Download Retinal Disparity- each eye sees slightly different view of object

Midterm Review Material 2014
Research Methods
Hindsight Bias – “I knew it all along,” upon hearing research findings, people have the tendency to believe that they could have
predicted the findings.
Independent variable- manipulated variable. (Ex.-the pill if you’re testing a pill to see if it relieves hyperactivity or depression.)
Dependent variable- (measured variable) change in this is dependent on change in independent variable. This is the outcome and is
often a score or number
Operationalized definition- explaining how you will measure a variable. (Ex. - abusive husband will be defined as a husband that
physically hits his wife at least 2 times per year.)
Sampling- process by which subjects (participants) are selected
Representative Sample- goal of sampling, select a sample representative of a larger population. (Example- a representative sample at
Butler would have roughly 12% African-Americans).
Random selection- Ex-.Picking out of a hat OR Computer generated sample of 100 Butler students for survey. (Only use one of these
examples). This increases likelihood of sample being representative
Stratified Sample – allows researchers to ensure that a sample is directly representative of the population on some criteria. For
example: Representative by race. If a population of 1000 has 500 white, 300 black, 200 latino then one would choose 50 white, 30
black, and 20 latino individuals for a sample of 100 total participants.
EXPERIMENT
Experimental method- this is the preferred method because it expresses a cause and effect relationship. You can do this by
manipulating a variable. The disadvantage is that sometimes you cannot generalize what happens in a controlled laboratory
environment to the real world.
Confounding variable- any difference between the experimental and control conditions that might affect the dependent
variable (rule out anything that might affect validity of experiment) (example: the time of day in which two experiments were
conducted.)
Random assignment- participants are randomly assigned to either the control (group not receiving the treatment) or
experimental group. (group receiving treatment)
Experimental bias- unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control group differently
because he/she knows what the experiment is about
Double-blind procedure- neither the subjects nor researchers are aware of control/experiment (or those receiving placebo).
This eliminates experimenter or subject bias. A single blind controls foe subject bias (he/she does not know about the
experiment)
Hawthorne Effect- study in which workers were monitored to see if the amount of light in a room would affect worker
productivity. Under both conditions, performance increased because they were being watched. This cause need for control
group.
Placebo/ Placebo Effect- (example is a sugar pill) this controls for possible subject bias where the subjects knowledge of the
treatment may cause them to think they are having the effects.
CORRELATION
Correlation- expresses a relationship between 2 variables. Correlations may be positive or negative, strong or weak. A
Positive correlation is when both variables increase or both variables decrease at the same time. (Hint: when multiplying
1
integers in math a negative times a negative equals a positive.) Negative correlation is when one variable increases, the
other variable decreases. Sometimes a survey is used
Correlation does not mean causation- there are usually several different causes of something.
Naturalistic observation- . Research conducted in natural habitat (animals or humans).
Case study- Positive: in-depth detailed study of individual or small groups. Criticism is that findings cannot be generalized to larger
population.
STATISTICS
Measures of central tendency- mean (avg.), median (middle score), mode (most frequently occurring score)
Outliers – Extreme scores - these can distort the mean (Ex. Bill Gates moves into a poor town and the average net worth
rises to one million, If a student scores a zero on a test this brings down the class average)
Skewed Distributions – Positively skewed – contains more low scores than high scores (Bill Gates example) Negatively
skewed – contains more high scores. (Student with zero on test)
Measures of variability- range, variance, standard deviation, percentiles
Standard Deviation and variance -relates to the average distance of any score in a distribution from the mean. EX. If the
mean on a standardized test is 78 and 1 SD (1z) = 7. Then 68% of test takers score between 71 and an 85. Then 2SD (2z) =
14. Then 95% of test takers score between 64 and 92. Then 3SD (3z) = 21, Then 99.9% of test takers score between 57 and
99.
Variance – Standard deviation is the square root of the variance. Ex. If Variance is 25 then standard deviation is 5
Z-score – measures the distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviation (1 z score = 1 Standard Deviation) If
the score is below the mean, the z score is negative, above the mean then the z-score is positive.
Normal Curve – theoretical bell-shaped curve. In a normal distribution, 68% fall within one Standard Deviation from the
mean. 95% fall within 2SD and 99% fall within 3 SD
Correlational Coefficient- a number given showing the strength of the correlation. This ranges from positive 1 to negative 1.
The farther away from 0 (either pos. or neg.) the stronger the correlation.
Scatter plots- used to show positive/negative correlations. If line goes up it’s positive.
Inferential Statistics – statistical methods that determine if findings can be applied to a larger population. (ex. T-tests,
ANOVAs and MANOVAs)
Statistical Significance and P Value – Inferential statistics tests yield a p-value. If a p-value is equal to or less than .05 then
the test is statistically significant. A p-value will never be 0 because we can never be 100% certain the results are not due to
chance.
All research must first be proposed to the Institutional Review Board and meet the following APA Ethical Guidelines
Animal Research- Clear, scientific purpose
- Humane treatment
- Acquire subjects legally
- Use procedures’ employing least amount of suffering feasible
Human Research- Informed consent (explain research and receive a signature)
- No coercion (cannot force to do)
- Debriefing (explain to subject the purpose (even if deceived a little) and results.
- No mental/physical risk/harm
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Social Psychology
Mere exposure effect - the more you see something or someone familiarity occurs, which breeds acceptance. EX.- buying advertised
namebrands, ad jingles often use popular songs, jingles. EX. once politicians win one term in office they are much more likely to win
again
Central Route to Persuasion – using facts and logic to persuade someone, message would be deeply processed
Peripheral Route to Persuasion – using emotional appeal to persuade someone, message would be shallowly processed
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: if behaviors and attitudes/beliefs do not match then tension arises. Attitudes or behaviors must
become consistent to relieve tension. EX. You think speeding is wrong and yet, you speed. You either stop speeding or say speeding is
ok.
Festinger and Carlsmith Study – participants complete a boring task. Some were paid $1 to lie to incoming participants and say the
task was enjoyable. Others were paid $20 to lie. The subjects who were only paid $1 were more likely to feel dissonance because they
receive insufficient justification for lying. As a response to the dissonance those paid $1 changed their mind and said the task was
actually enjoyable, to remove the dissonance. Those paid $20 believed their lies were justified and did not feel dissonance and
maintained that the task was boring.
Compliance Strategies
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon: tendency for people who first agree with small request to larger one. EX.- Get someone to
lend you 5$ he/she is more likely to lend you 15$ later.
Door-in-the face Ex. Ask someone for $100, he says “No” – easier to get $20.
Norms of Reciprocity- after giving something to somebody it is easier to receive something back because they feel as if they
owe you. EX- Companies send something free in the mail.
Attribution Theory: tendency to give causal explanation of behavior to persons’ situation (external) or disposition (biological trait).
Ex. Johnny is a bad kid. Situation attribution – Johnny feeds off of other bad kids in the class. Disposition attribution –
Johnny is bad in all situations
Self-fulfilling prophecy- ones beliefs/expectations about others leads one to act in ways that induce the others to appear to confirm
the belief. (EX. - teacher is told specific students are on the verge of significant academic growth. By the end of the year these
students IQ’s grew more than the others. This was attributed to how the teacher treated them and was called the Pygmalion in the
classroom experiment.
Fundamental Attribution error: tendency to overestimate impact of personal disposition
False Consensus Effect – tendency for people to overestimate the number of people that agree with them
Self-serving bias: to take more credit for good outcomes than deserve. ( EX. coach emphasizes his/her role in win, blames players,
referees when lose)
Just world phenomenon tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve. (EX- poor
are poor because they’re lazy)
Outgroup homogeneity – tendency to see members of your own group as more diverse than members of other groups
In-group bias– preference for members of own group (most similar to you in gender, race, class, age, proximity (EX- belief that
Butler students are better than Providence students (even though this is a fact).
Prejudice and Contact Theory – Contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity if the two groups are made to work toward a
superordinate goal.
Sherifs’ study– combative boys’ at summer camp began getting along after working cooperatively toward a shared superordinate
goal. This led to the use of cooperative learning groups to help alleviate prejudice. This also caused an increased use of cooperative
learning (groupwork- with one grade) in schools during integration.
Frustration-aggression hypothesis- frustration creates anger
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Bystander effect tendency for bystanders to be less likely to give aid the larger the amount of bystanders that are present. This is
known as a diffusion of responsibility- EX. Kitty Genovese raped in NY.. Pluralistic Ignorance is the tendency for people to look
to others to decide what is right in a situation. Also people will judge the seriousness of situation before intervening. Ex. 6th graders in
park wearing headbands looking “gangsta” were likely to be stopped by adults.
Attraction Studies -we are attracted to people based on similarity, proximity and reciprocal liking. Thus, opposites do not usually
attract, absence does not usually make the heart grow fonder. Also, better looking people are perceived as being more intelligent
and confident.
Social facilitation: tendency to perform better (on easier tasks) with an audience
Social Impairment: tendency to perform worse (on difficult tasks) with an audience
Conformity- changing one’s attitudes/behaviors to match a group norm.
Asch’s study of Conformity –Q. Which line matches the standard line? Group pressure caused participants to change opinions (even
when answer is obvious) about a third of the time. Conformity did not increase after 3 members were in group.
Individualism- behaviors/decisions relatively uninfluenced from that of the majority groups.
Milgram’s study of Obedience: Subjects were deceived into thinking that they were shocking someone. Participants continued
shocking other participants while they were screaming to Stop! Obedience increased when: 1) authority close at hand 2) authority by
prestigious institution 3) victim depersonalized (in another room) 4) no role models for defiance. This experiment has been criticized
on ethical grounds. 70% went to XXX. It showed how ordinary people can be influenced by authority figures to do immoral things.
Norms- rules about how group members should act
Social loafing: individual tendency for effort to decrease when working in groups
Group polarization- enhancement of group’s attitudes more toward the extreme through discussion in a group .EX. after spending 3
hours on a hate group chat line one feels even more hatred toward that group.
Deindividuation –loss of self-restraint in-group situations where one becomes anonymous. “If you could be invisible for 24 hours
what would you do.
Group Think- mode of thinking when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of
alternatives. EX- Pres. Kennedy’s advisors decided to invade Cuba or the decision to launch the spaceship challenger or Iraq invasion.
Prejudice- usually negative, unjustifiable attitude toward a group.
Discrimination: negative action taken against prejudice group
Principles shown in Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment – Deindividuation (prisoner and guards lost their own identity and began to do
things they would not do if they were identifiable) and Role Playing (Prisoners and Guards began to take their roles too seriously.
Biological Basis of Behavior (Neuroscience)
Neuroanatomy- anatomy of nerve cell (neuron)
Dendrites- root like, makes synaptic connections with other neurons. Receives the neurotransmitter on receptor sites
Cell body- (soma) contains nucleus.
Axon - longest part of neuron.
Myelin sheath- covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses
Terminal Buttons of axon (aka end buttons, terminal branches)- branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters
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Neurotransmitters – chemicals that enable neurons to communicate
Synapse- space between neurons.
Neuron in a resting state – negative ions within the cell and mostly positive ions on the outside
Action potential electrical message firing
Threshold- neurons are pushed past this to begin the firing. (Toilet flushing)
Neuron firing- “all or nothing” either fires or doesn’t (like a toilet flushing) positive ions rush in negative ions leave (like the water
in a dirty toilet)
Refractory period – brief time when a neuron must recharge and cannot fire (toilet)
Reuptake – The re-absorption of neurotransmitters from the sending neuron
Sodium and Potassium Ions
 Neuron has a negative charge at rest
 Slightly positive charge sodium ions on the outside
 During the firing, sodium ions rush in the axon causing depolarization
 Potassium ions rush out of the axon causing it to return to its resting state (negative charge)
Inhibitory neurotransmitters – chemicals that inhibit (slow down) the next cell from firing (Antagonist)
Excitatory neurotransmitters – chemicals that excite (speed up) the next cell firing (Agonist)
Neurotransmitter_______ Function
a.) Acetylcholine (Ach)
motor movement
b.) Dopamine
motor movement
c.) Serotonin
mood
d.) Endorphins (substance p) pain
e.) Norepenephrine
mood
Problem associated with it
Alzheimer’s (lack of Ach)
Parkinson’s and Schizophrenia (excess)
Depression
Addictions
Depression
Afferent/Efferent neurons- acronym is SAME. Sensory Afferent / Motor Efferent. Sensory neurons (Afferent) go from body to brain
such as when you sense pain from hitting your knee. Motor neurons go from brain to body such as when your brain and tells you to
raise your hand to catch a ball.
CNS (Central Nervous System) - brain and spinal cord
PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) – all other nerves in your body
Autonomic – controls automatic functions of the body – such as heart, lungs
Sympathetic Nervous System- arouses body systems, decreases digestion, dilates pupil
Parasympathetic Nervous System- calms body systems, increases digestion, contracts pupil etc. (Mnemonic: once
your parachute opens you calm, the paramedics come to calm you down)
Somatic – controls voluntary muscle movements
Reflexes – spine sends message to body
STUDYING THE BRAIN
Accidents – Phineas Gage – thought, planning emotion are located in front of brain
Lesion- removal or destruction of part of the brain.
EEG- detects electrical activity of brain waves. Uses electrodes
CAT (aka CT Scan) - x-ray of brain structure
MRI- locates brain material. Most detailed picture
PET- activity of brain in pictures. Use of radioactive glucose to locate activity
PARTS OF THE BRAIN
Medulla- heartbeat, breathing
Pons- controls facial expressions.
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Cerebellum- balance, motor movement (Mnemonic: Sara on a balance beam)
Thalamus- contains sensory (senses) cortex (except smell)
Hypothalamus – body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst
Amygdala- emotions (Mnemonic: Picture a friend named Amy that is very emotional)
Hippocampus- formation of new memories (Mnemonic: If you saw a hippo on campus you wouldn’t forget it)
Reticular Formation – responsible for body arousal (Mnemonic: tic toc an alarm clock wakes you up)
HEMISPHERES
Contra lateral control- the left hemisphere controls the motor movement of the right hand.
Hemispheric Specialization- outdated theory suggesting that each hemisphere controls all specific functions. It’s factual
however that the left is where most language takes place. Right is spatial. (map reading etc.)
Split brain patients can write a word they see in the right visual field but cannot say it because the left hemisphere controls
language
Corpus collosum- connects the 2 hemispheres and transmits messages to each other. People who get epileptic seizures have
this surgically cut and become split brain patients.
AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
Broca’s Area- speech production (broken CD player does not make sound)
Wernicke’s Area- language comprehension.
Frontal Lobe- thought, planning
Parietal Lobe- sensory cortex, sense of touch.
Occipital Lobe- vision. (Optometrist and Optical illusion starts with an O)
Temporal Lobe- auditory, sound.
Motor Cortex – sends signals to the muscles, controlling voluntary movement. Located at the back of the frontal lobe
Sensory Cortex – receives incoming touch sensations from the body. Located at the front of the parietal lobe.
Brain Plasticity- specific parts of brain can adapt to perform tasks of other parts of brain. This helps explain phantom limb sensations.
(Video with armless man)
Endocrine System- system of glands that secrete hormones including adrenal (adrenaline), testes (testosterone), ovaries (estrogen)
GENETICS
Down’s Syndrome- babies with extra chromosome (form of mental retardation)
Twin Studies- Bouchard found 100 sets of twins separated at birth and raised in different environments.
Developmental Psychology
RESEARCH METHODS
Cross-sectional – studies participants of different ages.
Longitudinal – studies same participants over long period of time.
Maturation- biological influence on development. Cannot be learned (Ex.-walking, rope climbing) Infant motor
development usually in same sequence.
Teratogens- chemicals or agents that if ingested by mother can cause harm (ex. Fetal alcohol syndrome).
REFLEXES
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o
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Rooting- baby touched on cheek turns head in search of nipple
Moro- when startled baby flings arm out
Babinski- curls toes when touched on bottom of foot
Newborns Senses- can hear before birth, can only see 8-12 inches, same taste/smell preferences as adult humans.
Imprinting- during critical period animals will become attached to its earliest caregiver. Konrad Lorenz studied ducks that attached to
him and to a bouncing ball over other their biological mothers.
Self-Recognition (Rogue Test) – occurs in the Sensorimotor stage (btw ages 1-2) Small children with rouge on their forehead
recognize themselves and notice something different about their appearance
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Critical Period – the vital time in which some development must occur
 Ex. Lorenz and Imprinting
 Ex. Language development
Habituation – decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus. Eventually a baby will become disinterested with the ball.
Theory of Mind – the belief that others think, feel and perceive – develops in the preoperational stage
 Ex. Autistic individuals lack theory of mind (also lack verbal communication skills)
PARENTING
Attachment Theories (bond between child and parent)
o Harlow’s monkeys. Baby monkeys preferred wire mother with fur over wire mother with bottle. This proved that babies do
not form attachment to mothers just because of nourishment but rather contact comfort. Also showed monkeys becoming
stressed/frightened when placed in new situation
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Mary Ainsworth studied how human babies reacted when placed in strange situations away from mother. This suggested
whether they had formed secure or insecure attachments which effected then throughout their life. Secure babies explore
environment, stressed when mom leaves and come to parents upon return
Parenting Styles
o authoritative (most well adjusted individuals- consistent rules with an explanation, sometimes rules are arrived at
democratically)
o authoritarian (rhymes with librarian or totalitarian). Q. Why can’t I stay out later? A. Because I said so.
o permissive (few rules or consequences)
STAGE THEORISTS
Continuity v. discontinuity Q. Do we develop in stages or continuously?
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE THEORY (in chronological order) - experiences with others are important. Humans hope to
end each stage closer to the first concept.
o
o
o
o
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o
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Trust v. mistrust- (Birth to 1) - establishes a sense of basic trust in world
Autonomy v. shame/doubt (favorite word is “No”- shows independence, toilet training)
Initiative v. guilt (favorite word is Q. Why?)
Industry (or competence) v. inferiority (elementary years) - may develop inferiority complex if not successful at
elementary tasks.
Identity v. role confusion (adolescence= teens) test out different roles
Intimacy v. isolation (20’s-30’s)
Generativity v. stagnation (middle age)- psychological need to give to the next generation
Integrity v. despair. (Late adulthood) – look back and decide if a.)We are satisfied with accomplishments b.)life was
meaningful
PIAGET”S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Schema aka schemata- conceptual framework (interpretation) of the world based on experiences, stereotypes etc.
Assimilation- attempting to incorporate new information into existing schema. (Ex. Boy say doggy for all 4 legged animals)
Accommodation- changing our schema to fit new information. (EX- Some 4 legged animals are horses, some are cows)
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Sensorimotor (0-2) Object Permanence. Child learns that if a ball leaves the room it still exists.
Preoperational (2-7) egocentrism (child is center of the universe), language development, Artificialism (belief that humans
make everything), establishes a theory of mind
Concrete operational (7-11) conservation-child learns that volume of liquid remains the same even when the shape of glass
changes. (Tall glass, short fat glass) Another example is cutting a sandwich in half seems like more. Logical thinking also
develops.
Formal operational (11-adult) ability to think abstractly, hypothetically and morally reason
Criticism of Piaget’s cognitive development - Piaget underestimated children (Children begin stages earlier than expected and pass
through stages faster than expected.), Development may be more continuous than occur in discrete stages.
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KOHLBERG”S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT- gave people of varying ages the Heinz Dilemma (Q. Should he steal drug
to save wife?)
o Preconventional- morality based on rewards and punishment.
o Conventional- morality based on social acceptance, approval. Ex. obeying laws.
o Postconventional-morality based on ethical principles (Ex- breaking a law that you think is unjust (civil disobedience)
Criticism of Kohlberg from Carol Gilligan - Boys/Girls come to moral conclusions differently.
Sensation- activation of our senses (eyes, ears, smell, taste, touch)
Transduction - sensory signals are transformed into neural impulses which travel to the thalamus (except smell)
Sensory Adaptation – Decreasing responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation.
Selective Attention (cocktail party effect) - can only focus on one thing at a time. However, if sense carries meaning (such as hearing
your name) then focuses changes.
ENERGY SENSES (hearing, feeling, seeing)
Vision
 Step one - gathering light
o
The color we see is determined by light intensity and light wavelength
 Intensity- brightness of objects
 Wavelength- determines hue (color) Wavelengths shorter than visible light = ultraviolet waves and x-rays

Step 2 -Within Eye
o Cornea- light enters eye
o Pupil- like the shutter of a camera, the iris opens, closes based on how much light should enter it
o Iris – muscles that open and close the pupil to let more or less light in
o Lens- this is curved to accommodate and focus
o Retina- inverted image is projected
 Step 3 – Transduction – light is transformed into neural impulses
o Rods (night vision- black/white), cones (color). Hint: Co/Co (bipolar, ganglion cells)
o Fovea – center of the retina, contains high concentration of cones
 Step 4 In the Brain- Hubel and Weisel discovered feature detectors- specific parts of the brain that detect form, shape,
horizontal lines etc.- Ex. Kittens that do not use these by a certain critical period may not have them.
THEORIES OF COLOR VISION
Trichromatic theory- 3 types of cones in retina blue, red, green = primary colors of light.
Opponent- Process theory- red/green, yellow/blue, black/white pairs Explains color blindness (usually a red/green
deficiency) and afterimages. (Stare at black, green, yellow flag)
HEARING
Sound waves have amplitude (height of wave-loudness) and frequency (length of wave- think of how frequent a wave comes by.
This determines pitch)
Sound Localization – sound waves from the right arrive in the right ear before the left. This is how we can tell the direction of a
sound. Sounds coming from directly in front, above or behind us are more difficult to locate since the waves arrive at the same time
Order in which sound waves travel through the ear – ear canal, eardrum, hammer, anvil, stirrup (middle ear), cochlea
Cochlea- structure shaped like a snail’s shell filled with fluid, this is where transduction occurs.
Conductive v Nerve Deafness- Conductive is a mechanical problem, Nerve is damage by loud noise- concerts etc.
TOUCH
Gate-control theory- explains how we experience pain. Endorphins swing the gate open or shut and messages are sent to the brain.
Pressure, Pain, warmth and cold= 4 sensations
CHEMICAL SENSES
Taste (Gustation) – taste buds located on papillae (bumps) The more densely packed, the stronger the taste. sweet, sour, salty and
bitter.
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Smell (Olfactory) - what we taste is combination of both chemical systems
Vestibular Sense tells us about how our body is positioned. Tubes from semicircular canals in the ear fill with liquid as body moves.
(Explains Roller coaster nausea, dizziness.)
Kinesthetic Sense- where our body parts are (touching one’s nose with fingers)- athletes
Perception - process of understanding/interpreting our sensations
THRESHOLDS
Absolute threshold- smallest amount of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time (EX. See a candle flame 30 miles away).
Subliminal- stimulation below threshold. Does NOT change unwanted behavior
Difference threshold- (JND- Just Noticeable difference) smallest amount of change in a stimulus that is detectable (EX.
Detecting the difference in weight between 2 and 3 donuts but not 4 and 5 donuts.
Weber’s Law- change needs to occur in proportion (EX. 10 pound weight gain by a 100 pound person is noticeable.
You may need a 20 pound weight gain on a 200 pound person)
Signal Detection Theory – when we have stimuli happening at the same time we tend to detect the one that is most important to us
(EX. - mother hears baby crying in another room while she is having a conversation with someone)
Top- down processing- Perception (higher level) we perceive things by filling in gaps often using background knowledge. EXseeing faces in the rocks of textbook picture.
- Schemata – mental representation of how we perceive the world.
- Perceptual set (expectancy set) – a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. (Ex. Believing in
the Loch Ness Monster makes you expect to see it in the picture. Ex. Being told that a munchkin hung himself on
the set of the Wizard of Oz causes one to see this.)
Bottom-up processing- Sensation - use only the features of objects to perceive.
Figure ground illusion- part of visual image is the figure and part is the background (EX. Vase and two faces)
Gestalt Rules- Perceptual grouping to make objects meaningful.
a. Proximity- objects closer perceived to be grouped
b. Similarity- objects similar in appearance are grouped. watching a basketball game and seeing 5 red players and 5 green
players rather than 10 players.
c. Continuity- objects with continuous form
d. Closure- filling in gaps. (Ex.- seeing a connect the dots picture and saying, “that’s a dog”
e. Connectedness- seeing objects as connected if they meet
Constancy – our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes in angle, light, distance, etc.
Phi Phenomenon – A series of lights turned on and off at a particular rate will appear to be one moving light.
DEPTH CUES
Visual cliff- experiment by Eleanor Gibson used to measure when an infant develops depth perception. (Using glass table)
Monocular cues require only one eye for depth (EX- artists use these in paintings to show depth)
a. Linear perspective- railroad tracks being drawn as in the distance
b. Relative size- larger = closer
c. Relative Height – higher in field of vision = distant
d. Relative Clarity- more clarity = closer
c. Interposition- objects blocking must be closer
d. Texture gradient- see details = closer
Binocular Cues looking at 3 dimensional objects requires both eyes for depth
Retinal Disparity- each eye sees slightly different view of object
Convergence- as object gets closer to face, moves eyes towards one another
Muller-Lyer illusion-. Perceptual illusion dealing with which line is longer. Research found that humans not exposed to right
angles/corners or do not see buildings in their cultures are not fooled by the illusion.
States of Consciousness
Consciousness- awareness of our environment and ourselves
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Unconscious -psychoanalytic psychologists believe some events/feelings are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed
into the unconscious mind.
SLEEP
Circadian Rhythm- 24-25 hour biological/thought progress patterns.
Sleep Cycle – 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM
- 90 minutes long.
 Hallucinations right before falling asleep, Alpha waves present (during awake hours and stages 1 and 2)
 (Stage 1) Light sleep, alpha waves
 (Stage 2) EEG machine detects sleep spindles- random bursts of brain activity
 (Stages 3, 4) deep sleep or slow wave sleep. Shortens as night progresses, delta waves.
 REM sleep (most dreams), also called paradoxical sleep because muscles are relaxed but brain, heartbeat still active. REM
sleeps lengthens as sleep progresses. REM or dream sleep occurs after returning to stage 1.
REM Rebound- if you receive very little REM sleep you will have longer REM sleep the following night.
Pineal Gland – secretes melatonin and is connected to our sleep patterns / circadian rhythm
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia- difficulty getting or staying asleep
Narcolepsy- sudden sleep attacks
Sleep apnea- difficulty breathing during sleep
Night terrors/sleepwalking- during stage 4 deep sleep. (not nightmares)
Theories of DreamsFreud says they are meaningful. They may be used to uncover repressed memories/conflicts in the unconscious mind.
Manifest content- literal content of dream. (Freud)
Latent content- underlying meaning of dream (Freud). Our ego protects us by presenting these repressed desires in
symbols.
Activation-synthesis theory – biological explanation of dreams (random bursts of neurons in which the brain processes and
makes up a Story
Information-Processing Theory- in between previous 2 theories. The function of dreams is to process and give meaning to
the days events/stresses. This is why we have REM rebound and why babies have longer REM sleep
HYPNOSIS
Post-hypnotic suggestion- patient behaves in certain way after hypnosis.
(Example: smokers, dieters, alcoholics use this)
Theories explaining Hypnosis:
a. Role Theory- It is not a separate state of consciousness but rather the person is merely fulfilling his role/job as hypnotized
subject.
b. Dissociation Theory- a divided consciousness. Hilgard proved this with his hidden observer. Experiment had patients
saying they felt no pain with arm in ice water but they were lifting there finger indicating that they did feel pain.
DRUGS
Psychoactive Drugs induce altered state of consciousness.
Tolerance- varying level at which different people can feel the effects of a psychoactive drug
Withdrawal- physical and psychological effects after stopping the use of a drug.
Stimulants- (caffeine, amphetamines, nicotine, cocaine (Dopamine causes this effect)) – speed up nervous system.
Depressants- (barbiturates, tranquilizers, alcohol) – slow down nervous system
Hallucinogens (psychedelics) - (LSD, marijuana)
Opiates- heroine, morphine, codeine- painkillers (take place of endorphins)
Learning (Behaviorism- observable responses to environmental stimuli)
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING -(Pavlov, Watson) learning through associations. EX- the story of the women who was raped and
she now gets anxieties when she is alone with men. Stimulus (being alone with men) Involuntary Response (experiencing anxiety)
UCS-original stimulus eliciting a response (food)
UCR- natural response (salivation)
CS- conditioned or learned stimulus (bell)
CR-conditioned response (salivation). Associating food with bell elicits salivation.
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Acquisition- acquired new associated behavior. (first learning to flinch to word can)
Delayed conditioning- the bell (CS) rings and while ringing the food is presented. This is the most effective order for
conditioning.
Extinguish- losing behavior, no longer pairing food and bell. (no longer flinching to can)
Spontaneous recovery- after a conditioned response is extinguished; it will reappear quickly upon presence of conditioned
stimulus. This is NOT relearning.
Generalization- tendency to respond to similar CS’s (Ex. Dog salivating to doorbell).
Discrimination-ability to see difference between similar stimuli (Dog not salivating)
Watson/Raynor- conditioned Little Albert to cry when he saw a rat (he associated loud noises with rats)
Learned Taste Aversions (Garcia effect) – if you ingest food or drink and get nauseas then you are more likely to get
nauseous just thinking about the food.
OPERANT CONDITIONING – learning to associate behaviors (stimulus) with their consequences (Skinner, Thorndike)
Thorndike’s Law of Effect- behavior is more likely to continue if it has a positive consequence. Less likely with a negative
consequence.
Skinner Box- pigeons, rats, a bar/key, pellets, shaping of behavior using reinforcers or punishers.
Reinforcers- behavior is more likely to happen.
Positive (hint: think of adding not good) reinforcer- adds something positive. EX. Good grades = money
Negative (hint: think of subtracting not bad) reinforcer- takes away something negative. Ex. Good grades = no
chores
Punisher- decreases the likelihood of behavior occurring. Best when given soon after behavior.
Negative punishment- subtracting something pleasant EX. Bad grades = no car for the week
Positive punishment- add something negative (EX. Bad grades = Spanking.)
Shaping - Ex. teaching a dog to roll over
Chaining – Teaching a dog to roll over, then bark and play dead – reward is given after all three are complete
Primary reinforcers- biological - food, water, escaping electric shock
Secondary reinforcers- need to be learned – money, grades.
Token economy- any system (such as the experiment with schools) in which all behaviors are reinforced with tokens or
demerits. The purpose is to shape behaviors
Reinforcement Schedules (continuous reinforcement (reinforced immediately after every behavior) is best schedule.
Fixed- constant
Variable- changing
Ratio- number of responses
Interval- passage of time.
Ex. Fixed Ratio (paid by how much work you do)
Fixed Interval (paid by hour)
Variable ratio (gambling, fishing)
Variable Interval (pop quiz)
(Fixed is usually acquired the fastest but also the fastest to become extinct.)
Instinctive drift – animals cannot be shaped to behaviors that go against natural inclinations (Ex. Rats will not walk backwards)
Observational Learning- Bandura, Bo-Bo dolls Children imitate behavior of adults beating and kicking doll. Also called Social
Learning Theory and modeling
Latent Learning and cognitive maps – Tolman showed how rats can learn their way around a maze without reinforcement by
making a mental representation (cognitive map). When given reward learning is apparent.
Insight Learning- Kohler studied apes that used crates to get to bananas. Apes show cognitive insight.
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