Download Unification of Italy and Germany

Unification of Italy
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Introduction
Central Europe was composed of hundreds of
different kingdoms from the Middle Ages until
the 19th Century
In the 1800s, both Italy and Germany will
become unified nations
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both will be led by the American, French, and
Industrial Revolutions
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Unification of Italy:
1815: Italy did not exist
The peninsula was divided into many different,
independent states
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Some states were ruled by foreign powers
Many in Italy did not speak the same dialect of
Italian
Poor trade and transportation did not allow
goods or people to flow in Italy
Early Attempts
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Risorgimento: the name given to the
movement for Italian unity
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The word means “resurgence or revival”
The most effective speaker of the movement
was Giuseppe Mazzini
He was a native of Genoa
 1831: he founded “Young Italy”—a secret society
devoted to transforming Italy into a unified nation
 He wanted to create a nation-state in Italy
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January 1848: a revolution occurs in Sicily,
supported by Mazzini
Large uprisings took place in Italy after people heard
the news of revolution in France and Austria
 The Italians were trying to drive the Austrian rulers
out of Lombardy and Venetia—2 Italian areas
controlled by Austria
 The king of Sardinia—Charles Albert—joined with
the other Italians to help drive out the Austrians
 Other Italian states soon joined in—Naples,
Tuscany, and the Papal States
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April 1848: The Italian forces had almost driven
the Austrians out of Lombardy and Venetia
The Pope (Pius IX) decided the pull his troops out
of the conflict—he was against fighting another
Catholic nation—Austria
 After Pius removed his troops, so did Naples and
Tuscany
 Charles Albert (Sardinia) was left to fight against
Austria alone
 Austria quickly defeated Charles Albert and held on
to Lombardy and Venetia
 Italian Nationalists were mad and outraged at the
Pope
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November 1848: Italian Nationalists attack the Pope
in Rome
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the Pope is forced to flee for his life
The Nationalists make Rome into a Republic
Giuseppe Mazzini is made head of the Roman Republic
Many Catholic nations are made at the Italian nationalists for
attacking the Pope
France—led by Louis Napoleon—sent troops to help restore
the Pope’s power
French troops overpowered Mazzini’s Republic and restored
the Pope’s power
The Italian Nationalists lost confidence in Mazzini
The Nationalists turned to Charles Albert and Sardinia to
lead their unification hopes
Giuseppe Mazzini
Louis Napoleon
Count Camillo di Cavour
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1849: Charles Albert died
His son—Victor Emmanuel II—becomes king
of Sardinia
Victor will try to keep the nationalists’ hopes
alive
Victor will get lots of help from one of his
advisors—Count Camillo di Cavour
Count Camillo di Cavour
Victor Emmanuel II
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By 1854—Cavour had
control over the Council of
Ministers in Sardinia—like
Parliament
He promoted:
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Industrial growth
The reduction in the Catholic
Church’s power
National unity
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Cavour realized the only way
that Italy could get rid of
Austrian control in
Lombardy and Venetia was
to get help from an outside
nation
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To get this help, he supported
France and Great Britain in the
Crimean War
1854: Sardinia sent forces to
aid the French and British
Participation in the war allowed
Sardinia into the Congress of
Paris –the meetings that drew
up the peace after the war
War with Austria
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1858: Cavour met with Napoleon III—Louis
Napoleon—of France
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Napoleon III promised to give Sardinia help in a war
with Austria
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Cavour was seeking the “help” he wanted from France
In return for his help, Sardinia agreed to give Napoleon III
the provinces of Savoy and Nice if they were successful in
driving out the Austrians
Now that he had help, Cavour forced Austria to declare
war on Sardinia
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Cavour encouraged the people of Lombardy to revolt against
their Austrian rulers
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April 1859: Austria declares war on Sardinia
Napoleon sent 120,000 French troops
French and Sardinian troops defeat the
Austrians at Magenta and Solferino in June 1859
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Although a victory, the French suffered heavy losses
Napoleon feared he would lose public support
in France if he kept fighting in the war
Napoleon III pulled all of his troops out of the war
effort in July 1859 without telling Cavour
 Napoleon III signed a treaty with the emperor of
Austria (Francis Joseph)
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The treaty stipulated:
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1.) Lombardy would be given
to Sardinia
2.) Austria would still control
Venetia
Cavour did not like the terms
of the treaty and urged
Victor Emmanuel to keep
fighting
Victor refused to keep
fighting, believing he could
not win without France’s help
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Fighting did not stop
1859 & 1860: people in
Tuscany, Parma, Modena,
and the Papal States
continued to fight and
overthrew their governments
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The new governments in these
states wanted to join with
Sardinia
To get Napoleon III to allow
these areas to join with
Sardinia, Cavour gives Savoy
and Nice to France
April 1860: Victor Emmanuel
accepted Tuscany, Parma,
Modena, and the Papal States
into his kingdom
Garibaldi and the South
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The southern parts of Italy were isolated from
the revolutions
When the king of the Kingdom of the 2 Sicilies
died, the Italian nationalists prepared for
revolution in the south
The leader of the southern nationalists was
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Giuseppe Garibaldi
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Garibaldi was a member of Mazzini’s “Young Italy”
1830: Garibaldi was forced to leave Italy
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He traveled to South America and fought in the South
America revolutions
While in South America, he learned guerrilla warfare
1848: Garibaldi returned to Italy and was part of
Mazzini’s Roman Republic
1849: he fled Italy and went to the United States
1860: he returned when he believed southern Italy was
ready for revolution—the king of the Kindgdom of 2
Sicilies died
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1860: Garibaldi 1st goes to Genoa to collect
volunteers
He then set out for Sicily
At 1st, his troops met with defeat
Garibaldi rallied his troops to eventually control
the island of Sicily
After taking the island of Sicily, Garibaldi and
his troops moved to the mainland of Sicily
He began marching toward Naples
Garibaldi’s “red shirts” were able to take Naples
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Count Cavour becomes very nervous about Garibaldi’s success
in the south
Cavour questioned Garibaldi’s political ambitions
To keep Garibaldi from moving any further north, Cavour sent
Sardinian troops into the Papal States—a buffer against
Garibaldi
Sept. 1860: the Sardinian army defeated the Papal army at
Castelfidero
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Oct 1860: voters in Southern Italy supported union with
Sardinia
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The victory ensured that Cavour would be in control of unification in
Italy
Garibaldi surrendered everything he had taken over to Victor Emmanuel
1861: Everything except for Rome and Venetia were united
under one government
Victory Emmanuel II was made king of the constitutional
monarchy in Italy
Creating a New Nation
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Cavour died only 3 months after Sardinia had
taken over most of Italy
Italy still faced problems as a new nation
Cultural and economic divisions between
northern and southern Italy
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1.) South
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Poor, agricultural
2.) North
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Developing industry
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Sardinia tried to force its laws on the other states
The other states began to resent Sardinia
Eventually the Italian government took steps to
help unify the people:
Created a unified military
 Created a national education system
 Built railroads
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The people began to argue over where the
country’s capital should be
Most people wanted Rome to be the capital
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One problem: Rome was still controlled by the Pope
who was being protected by French soldiers
If the Italians were going to try to get Rome,
why not try to get Venetia from Austria, too
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1866: Italy allies with Prussia in a War with
Austria—the Seven Weeks War
Prussia promised to give Venetia to Italy if they
defeated Austria in the war
Italy actually gets defeated by Austria, but
Prussia defeated Austria
Prussia lived up to their promise and gave the
area of Venetia to Italy
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1870: War breaks out between France and Prussia—
Franco-Prussian War
Napoleon III is forced to remove his troops protecting
the Pope
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He needed those troops to help him fight against Prussia
Italian troops entered Rome and took the Pope’s
territory
1871: Victor Emmanuel II moved the capital from
Florence to Rome
Italy was finally unified
Unification of Germany
Intro
 Germany
was the last of the great
European nations to unify
 1815: Germany was a collection of 39
loosely independent states
 Austria and Prussia were the most
powerful states in the loose confederation
 Austria and Prussia were also rivals
 Germany
was economically and
industrially divided—making the area weak
 Two other activities made the area weak
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1.) Reformation
2.) Thirty Years’ War
 By
1871: Germany was unified without
the inclusion of Austria and Switzerland
Steps Toward Unity
 1815:
the Congress of Vienna established
the German Confederation
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The German Confederation was created as a
buffer to French expansion
 Germany
was already beginning to take
steps at unification by establishing closer
economic ties between the states
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German Confederation was loosely
tied together with a diet—council—at
Frankfurt, Austria
 Austria dominated the German
Confederation
 Austria’s position as the head of the diet
always brought the state into conflict with
Prussia—the other powerful German state
 Austria
and many of the smaller German
states did not want German
unification!!!
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Austria was afraid of the economic
competition that unification would cause—
they did not want to lose their economic
dominance
The smaller states were afraid of Prussia—
the largest German State
 Prussia
was the largest of the German
Confederation states
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Prussia had a very well organized
government
Prussia had a very strong economy—this
point scared Austria
Junkers—aristocratic landowners—held all
political power in Prussia
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The business classes in the German
Confederation were clamoring for more political
power
 1834: the Junkers in Prussia called for a
Zollverein—an economic union
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The Zollverein was a way to reduce trade barriers
among the different states of the German
Confederation
The Zollverein reduced tariffs and trade barriers
between the states, creating lower prices and more
uniform prices
The Zollverein also created a standardized currency,
a standard set of weights and measures, and
strengthened the business classes in the German
Confederation
***the creation of the Zollverein helped Prussia gain a
lot of political influence in the German
Confederation****
Rise of Bismarck
 1861:
William I becomes king of Prussia
after his brother—Frederick William IV—
died
 William believed that by developing a very
strong military, Prussia could establish its
position of leadership in the German
Confederation
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William wanted to expand the Prussian
military
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There was one thing standing in the way of
William’s expanding the Prussian military:
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German nationalists were afraid that the Junkers
would control the military
German nationalists in the Prussian Assembly voted
against new taxes that would have raised money for
the military
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William I was outraged by this defeat in the
Prussian Assembly
 William answered this defeat by appointing a
new Prime Minister in Prussia—Otto von
Bismarck
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Bismarck had the same ideas as William
William I
Otto von Bismarck
 Bismarck:
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He was a Junker
He had served in the Prussian Assembly
He had been an ambassador to France and
Russia
He believed in the idea of realpolitik
• Realpolitik—the right of the state to pursue its own
advantage by any means, including war and the
repudiation of treaties
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September 1862: Bismarck went against the
Prussian Assembly and began collecting his
own taxes to build the larger Prussian military
Three Wars
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Bismarck had no real problems about going to
war
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Bismarck had 3 goals as the Prussian Prime
Minister:
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“Show me an objective worthy of war and I will go
along with you.”--Bismarck
1.) raise $ for military expansion
2.) use the military to make Austria weak
3.) unify all of Germany without the inclusion of
Austria and Switzerland
To accomplish all 3 of his goals, Bismarck will go
to war 3 times
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Danish War:
 The Danish king had inherited the
territories of Schleswig and Holstein
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Schleswig was part German and Danish
Holstein was all German
 1863:
the Danish king made Schleswig
into a Danish province
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this act caused the Germans in both
Schleswig and Holstein to ask the German
Confederation for help in becoming free from
Danish control
 1864:
to keep the Danish from taking
Schleswig, Bismarck got Austria to join
with Prussia in a war against Denmark
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The two rivals actually will work together
 Prussia
and Austria quickly won the war
against Denmark
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Denmark was forced out of the 2 provinces of
Schleswig and Holstein
 Prussia
and Austria made an agreement
about the provinces of Schleswig and
Holstein:
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A.) Prussia took control of Schleswig
B.) Austria took control of Holstein
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agreement put further stress on the
strained relationship between Austria and
Prussia
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This stress was exactly what Bismarck
wanted
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Danish War accomplished 2 goals for
Bismarck:
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A.) Europe saw the power of Prussia
B.) The tensions with Austria after the war
gave Bismarck an excuse to go to war with
Austria
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Seven Weeks’ War:
 Bismarck began preparing for war with
Austria even before the Danish War had
begun
 Bismarck wanted to strip Austria of her
allies before ever going to war with Austria
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A.) 1863: he gained Russia’s support by
offering the czar aid against Polish rebels
B.) he offered France “compensations” for
being neutral if a war broke out between
Austria and Prussia
C.) he made an alliance with Italy supporting
Italy’s claim to Venetia
 When Austria
sided with the Duke of
Augustenburg, Bismarck gained a lot of
public support with his claims against
Austria
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The Duke of Augustenburg claimed to control
both Schleswig and Holstein
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keep an alliance from forming between
the Duke and Austria, Bismarck ordered
Prussian troops to go into Austrian
controlled Holstein
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An attempt to get Austria to act
 Austria
demanded that the German
Confederation take action against Prussia
for Prussia’s taking of Holstein
 This caused Bismarck to declare war on
Austria—exactly what Bismarck had
wanted all along
15, 1866: The Seven Weeks’ War
officially began
 7 weeks later, the war was over
 Prussia quickly defeated Austria
 Prussia received Holstein
 Prussia will give Venetia to Italy
 The treaty ending the war called for “a
new organization of Germany without
the participation of Austria”
 June
this “new organization” was
created—North German Confederation
 In this newly formed confederation, each
state could care for its own domestic
affairs
 Foreign policy in the confederation would
be handled by Prussia
 Bismarck had not quite united Germany,
but he was close
 1867:
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Franco-Prussian War:
 The states in Southern Germany—mostly
Catholic states—were not part of the
newly formed North German
Confederation
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Most of these states were afraid of Protestant
Prussia’s strong military
These southern states will have to choose
whether or not to join with Prussia
The Franco-Prussian war will help these
states make their choice
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real threat to complete German
unification was not the southern states, but
France
 Napoleon III would not accept German
unification unless France received some
territory—the “compensation” that France
was promised for staying neutral in the
Seven Weeks’ War
 Bismarck NEVER intended on giving
France anything, thus he decided to go to
war with France
 Bismarck
knew he could not invade
France without the support of the public in
Prussia
 Bismarck decided to lure France into a war
with Prussia
 Luckily for Bismarck, history fell right into
place for him
 1868:
a revolution occurred in Spain,
taking the Spanish Queen off of the throne
 The Spanish throne was offered to Prince
Leopold of Hohenzollern
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He was not Spanish, but German
Leopold was the Catholic cousin to King
William I of Prussia
 Napoleon
III feared a Spanish-German
alliance
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the alliance would place France in the middle
of the 2 nations
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July 1870: Napoleon III sent a telegram to
William I asking William to convince his cousin
not to take the Spanish throne
William was on vacation at a resort in Ems
William sent the telegram to Bismarck, knowing
Bismarck could find a use for the telegram
Bismarck altered the telegram and had the
altered telegram published in nearly every
European newspaper
Napoleon III read the altered telegram and was
outraged at what Bismarck had done
Napoleon III quickly declared war on Prussia—
exactly what Bismarck had planned!
 July
19, 1870: the Franco-Prussian War
began
 The southern German states decided to
join with Prussia against France
 France was quickly defeated in only 6
weeks
 Bismarck gained lots of support from all of
the German states to create a unified
Germany under Prussian control
Formation of an Empire
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January 8, 1871: William I took the title of
Kaiser (emperor) of the newly united Germany
 Bismarck became William’s chancellor
 The new empire united 25 German states into
one federal union
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Each state kept its own ruler and diplomatic staff
The Kaiser was the head of national government
The Kaiser had certain powers
• Make appointments
• Command the military
• Determined foreign policy
 A unified
Germany was finally established,
without the inclusion of Austrian and
Switzerland
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Just as Bismarck had wanted all along
Bismarck’s Realm
Introduction
Victory on the battlefield brought Germany
political unification, but the people were
not United
 There were religious, economic, social and
political divisions still in Germany
 Bismarck attempted to fix many of the
problems in the newly formed Germany
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Bismarck and the Church
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Bismarck’s 1st challenge came from the
Catholic Church
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Kulturkampf—cultural struggle between
Church and State
Catholics in Germany feared the
Protestant Prussians who united Germany
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the Catholics created their own political
party—The Center Party
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Bismarck saw Catholicism as an antinational force
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he did not like Catholics
He was also annoyed at the popularity of
the Center Party
 1870-he became worried about a
proclamation handed down by the Catholic
Church that said the Pope and his
decisions were free from error—Papal
Infallibility
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Bismarck, also, disliked the Jesuits
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he saw the Jesuits as papal agents working to
destroy the Germany Empire
1872—Bismarck kicked the Jesuits out of
Germany
 1873—Bismarck persuaded the German
legislature to pass the May Laws
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the May Laws took powers away from
Catholic Bishops in Germany, going as far as
saying that weddings had to be performed by
secular officials—not Church officials
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most of what Bismarck did to weaken the
Church failed—it only made more people
move over to the Center Party
Industry
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Before unification, Germany was not that
industrialized
Bismarck wanted to make Germany into an
industrial power
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He encouraged efforts to expand Germany’s industry
After unification, investment capital flowed into
Germany from Great Britain, France, and
Belgium
The $ helped to modernize Germany’s
production and factories
Development of deep pit coal mining along
the Rhine River and the creation of new
coal mines in the Saar made coal cheap in
Germany
 cheap coal meant cheap fuel for the
growing German factories
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German workers faced low wages and
poor conditions—they wanted a change
 1863—Ferdinand Lassalle created the
German Workingmen’s Association
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the organization sought to make changes in
Germany to better conditions for workers—a
socialist organization
Bismarck and the Socialists
Bismarck did not like the socialists—he
thought they were out to change or
destroy the newly created German Empire
 Bismarck really wanted to destroy any
socialist movement in Germany—to keep
the empire safe
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To destroy the socialists, Bismarck set out
to destroy the socialists’ organization
 Bismarck got his opportunity when a
former socialist attempted to assassinate
William I
 Bismarck tried to push a bill through the
German Legislature that would ban all
socialist activity in Germany
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Unfortunately for Bismarck, the Legislature
did not pass his bill
Bismarck reacted by dissolving the
Legislature and held new elections
 the new Legislature passed the antisocialist
bill in 1878
 the law banned all socialist meetings and
publications, but did not ban the socialist party
 the law was not very successful
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because of the law’s lack of success,
Bismarck began to show that he could
help improve conditions for workers
 He directed the passage of several laws
that gave workers security and comfort
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1.) 1883—Sickness Insurance Law
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limited compensation to workers who missed
work because of an illness
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2.) 1889—Old Age Insurance Law
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law protected industrial workers in retirement
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the socialist party still remained very
popular even though Bismarck was trying
to get rid of it
Fall of Bismarck
1888—Kaiser William I died at the age of
91
 William’s son—Crown Prince
Frederick—took the throne and became
Frederick III
 Frederick was a liberal
 Frederick and Bismarck did not get along
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A young Frederick III
Frederick only ruled for about 100 days
before he died
 Frederick’s son—William II—took the
throne in 1888.
 William was 29 years old and full of ideas
and energy
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Kaiser William II
Bismarck could always get his way under
William I—he would threaten to resign if
William I would not give Bismarck his way
 William II would not play the game
 When Bismarck threatened to resign
over an issued the William II would not
give in to, William accepted Bismarck’s
resignation (1890)
 Bismarck’s bluff did not work with William
II
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Bismarck did create a very strong and
powerful Germany
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by 1913, Germany’s standing army was over
800,000 soldiers and the most powerful in the
world
Bismarck had helped to create a very
powerful empire
Empire of the Czars-Russia
Introduction
► early
1800s—Russia stretched from Europe
to the Pacific Ocean.
 more than 60 nationalities existed
 over 100 different languages were spoken in
Russia
 serfdom still existed
 the economy was based on agriculture
 very little industry had developed in Russia
► the
government in Russia was an
Autocracy—a government in which one
person rules with absolute authority
► the government had not really changed
since the days of Peter the Great
Autocracy on the Defense
1.) Alexander I (18011825)
► czar Alexander wanted to
improve Russia’s system
of government
► the Napoleonic wars,
however, convinced
Alexander that change
could be dangerous
► the Russian officers who
fought against Napoleon
were impressed by the
reforms they saw in
Western Europe and
wanted to implement
these same reforms in
Russia
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many officers joined in
secret societies to discuss
the need for reform in
Russia
--these officers stayed
quiet until Alexander’s
death in 1825
► December
1825: the officers led a revolt
against the government after Alexander
died—Decembrist Revolt
► the Decembrist revolt was quickly crushed
► the revolt did serve to inspire later
revolutionaries in Russia
► unfortunately, the uprisings caused the new
Czar—Nicholas I—to make the autocracy
stronger and set out to crush all of his
opposition
Alexander I
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2.) Nicholas I (1825-1855)
Nicholas I gave the secret police more
power—unlimited power to arrest and
imprison people without trial
he also censored the press
even though he tried to crush liberal ideas,
demands for reform in Russian still
persisted
Czar Nicholas I
3.) Alexander II (1855-1881) and Reforms
Alexander witnessed Russia’s humiliating defeat
in the Crimean war
► the loss illustrated that Russia was lagging
behind the other European powers
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Alexander realized that Russia’s reliance
on serf labor made the nation backwards
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for Russian to progress, Russian needed to
industrialize
for Russia to develop industry, Russian needed a labor
force; however, that labor force was tied up farming—
the serfs
the serfs could not move from the land; therefore,
Russia could not develop industry
Czar Alexander II
► to
provide labor for industry, the serfs needed to
be freed
► *March 3, 1861: Alexander freed the serfs
 although free, the serfs received no individual land
 instead, the serf villages (mirs) were given land, but
the serfs had to pay 50-year mortgages on the land
► the
peasants could not leave the mirs until the
land was paid for; therefore, the serfs (peasants)
were still tied to the land
► slowly, the serfs were able to move away from the
rural areas and into the cities
► freeing
the serfs also changed the local
governments
► 1864: a new law changed the local
governments in Russia
► Zemstvos—locally elected assemblies—
took charge of provincial matters such as
education and health care
► 3 groups could vote in Zemstvo elections
 nobility
 wealthy townspeople
 peasants
► Terror
and Reaction:
► not all people were in favor of Alexander’s II
reforms
► the most vocal critics of Alexander’s
government were intellectuals and
students from the upper and middle
classes
► 1870s—many
reformers became active in a
movement called Populism
► the Populists believed that the peasants would
lead a revolution, overthrow the czar, and
create a socialist society
► groups of college students would travel to the
peasant communities to “convince” the peasants
that they needed to rebel
► the peasants were too busy struggling to survive
and suspicious of the young students
► the peasants turned the students over to the
police
► since
the Populists could not get the peasants to
revolt, the Populists—and other revolutionaries—
turned violent
► starting in 1866, many revolutionaries attempted
to assassinate Alexander II
 Alexander was deeply bothered by the attacks
 Alexander drafted a plan to create a National
Assembly—giving more power to the people
 Alexander never got the chance to propose his plan to
the people
 1881—Alexander was killed by an exploding bomb
 his son—Alexander III—vowed to crush all revolutionary
movements in Russia
►
►
4.) Alexander III (1881-1894)
Alexander III set out to reverse all of his
father’s reforms



he abolished autonomy in schools
he censored the press
gave the secret police even more power
► he
then instituted russification—an
attempt to make all of the people of the
empire Russian—to unite all of the
provinces
 russification turned into an attack on all the
non-Russians in the empire
 anyone who questioned the Czar’s authority,
spoke a language other than Russian, or
followed a religion other than Eastern
Orthodoxy risked being persecuted
► Alexander
encouraged the pogroms—
organized massacres of Jews and Jewish
Communities
► 1894—Alexander III died and his son—
Nicholas II—became Czar
► many expected Nicholas to be more liberal
than his father; however, Nicholas will
continue his father’s rigid government
►
►
►
5.) Nicholas II (1894-1917—
abdication)
by the early 1900s, several revolutionary
groups in Russia were following the
teachings of Karl Marx
these groups believed the working class—
not the peasants—would lead revolution
Czar Nicholas II
►
►
Mensheviks
Mensheviks believed that
Russian needed to
develop into an industrial
state with a large
working class before a
socialist revolution could
occur
Bolsheviks
► the Bolsheviks—a more
radical group—was led by
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov
(also known as Lenin)
► the Bolsheviks believed
that a small party of
professional
revolutionaries could use
force and bring about a
socialist society in the
very near future
►
► the
Socialist groups gained more popularity
when Russian went to war with Japan in
1904—Russo-Japanese War
 Russia and Japan were fighting over land in
Manchuria
 Russia was quickly and easily defeated in the
war
► the
Russo-Japanese War strained the
Russian Economy causing food prices to
increase while the people’s wages stayed
low
► because
of the economic problems, many
people began to protest
► Sunday, January 22, 1905—200,000
workers marched in a peaceful procession to
the czar’s palace at St. Petersburg asking for
reform
 palace soldiers opened fire on the crowd, killing
hundreds of protestors
 this date is known as Bloody Sunday
 riots broke out all over Russia as a result of the
massacre
► Spring
1905: the 1st soviets—workers’
councils—formed to voice the workers’
demands
► October 1905: angry workers took control
of the major cities in a general strike—when
workers in all industries go on strike
 violence erupted in the cities and the rural areas
► Nicholas
II reacted by announcing a law
providing for the election of a National
Assembly—The Duma
 he was giving in to the demands of his people
► Nicholas
also issued the October
Manifesto—giving civil rights to citizens
and allowing the Duma to make laws
Austria-Hungary
Introduction


Austria was very much like Russia—it lacked a true
national and geographical unity
Austria was still very feudal at the beginning of the
1800s


powerful nobles controlled a very large peasant population
the Austrian government was also very much against
revolution and used strict censorship and arrests to
curtail any revolutionary movement
Revolution of 1848



the revolutionary movement that began in
France in 1848 spread to Austria
nationalist groups demanded freedom of
speech and the press, relief for the peasants,
and they wanted a representative government
the Austrian empire seemed on the verge
dissolution

politics worsened, causing the Austrian emperor—
Francis Ferdinand—to resign




his nephew—Francis Joseph—took the throne in October
of 1848
Francis Joseph was only 18 when he assumed the Austrian
throne
Francis Joseph moved very quickly to restore order in
Austria
he ruled for 68-years; however, he constantly
struggled to keep power in Austria

he did lose a lot of the Austrian empire during his rule


1859—he lost Lombardy to Italy
1866—he lost Venetia to Italy
Francis Joseph
Dual Monarchy


the real threats to Francis Joseph’s authority
came from the Magyars of Hungary, part of
the Austrian Empire
after Austria was defeated in the Seven Weeks’
War, Austria sought to make a compromise
with Hungary, and Hungary agreed to preserve
its own national existence


1867, Austria and Hungary finally reach an
agreement—Ausgleich (Compromise of 1867)
the compromise restored Hungary’s
“independence” and divided the Austrian
empire into a dual monarchy—the empire of
Austrian and the kingdom of Hungary


Francis Joseph, however, still remained in control
of both areas
he was still emperor of Austrian, and the
Hungarians made him king of Hungary

Austria and Hungary were dependent on each
other economically


Austria was industrialized and supplied
manufactured goods for the dual monarchy
Hungary was agricultural and supplied the food for
the dual monarchy


after the creation of the dual monarchy,
Austria’s production of coal, iron, steel, and
manufactured goods grew very rapidly
Bohemia and Moravia became the leading
industrial centers in Austria
Powder Keg in the Balkans

by the mid-1800s, the Ottoman empire had
become very weak and started to slowly lose
much of its land



1829: Greece became independent
by 1850, the Ottomans had lost the provinces of
Moldavia and Wallachia to Russia and Algeria to
France
Egypt, Arabia, and the Balkan states of Serbia
and Montenegro had gained autonomy



the rest of Europe watched the slow fall of the
Ottoman empire very closely
Austria wanted to expand into the Balkan
region, partly still held by the Ottomans
During the Crimean War (1854-1856), France
and Great Britain fought against Russia’s
advances in to the weakening Ottoman empire

1877: Russia went to war on the behalf of the
Slavic people living in the Balkans





the result was the Russo-Turkish War
Russia used the war to justify its expansion into
the Balkans
Russia emerged victorious in the conflict
in 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano was drafted,
officially ending the war
the Treaty of San Stefano created a large, Russian
controlled Bulgarian state



Great Britain was not happy about Russia’s
new acquisition
other European nations also began to protest
the outcome of the Treaty of San Stefano
as a result, a congress of European leaders met
in Berlin to revise the Treaty of San Stefano—
this became known as the Congress of Berlin

the Congress of Berlin divided Bulgaria into 3
parts



one part belonged to the Ottomans
Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania gained their
complete independence
Great Britain gained control of Cyprus and
Austria-Hungary got the Balkan provinces of
Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Congress of Berlin did not make many
people happy




Russia lost everything that it had gained in the
Russo-Turkish War
the Ottomans lost a lot of their European lands
the Congress dealt with the Balkan states
inequitably—some gained independence, while
others remained controlled by the Ottomans, Great
Britain,or Austria-Hungary
this unequal treatment will cause a lot of conflict
in the Balkans


by 1912, the Balkan states had joined forces to
free the Ottoman held Balkan lands
the free Balkan states formed the Balkan
League—Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and
Montenegro


1912: the Balkan League declared war on
Turkey (the Ottoman Turks)
the Balkan League defeated the Turks, causing
the Ottomans to lose nearly all of their
European holdings

the victory over the Ottomans caused the
Balkan League to fight with itself over the
newly acquired land





Serbia and Bulgaria disagreed over the treaty that
divided up the new lands
June 1913: Bulgaria attacked Greece and Serbia
July 1913: Romania, Turkey (Ottoman Turks), and
Montenegro had joined with
Greece and
Serbia against Bulgaria
Bulgaria is defeated
the Treaty of Bucharest took away a lot of the
land that Bulgaria had won in the war against the
Ottomans



the Treaty of Bucharest did not bring a lasting
peace to the Balkans
Serbia had emerged very powerful
Serbia’s power encouraged nationalism among
the Slavs in Austria-Hungary



these Slavs did not want to live in Austria-Hungary
because they had no power or rights, even though
the Slavs made up the majority of AustriaHungary’s population
these Slavs wanted to join with Serbia
this desire to be with Serbia will cause World War
I