RACIAL RISK & RACIAL RETURN “Racial Risk” is the particular constellation of dangers associated with being a member of a racialized group in society. “Racialized Return” is about rewards one receives because of one’s membership in a racialized group (AduFebiri 2014). RACIAL RISK & RACIAL RETURN: Illustrations 1. Online Dating: Read “STARTING OFF: When is Online Dating Racist?” (page 246 of Tepperman 2015). 2. Go back to Portugal? http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2017/03/16/nelly -furtado-immigrant-portugal_n_15365356.html RACIAL RISK & RACIAL RETURN: Illustrations 3. Racism in shopping, housing, and job recruitment https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WjmD wWUhEpg http://www.cbc.ca/news/business/blindrecruitment-marketplace-1.3462061 RACIAL RISK & RACIAL RETURN Illustrations 4. Racial Profiling in the Criminal Justice System “Racializing Crime While Criminalizing Minorities” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yAkDHu imJRc Racial profiling is the police targeting physical appearance (usually non-whitened bodies) rather than behavior of designated groups in dealing with crime and potential crime (David Tanovic. 2006. The Culture of Justice: The Policing of Race). http://www.upworthy.com/meet-the-17-yearold-who-blew-the-lid-off-racial-profilingwith-his-ipod RACIAL RISK & RACIAL RETURN: Illustrations 5. Systemic and Systematic Discrimination against “non-Whitened” people Labour Market: Employment & Income Educational Access: Attainment School Segregation Criminal Justice System DISCRIMINATION Residential Segregation Health Care System Credit Markets Housing: Mortgage Market Source: Reskin 2012, cited in Tepperman 2015, p. 266 CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM: STORIES OF POLICING RACE STRORIES OF POLICING RACE Story #1: According to Critical Race Theory, Racism is deeply entrenched in our social, and, especially, legal institutions. While recognizing the important gains made during the civil rights movement, it is argued that institutionalized instruments of racial oppression continue to operate even as more overt forms of racism have been eliminated. This fact is illustrated in the tendency of police to disproportionately arrest people of racialized minorities and the tendency of the courts to disproportionately imprison and, in some US states, execute them (Tepperman 2015, p. 252). STRORIES OF POLICING RACE: “The Myth of Black Criminality” Story #2: Watch these video clips https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=22aH9 OeE_X8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wP4Dd YvD480 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M7NvU OUSKvU&feature=related STRORIES OF POLICING RACE Story #3: In the USA and Canada, compared to their proportion of the population, “blacks” are 10 times more likely than “whites” to be shot at [or beaten up] by the police (Wortley 2005) STRORIES OF POLICING RACE Story #4: Using the evidence at the level of policing in minority communities, the police have been criticized for underpolicing (i.e., slow response rates), for overpolicing (i.e., excessive and unnecessary coverage), and for mispolicing (i.e., prejudicial and discriminatory enforcement) (Holdaway 1996, Fridel et al 2001, CRRF 2003, MacDonald 2003, Tanovich 2006). The consequences of this interactional breakdown have had the effect of racializing crime while criminalizing minorities (Henry and Tator 2006). STRORIES OF POLICING RACE Story #5: According to the Manitoba Human Rights Commission, both Black and Aboriginal youth accuse the police of racist and abusive treatment despite initiatives to repair the breach (Friesen 2007). STRORIES OF POLICING RACE Story #6: Latinos in the Lower Mainland feel they are frequently stopped by the police when driving, walking on the streets, and waiting for public transit (Riano-Alcala 1999: 15). STRORIES OF POLICING RACE Story #7: “The Skin I’m In: I’ve been interrogated by police more than 50 times—all because I’m black” Watch the documentary and read the article: Documentary: http://www.cbc.ca/arts/one-movie-can-t-end-racism-in-canada-but the-skin-we-re-in-will-fuel-the-fight-1.4008818 Article: http://www.torontolife.com/informer/features/2015/04/21/skin-imive-interrogated-police-50-times-im-black/?page=all STRORIES OF POLICING RACE Story #8: In societies or political economies where there is intersection of racialization, militarization of policing, increased accessibility to weapons of mass destruction, and disconnection from our common humanity, the interaction between the police and racialized minorities become violent. In this context the shootings and killings of Blacks and police officers are less surprising (AduFebiri 2016. Prepared in response to the request of CBC Radio, Victoria, as a response to the recent increased shootings and killings of Blacks and police officers in USA). CREATIVE/INNOVATIVE THINKING EXERCISE #3: 1) Critically review this lecture. 2) Based on your critical thinking, come up with one creative idea and connected innovative project/program design (provide a diagram of your design) with specific implementation strategies that will provide opportunities that people from various racial groups can use to improve the lives of racialized peoples by reducing/eliminating their racial risk and increasing/maximizing their racial return for them. 3) Use your design to evaluate the concept of sociological imagination or the concept of social construction of reality. 4) Put your idea and design on paper and bring to class. YOU RECEIVE A MAXIMUM OF 2 BONUS MARKS if you are doing the service-learning project. IF YOU ARE NOT DOING THE PROJECT, YOU RECEIVE A MAXIMUM OF 10 MARKS. RESPONDING TO RACIAL RISK AND RACIAL RETURN BLACK CANADIAN LEADERS RESPONDING TO RACIAL INEQUITY: Workshops on Police-Black Relations in Victoria Victoria, Nov. 2, 2015 Black Canadian Leaders Responding to Racial Inequity BLACK BOYS CODE PROGRAM: Black Boys Code is a non-profit organization intended to address inequalities by exposing boys of colour aged 8-16 to the digital universe. We will utilize mentorship, industry exposure, and intensive training in the field of computer science to help Black boys become technological innovators and creators of their own futures. At Black Boys Code, we believe that young men of colour constitute a significant source of untapped talent in our society. In bringing this talent to the fore, we aim to uphold our commitment to equality, thereby contributing to the advancement of our society. Source: http://www.blackboyscode.org/ Black Canadian Leaders Responding to Racial Inequity Africentric Alternative School The Africentric Alternative School has three key outcomes for its students: High academic achievement High self-pride A high motivation to succeed A unique feature of the Africentric Alternative School will be the integration of the diverse perspectives, experiences and histories of people of African descent into the provincial mandated curriculum. The program will also feature a Parenting and Family Literacy Centre for pre-school children. Source: http://schoolweb.tdsb.on.ca/africentricschool/Home.aspx CONSEQUENCES OF POLICING RACE NON-WHITE SKIN AND CRIME IN CANADA Because the police tend to police race (Henry et al 2000, p. 302), There is “disproportionate number of people of colour in the court and prison system” (Henry et al, 2000: 178). This social construction of crime contributes to the fact that, in Canada “the image of crime is a dark [black or brown]” skin (Mann and Zatz 1998: 130-133) Blacks in the Canada’s Justice System % of Population % of Federal Jails 2.5% 9.12% % of Federal Jails in Ontario 20.0% Crawford, Alison, 2011, CBC News, December 2011 (http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/story/20 11/12/14/crawford-black-prison.html) Aboriginal People in Canada’s Justice System: 2016 % of Population % of Federal Prisoner Population 4% 25% Source: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/25/ indigenous-australians-and-canadians-destroyed-by-same-colonialism Aboriginal Youth in Canada’s Justice System: 2016 40% of children in Canadian youth jails are Aboriginal Source: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/25/ indigenous-australians-and-canadians-destroyed-by-same-colonialism ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN PROVINCIAL PRISONS Saskatchewan Manitoba Alberta BC % of Population % of Prisoner Population 14.9% 14.5% 5.8% 4.8% 80% 71% 39% 79% Source: Statistics Canada, 2006 Aboriginal People in Criminal Justice System ‘It's the same story': How Australia and Canada are twinning on bad outcomes for Indigenous people 'The statistics were almost identical. Aboriginal peoples make up 4% of the Canadian population and 25% of its prison population. In Australia, the 3% of the population who identify as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islanders make up 27% of those in prison. Aboriginal women make up a third of the female prison population in both countries. The only significant difference in incarceration rate is among juvenile detainees, where Australia is markedly worse: 59% of all children in detention in Australia are Indigenous, compared with 40% of children in Canadian youth jails. In the child welfare system, which Rudin said was the most significant concern for most Aboriginal peoples, almost 50% of children were Aboriginal. The Australian rate is 51%.“If it’s something people want, Aboriginal people have less of it, and if it’s something people don’t want Aboriginal people have more,” he said.‘ Source: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/25/indigenousaustralians-and-canadians-destroyed-by-same-colonialism SOCIOLOGICAL CLAIMS OF POLICING RACE From the perspectives of sociological imagination and social construction of reality, policing race falls into the “PATTERNS OF DOMINANT GROUPS’ INTERACTION WITH MINORITY GROUPS” (Ravelli 2013, pp. 247- 253) PATTERNS: Racialized groups are targeted for: 1. Genocide 2. Expulsion 3. Segregation & Separation 4. Assimilation 5. Multiculturalism 6. Criminalization These are mechanisms used to exclude, marginalize and control racialized peoples (minorities). THE CENTRALITY OF THE BODY IN RACIALIZED STRATIFICATION “…the body is central to race, gender, and sexuality, but not so central to class and ethnicity” (K. Anthony Appiah 2014, p. 432 in James Fearganis 2014. Readings in Social Theory): From the perspective of sociological imagination, Skin-whitening commodities reinforce and consolidate the globalized ideology of white supremacy and the sexist practice of biomedicalization of women’s bodies. It is in this specific context of the continuum of the western practices of global racism and the economic practice of commodity racism that the social, political and cultural implications of skin-whitening must be located and resisted. Consequently feminist/antiracist and anti-colonial responses must confront this social phenomenon as part and parcel of our old enemy, the “civilizing mission”; the violent moral prerogative to cleanse and purify the mind and bodies of the “dark/dirty/savage” (Amina Mire 2005). THE CENTRALITY OF THE BODY AS IMAGE IN RACIALIZED STRATIFICATION Watch this video clip: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KM4Xe 6Dlp0Y THE WHY & HOW OF RACIALIZATION OF CRIME: Application of Sociological Imagination & Social Construction of Reality 1. Criminalized activities as a major means of survival for minorities. 2. Overpolicing and mispolicing of racialized minorities SOCIAL STRATIFICATION POLICE MEDIA “Racialization of crime is developed primarily by the police but communicated and perpetuated by the Canadian media” (Henry et al, 2000: 302). CRIMINAL IMAGE & IDENTITY SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Sociological Imagination: RACE/ETHNICITY MATTERS FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE RACIALIZATION As a new dimension of inequity introduced by the roots of Globalization, namely, Industrialization, Slavery and Colonization “RACE”, ETHNICITY, MINORITY UNEQUAL SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS & LIFE CHNACES OF MINORITIES RACISM RACIAL INJUSTICES STRATIFIED “RACES” RACISTS,CRIMIMINALS, POLICE/MEDIA CRIMINALIZATION OF MINORITIES & RACIAL CONFLICT Changes in “Race” Relations ELABORATION OF MAJOR CONCEPTS OF RACE/ETHNIC RELATIONS SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION All the major concepts of racialized stratification system are representations of realities that are SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED Socially Constructed When sociologists say something is “socially constructed” they mean: The characteristics deemed relevant to the definitions of that thing is based on societal values (Gallagher 2007, p. 2). In this context, Race and Ethnicity are social products based on cultural values, not scientific facts (Gallagher 2007, p. 2.). Socially Constructed Race and Ethnicity are socially constructed and used to produce and reproduce 1) racialization 2) racialism 3) racialized groups 4) racial groups 5) race 6) racism 7) racists 1. RACIALIZATION Simple Definition: The social and political processes that create racial groups based on perceived physical differences (Christian Caron 2016, p. 21) The process of using the natural variation in human skin color as a way to sort people into groups, putting them in a hierarchy, and justifying exploitation based on skin color (Gallagher 2007, p. 5) 1. RACIALIZATION Technical Definition: A process of constructing people into inferior or superior racial categories that block/limit or facilitate their access to valued societal resources (property, power, prestige, and privilege). The results or products of this social construction process are “RACE” ETHNICITY MINORITY RACISM RACISTS CRIMINALIZATION OF RACIALIZED GROUPS 2. RACIALISM Differentiation or categorization of people according to their race or ethnicity (Tepperman portrays this process also as racialization: 2015, p. 248) 3. RACIALIZED GROUPS: Application of Social Construction of Reality According to Majority Scholars’ interpretation: Racialized groups are people collectively constructed into superior and inferior racial categories based on their phenotypes and/or genotypes: “White” 2nd: “Yellow” 3rd: “Brown” 4th: “Red” 5th: “Black” 1st: “Mixed” usually ranked as part of the inferior groups According to Minority Scholars’ interpretation: Racialized groups are people collectively constructed into inferior or devalued racial categories. Sociologists call this RACIALIZED MINORITIES, an equivalent concept is Statistics Canada’s MINORITIES: Visible Minorities and Invisible Minorities “Non-whitened” groups of people. 4. RACIAL GROUPS People grouped into categories based on their phenotypes (external biological features) and/or genotypes (genetic attributes), but not rank-ordered into superior or inferior. Negroid Americanus RACIAL GROUPS Mongoloid Caucasoid 5. RACE As Phil Bartle (2005) insightfully concludes, genetics cannot be used to determine racial categories because there are no genetic boundaries between what we call “races” 5. RACE RACE AND THE BODY: Although “race” is not a biological/genetic phenomenon, the BODY is central to race, in that “race” is ascribed to the body and the body is made the focus of racial identification (K. Anthony Appiah 2014, p. 432). 5. RACE APPLICATION OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY From a sociological perspective, ‘RACE’, like culture, is socially constructed and learned. That is, race is identity/image ascribed to bodily characteristics or distinction. This perspective is well captured by Charles Cooley’s Looking-Glass-Self Thesis or what is conventionally referred to as Self-fulfilling Prophesy: When people are defined as a ‘race’ and given a role related to the ‘race’ by others, they acquire a group identity and become oppressed or privileged, and then use the idiom of ‘race’ in relation to themselves, their identities and grievances (Miles and Brown 2003: 6). 6. RACISM RACISM AS IDEOLOGY Beliefs, doctrines, and theories that suggest that human population groups constitute races, and that some human populations groups are biologically superior or inferior to others (Miles and Brown 2003: 51). OLD RACISM: Based on the BODY (see Rushton’s Evolutionary Typology in the next slide) OLD RACISM: RUSHTON’S EVOLUTIONARY TYPOLOGY (1994) Negroid 200,000 Caucasoid 110,000 Oriental 40,000 Brain Size 1330 cu.cm 1408 cu.cm 1448 cu.cm IQ Score 85 Intense 100 107 Weak Evolutionary branching Sexual activity Moderate Temperament Aggressive/Exci Moderate table Marital Stability Brittle Low High Law abiding Crime rates Moderate Moderate Moderate Calm/Cautious Strong High Low “New Racism”: Ethnicity Like “Race”, Ethnicity is socially constructed, but the BODY is not supposed to be so central to ethnicity: It is a social phenomenon that represents a group of people with a common identity based on ancestry, nationality and/or culture (particularly language, customs and religion). However, because of the unnecessary conflation of ancestry and culture, the BODY has been very central to ethnicity too. NEW RACISM is about connecting CULTURE to the body (phenotype and genotype). 6. RACISM PREJUDICE, STEREOTYPE & DISCRIMINATION Specifically, RACISM is prejudice, stereotype and/or discrimination constructed by a dominant group around superficial physical characteristics such as skin color perceived as inferior in the context of human phenotypic diversity with the objective to prevent racialized minority from having access to socially defined valued resources (Naiman 2000). 6. RACISM DISCRIMINATION is “Treating someone differently or unfairly because of a personal characteristic or distinction, which, whether intentional or not, has an effect of imposing disadvantages not imposed on others or which withholds or limits access to opportunities, benefits and advantages available to other individuals or classes of individuals in society” (Courtesy Public Services Alliance of Canada and Treasury Board Secretariat, January 2004). 7. RACIST: APPLICATION OF SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION Since racism, like any “ism”, applies to acts of discrimination that occur at the collective level (or when it occurs at the individual level, are consistent with institutional patterns of discrimination) and works in favour of dominant group members and against minority groups (McIntyre 2006: 232), a racist could only be a person from a dominant group not a minority person. A person from a racialized minority group could not be racist (against dominant group members) because the minority person’s racialized group has no collective power over the dominant group members. In this context the racialized minority person is rather a target of racism. Therefore, reversed racism, as indicated in the statement below, is a oxymoron or contradiction in terms: While we don’t notice systematic unfairness, we do observe specific efforts to redress it — such as affirmative action, which often strikes white men as profoundly unjust. Thus a majority of white Americans surveyed in a 2011 study said that there is now more racism against whites than against blacks (Nicholas Kristof, Feb. 21, 2015). (http://mobile.nytimes.com/2015/02/22/opinion/sunday/nicholas-kristof-straighttalk-for-white-men.html?referrer&_r=1) 7. RACISM and RACISTS: The Connection None of these examples (of systematic unfairness to racialized people and females) mean exactly that society is full of hard-core racists and misogynists. Eduardo BonillaSilva, a Duke University sociologist, aptly calls the present situation “Racism without Racists” [racism without racists]; it could equally be called “misogyny without misogynists.” Of course, there are die-hard racists and misogynists out there, but the bigger problem seems to be well-meaning people who believe in equal rights yet make decisions that inadvertently transmit both racism and sexism (Nicholas Kristof, Feb. 21, 2015). http://mobile.nytimes.com/2015/02/22/opinion/sunday/nicholas-kristofstraight-talk-for-white-men.html?referrer&_r=1 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES “RACE”, RACISM AND CRIME IN CANADA: Theoretical Perspectives FUNCTIONALIST PARADIGM: Homeostasis Application of Sociological Imagination Racialization of crime in Canada is functional because it contributes to social cohesion and stability: Function #1: Contributes to job creation Function #2: Rationalizes and facilitates assimilation Function #3: Reinforces social solidarity in dominant group Function #4: Makes resources and opportunities available to dominant group members Function #5: Makes it difficult for minorities to successfully challenge existing social conventions of the dominant group “RACE”, RACISM AND CRIME IN CANADA: Theoretical Perspectives SOCIAL CONFLICT PARADIGM: Competition and Power Inequality Application of Sociological Imagination Capitalist societies such as Canada, using the ideology of scarcity, create competition for resources that results in the upper/middle Class people having the economic and political power to shape laws and criminal justice system that make the police and the media process lower class people (proportional majority of racialized minorities happen to be in this class) as criminals to eliminate them from the competition for resources or minimize their chances of having access to valued resources. “RACE”, RACISM AND CRIME IN CANADA: Theoretical Perspectives INTERACTIONIST PARADIGM: Human Agency & Definition of crime: Application of Social Construction of Reality The police and the media subjectively define and label minorities as deviants/criminals and some of the minorities define this label positively, interact with it as such and internalize the criminal label to become criminals—Selffulfilling prophesy! or looking-glass self. “RACE”, RACISM AND CRIME IN CANADA: Theoretical Perspectives FEMINIST PARADIGM: Western Patriarchy: Application of Sociological Imagination & Social Construction of Reality Feminization of Race: The perception of “non-white” groups as “a feminine race” or possessing “feminine racial characteristics” (Pon 1996:50), and the fact that racism and gender have the same root--socially constructed “natural inferiority of minorities and women” (Allahar 1995: 186). “White Europeans lay claim to superiority and dominance by effeminizing—or othering—there non-Westerners” (Tepperman, 2015, p. 252). Feminization & Racialization of Poverty: Sexism leads to inequality and oppression that render women poor, and racist globalization aggravates this poverty for racialized minority women. Some of these impoverished racialized women resort to crime to survive. “RACE”, RACISM AND CRIME IN CANADA: Feminist Paradigm Illustration #1: Aboriginal women make up over 20% of Canada's female prison population, but only 2% of the female population of Canada. Illustration #2: “To become more competitive in the global economy, countries cut social services. For poor white women, women of colour and Aboriginal women this can make criminalized activities the only way to survive,” says Dr. Sudbury. “RACE”, RACISM AND CRIME IN CANADA: Theoretical Perspective POSTMODERNISM: Application of Social Construction of Reality The elite using their power or hegemonic discourses create and reproduce hyperreal symbolic discourse as institutionalized instruments of oppression for the preservation of the distinctions between socially constructed communities, including races (Tepperman, 2015, p. 252). CONCLUSION: The Gap Between Ideal and Real Cultures [Racial] discrimination and prejudice remain problematic in many Western societies, where the majority of people claim to support the idea of ethno-racial equality, and legislation that would bring about that goal. Nonetheless, research continues to find that ethno-racial inequality is still evident in virtually all societies—especially in the areas of employment, housing, wealth, health, and criminal justice (Tepperman 2015, p. 276). SAMPLE FINAL EXAM QUESTION: The arrests and imprisonment of Blacks, Aboriginals and Latinos is at rates above Canadian average. What do you think is the cause of this pattern and what creative ideas and innovative designs do you suggest to solve this social problem? Relate your answer to the concept of racialization and show which of the sociological paradigms would agree with your answer and why? REFERENCES Aylward, Carol A. (1999). Canadian Critical Race Theory: Racism and the Law. Halifax: Fernwood Publishing. Deroche, C. and John Deroche. (1991). “Black and White: Racial Construction in Television Police Drama”. Canadian Ethnic Studies. 23(3): 69-91. REFERENCES Fleras, A. and Jean L. Elliott. (2010). Unequal Relations: An Introduction to Race, Ethnic and Aboriginal Dynamics in Canada. Scarborough: Prentice-Hall. Gallagher, Charles A (ed.). 2007. Rethinking the Color Line: Readings in Race and Ethnicity. Third Edition. Boston: McGraw Hill Henry, F. (1994). The Caribbean Diaspora in Canada. Toronto: U of Toronto Press. Henry, F. (Forthcoming). The Racialization of Crime by the Print Media. Toronto: School of Journalism, Ryerson Polytechnic University. REFERENCES Henry, F., Carol Tator, Winston Mattis and Tim Rees. (2000). The Colour of Democracy: Racism in Canadian Society. Second Edition. Toronto: Harcourt Brace. James, Carl E. (1998). “‘Up to no Good’, Black on the Streets and Encountering Police”. In Vic Satzewich (ed.). Racism and Social Inequality in Canada: Concepts, Controversies & Strategies for Resistance. Toronto: TEP. Kristof, Nicholas, (2015). “Straight Talk for White Men”, New York Times, February 21, 2015. The Opinion Column. REFERENCES Li, Peter S. (ed.). (1999). Race and Ethnic Relations in Canada. Second Edition. Don Mills: Oxford University Press. Lin, Ken-Hou & Jennifer Lundquist. 2013. “Mate Selection in Cyberspace: The Interaction of Race, Gender and Education”. American Journal of Sociology 119, 1, 183-215. McIntyre, Lisa. (2006). The Practical Skeptic: Core Concepts in Sociology, Third Edition. Boston: McGraw Hill. Mire, Amina. (2005). “Pigmentation and Empire: The Emerging SkinWhitening Industry”. A CounterPunch Special Report. Mosher, C.L. (1998). Discrimination and Denial: Systemic Racism in Ontario’s Legal and Criminal Justice Systems, 1892-1961. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Tepperman, Lorne. 2015. Starting Points: A Sociological Journey. Second Edition. Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press. Thomas, Jennifer. 2000. “Adult Correctional Services in Canada 1989-99.” Juristat. June 2000, pp. 1-16. REFERENCES Riano-Alcala, Pilar. (1999). The Impact of the “Drug-War” on the Latin American Community of Vancouver. Final Report. Vancouver: Social Planning, City of Vancouver, and the Latin American Community Council (LACC).
