Download GCSE PHYSICAL EDUCATION

GCSE PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
May 2009
Why do we take part in physical
activity?
• Social – Meet people, make friends.
- Co – operation, competition, physical
challenge, aesthetic appreciation.
• Mental – Relieve stress and tension and stress
related illness.
• Physical – Improve body shape, good health,
Health
• “Health is a state of complete
physical, mental and social well
– being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity”.
Fitness
• “the ability to meet the
demands of the environment”.
• Your environment = your life
and the things you do in it.
Exercise
• “ a form of physical activity
done primarily to improve one’s
health and physical fitness”.
Performance
• “how well a task is completed”.
Health Related Fitness
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Cardio vascular fitness
Muscular strength
Muscular endurance
Flexibility
Body composition
(A lack of any of these components will
have a negative effect on your health).
Health Related Fitness
• C.V. fitness is “the ability to exercise the
entire body for long periods of time”.
• Muscular Strength is“The ability to apply
force and overcome resistance”.
• Muscular Endurance is “The ability to use
muscles,many times without getting
tired”.
• Flexibility is - “The range of movement at
a joint.”
• Body composition is - “The percentage of
body weight which is fat muscle and
bone.”
Skill Related Fitness
• These are the components of fitness which
determine which sports you will be good at.
They do not affect health.
• Agility – to change direction at speed.
• Balance – retain centre of mass over base of
support.
• Co – ordination – to use two or more body
parts together
ABCPRS
• Power – strength performance quickly
• Reaction Time - “The time between the
presentation of a stimulus and the onset of
movement.”
• Speed - “How fast your body can move
over a short distance”.
Principles of Training
S.P.O.R.T.
• Specificity – the activity/ training done must
match the outcomes that you want to achieve.
• Progression – start slowly and build up gradually.
• Overload – making your body systems work
harder than normal.
• Reversibility – when you stop training you lose
the fitness built up.
• Tedium
FITT PRINCIPLES
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Frequency – How often?
Intensity – How hard?
Time – How long?
Type – What you do.
3miles
15mins
4miles
20mins
4miles
20mins
3 times
3 times
4 times
Methods of Training
Methods of Training
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Circuit
Weight
Interval
Continuous
Fartlek
Cross
Muscular contractions
• Isotonic
• Isometric
Exercise Session
• Warm up: Pulse raisers,
stretches, mobilising joints.
• Main activity: skills, drills,
tactics.
• Cool down: to remove lactic
acid and repay oxygen debt.
Immediate effects of exercise
• Increased
• heart rate,
• breathing rate,
• body temperature,
• blood flow to working muscles.
Long term effects of exercise
• Bones – become denser.
• Joints – remain mobile – increased
production of synovial fluid lubricates the
joints.
• Muscles – get stronger and can contract
with more force.
Long term effects of exercise
• Cardiovascular system – increased stroke
volume, increased cardiac output, heart muscle
gets thicker/ stronger.
- Decreased resting heart rate.
• Respiratory system - Vital capacity increases.
• More alveoli become surrounded by capillaries so
gas exchange is more efficient.
• As a result of this we can work for longer before
tiring (aerobically).
Recovery Rate
• This is the length of time it takes our heart
rate to return to normal after we finish
exercising.
Target Zones
• Maximum heart rate = 220 – age
• Training/ target zones are calculated using
this equation.
• Less than 60% MHR = Recovery zone
• 60 – 80% MHR = Aerobic training zone
• 80 - 90% MHR = Anaerobic training zone.
• 90 – 95% MHR = Speed training zone.
DIET, HEALTH & HYGIENE
Nutrients
• Carbohydrates – Used for energy.
• Fats – Used for energy too but much slower
release (aerobic activities).
• Protein – Build cells and repair tissues.
• Vitamins and minerals – each has their own use.
• Fibre – cannot be digested so is good for digestive
system.
• Water – Athletes must replace fluids lost through
sweat to prevent dehydration.
Extreme body types
(Somatotypes)
• Endomorph – lots of fat
• Mesomorph – lots of muscle
• Ectomorph - skinny
Overweight, overfat and obese
• Overfat = More body fat than you should
have.
• Obese = People who are very overfat.
• Overweight = Having weight that is in
excess of normal. This is not harmful unless
the extra weight is made up of excess fat.
Socially acceptable drugs
• Nicotine – cigarettes. Nicotine, tar and
carbon monoxide. Affects sports
performance by getting less oxygen to
working muscles so tire easily.
• Alcohol – affects co – ordination, balance ,
reaction time.
Stimulants
• Stimulate circulatory and nervous systems.
• Can work hard for long periods of time
without feeling pain & fatigue.
• Dangers: Ignoring pain & fatigue can lead
to injury.
• Examples include: amphetamines, speed,
cocaine.
Narcotic Analgesics
• Pain killers.
• Dangers: Ignoring pain & fatigue can lead
to injury.
• Very addictive.
• Examples: morphine, heroin, codeine
Anabolic Steroids
• Hormones that help build & repair
muscle.
• Dangers: If you take artificial hormones
your body stops making its own. Causes
aggression, infertility, cancer, growth of
facial hair & deepening voice in females.
• Examples: testosterone.
Diuretics
• Increase the amount of water excreted in
urine.
• Misused by boxers & jockeys who need to
lose weight to make the correct weight.
Beta Blockers
• Block the effect of adrenaline.
• Calm athletes nerves. (Archery, shooting)
• Dangers: reduce blood pressure, can cause
depression.
Blood Doping
• Increasing the number of red blood cells.
• Red blood cells carry O2. Increasing O2
helps endurance athletes perform better for
longer.
• Blood is withdrawn and red blood cells
extracted & frozen. Immediately before the
event they are injected into the athlete.
• Dangers: Infection & blocked capillaries.
Foot Infections
• Athlete’s foot – fungus between toes.
Spread by contact or on wet floors.
• Athletes foot powder cures it.
• Verruca – is a wart on the sole of the foot.
Spread by contact or on wet floors.
• Treated by creams or by a chiropodist.
Prevention of Injury
• Rules
• Correct clothing/ footwear
• Protective clothing/ equipment e.g. shin
pads, gum shields, post protectors.
• Warm up and cool down
• Balanced competition – Same age, sex,
skill level/ grade, weight.
Sports Injuries
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Rest
Ice – constricts blood vessels
Compression – i.e. Tight bandage
Elevation – lift high then it is harder for blood to
flow there.
• Use RICE for soft tissue injuries i.e. strains and
sprains.
Sports Injuries
• Fractures – breaks or cracks in bone.
• Dislocation – a bone out of place at a joint.
• Tennis and golfers elbow – joint injury –
over use.
• Knee cartilage – torn – joint injury.
• Dehydration – loss of too much body fluid.
• Hypothermia – core body temperature too
low.
D.R.A.B.C.
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Danger – check for danger to self & casualty
Response – shout and shake
Airway – clear any obstruction
Breathing – ear close to mouth, watch for rise and
fall of chest.
• Circulation – have they got a pulse?
Cardiac Massage
• If casualty is not breathing and has no
pulse, first phone the ambulance, then give
two breaths and fifteen chest
compressions until help arrives.
• These chest compressions do the same job
as the heart in pumping blood to vital
organs.(You are not really trying to start
the heart).
Recovery Position
• If the casualty is breathing and has a pulse
(but are unconscious), place on their side in
the recovery position and keep checking
they are breathing & have pulse until help
arrives.
• This keeps airway clear.
Circulatory System
Double circulatory system
• The heart acts as a pump in a double
circulatory system.
• Imagine that the two sides of the heart are
separated.
• The right side always deals with de –
oxygenated blood & sends it to the lungs.
• The left side always deals with oxygen rich
blood and sends it round the body.
In Short . . .
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Vena cava
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Semi lunar valves
Pulmonary artery
Lungs
• Pulmonary vein
• Left atrium
• Bicuspid (mitral)
valve
• Left ventricle
• Semi lunar valves
• Aorta
• Body
Septum
• The septum is the wall of muscle that
separates the two sides of the heart to
prevent the de oxygenated and oxygenated
blood from mixing.
Important Definitions
• Heart rate – the number of times the heart beats
each minute.
• (Pulse)
• This will decrease the fitter you are.
• Stroke volume – the amount of blood pumped out
of the heart with each beat.
• This will increase the fitter you are as the muscle
walls of the heart will get stronger and pump out
more blood with every beat.
Important Definitions
• Cardiac output – the amount of blood
ejected by the heart in one minute.
• This will increase the fitter you are because
the stroke volume increases.
• Cardiac output = heart rate X stroke
volume
Arteries & Veins
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Arteries
No valves
Go away
Narrow lumen
High Pressure
Thick muscle
Mainly oxygenated
Veins
Have valves
Go towards heart
Large lumen
Low Pressure
Thin muscle
Mainly deoxygenated
Capillaries
• Thin (one cell thick)
• Exchange gases (see respiratory system).
Blood
• Red blood cells – transport oxygen from lungs to
tissues (Haemoglobin).
• Plasma – Transport carbon dioxide from tissues to
lungs ( and glucose and mineral salts to tissues).
• Platelets – help in blood clotting (forming scabs)
• White blood cells – Immune system, defence
against disease.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The Respiratory System
Parts of the Respiratory System
• Air is breathed into the nose, where it is
filtered by cilia (tiny hairs) and warmed and
moistened by mucus.
• The epiglottis (a small flap of cartilage)
stops food going into the windpipe instead
of the gullet.
• The larynx is the voice box.
• The windpipe or trachea is a flexible tube
held open by rings of cartilage.
• The lungs are soft and spongy and are in a
space called the thoracic cavity.
• The pleural membrane is a slippery skin
that protects the lungs as they rub against
the ribs.
• The ribs protect the lungs. Intercostal muscles in
between the ribs help us breathe in and out.
• In the lungs, the trachea branches into two
bronchi. Each is a bronchus.
• The bronchi branch into smaller bronchioles.
• The bronchioles end in bunches of tiny air sacs
called alveoli. Their walls are thin so gases can
pass through them.
The Lungs
GASEOUS EXCHANGE
• Gaseous exchange takes place in the alveoli
of the lungs.
• Capillaries (are one cell thick) surround the
alveoli. The oxygen from the lungs pass
into the capillaries and this then goes back
to the heart to be pumped round the body.
• The carbon dioxide passes from the blood
into the lungs and is then breathed out.
Composition of air
Substance
Oxygen
Amount
inhaled
21%
Amount
exhaled
17%
Carbon
dioxide
Nitrogen
A tiny
amount
79%
3%
Water
little
more
79%
Breathing
• Is also called respiration.
• Breathing in is called inspiration.
• Breathing out is called expiration.
Definitions
• Tidal volume: The amount of air you
breathe out in one breath.
• Respiratory rate: how many breaths you
take in one minute.
• Vital capacity: the maximum amount of air
you can breathe out, after breathing in as
deeply as you can.
Minute Volume
• Tidal volume X respiratory rate =
minute volume
(the amount you breathe in one minute).
Bones
Ossification
• Inside the womb, bones start life as
cartilage.
• Over the years this turns into bone in a
process called ossification.
Composition of Bones
• Periosteum – grows around the cartilage.
Controls the shape & thickness of the bone.
• Bone cells appear at the end of bones – the
growth plates or epiphyseal plates.
• The epiphysis is at the end of the bone.
• The diaphysis is the shaft (length) of the
bone.
• Cartilage – prevents bones rubbing together. Becomes
thicker with exercise.
• Compact bone - hard and strong, it protects the bone from
breaking. Becomes thicker with exercise.
• Marrow cavity – contains bone marrow. With exercise the
production of red and white blood cells is speeded up.
• Spongy bone – helps with shock absorption. This
increases through exercise.
Functions of the Skeleton
• Shape / support– The bones form a framework to
support the body. Different length and thickness of
bones determine our shape.
• Protection – Bones surround our vital organs.
E.g. the skull protects the brain, the vertebral
column protect the spinal cord.
• Movement –produced by muscles pulling on
bones.
• Blood production – Bones make blood cells in
the marrow cavity and spongy bone.
THE FOUR TYPES OF BONE
• LONG BONES – arms & legs, hands, feet,
fingers & toes. Used for movement.
• SHORT BONES – Carpals & tarsals. Fine
movement & strength.
• FLAT BONES – Scapula, cranium, pelvis.
Protection of vital organs.
• IRREGULAR BONES – Vertebrae.
Protection & support.
The vertebral column
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The 5 sections of the vertebral column are:
CERVICAL
7 PIECES
THORACIC
12 PIECES
LUMBAR
5 PIECES
SACRUM
5 PIECES
COCCYX
4 PIECES
Functions of vertebral Column
• CERVICAL – neck – atlas & axis - nodding
• THORACIC – chest – ribs attached
• LUMBAR – largest bones, support weight, most
movement & injuries occur here.
• SACRUM – Fused. Transmit force from legs to
upper body. Throwing events.
• COCCYX
- fused. No real function.
Why is the spine regarded as
weak for some activities?
• The spine is fairly thin for the weight that it
is expected to carry.
• Any activity where we have to lift or carry
any extra weight can be dangerous. E.g.
Weightlifting.
• Any activity which could result in our spine
moving in a way for which it was not
designed is dangerous. E.g. Trampolining.
• Any contact sport is dangerous due to the chance
of another person causing you an injury, even by
accident. E.g. a rugby scrum collapsing, or
someone mis-timing a tackle.
• The structure of the spine.
• Between each vertebra there is a disc of cartilage.
Vertebrae are linked by ligaments. Too much
movement causes these ligaments to be strained or
the vertebral discs to slip which is very painful.
Joints and Movement
Joints
• A joint is defined as “a place
where two, or more, bones
meet”.
Freely Moveable (synovial)
Joints
• These are the majority
of joints which allow
the greatest range of
movement.
• Example the
knee joint.
• Joint capsule: holds the bone together and protects the
joint.
• Synovial membrane: This lines the capsule and
contains liquid called the synovial fluid.
• Joint cavity: This is a small gap between the bones
that is filled by synovial fluid. This lubricates the joint
so bones move easier.
• Cartilage: At the end of bones to prevent them
rubbing together.
• Ligaments: Hold bones together.
Freely Movable Joints
• Ball and socket: E.g. hip – cross over step in
javelin. Shoulder – bowling in cricket.
• Hinge: E.g. Elbow – press ups. Knee – kicking a
ball.
• Pivot – Neck, Radius & ulna – changing from
forehand to backhand in tennis.
• Saddle – thumb
• Gliding – carpals & tarsals – swinging golf club.
Fixed or immovable joints
• These bones can’t move at all. E.g.
Cranium. The plates in the cranium are
fused together for greater strength.
Slightly movable joints
• The bones at a slightly moveable joint can
move very slightly. They are held together
by ligaments and are cushioned by cartilage.
• A good example of this joint is the
vertebrae and the ribs and sternum.
Muscles and Muscle Action
Types of Muscle
Voluntary/ Skeletal
• These are attached to bones.
• They work when we want them to, when
we decide.
• Voluntary muscles are also called skeletal
muscle because they are attached to bones.
• They are also called striped or striated
because of their appearance under a
microscope.
Involuntary Muscles
• We do not have to think about using
these muscles.They work on their own.
• Examples include: stomach, gut, bladder
and blood vessels.
• Also known as smooth muscles because
they have no stripes under a microscope.
Cardiac Muscle
• Is a special type of involuntary muscle that
forms the walls of the heart.
• It works non – stop without ever tiring.
Antagonistic Pairs
• Muscles work in antagonistic pairs.
• Working muscle = prime mover or agonist
• The relaxing muscle is called the antagonist.
E.g. to flex the arm: Biceps = agonist, triceps =
antagonist
To extend the arm Triceps = agonist, biceps =
antagonist.
• The hamstrings and quadriceps are also an
example of antagonistic muscle action.
Types of Movement
• Flexion – bending a limb at a joint. (Decreasing
the angle).
• Extension – Straightening a limb at a joint.
(Increasing the angle).
• Adduction – Movement towards the mid line of
the body.
• Abduction – Movement away from the mid line
of the body.
REMEMBER !!!
As soon as you are allowed to open
your exam paper write down the
following -
REMEMBER !!!
• Mental, Social, Physical benefits
• HRF – Body comp, CV, Endurance, Flex,
Strength.
• SRF – Agility, Balance, Co – ord, Power
Reaction time, Speed. (ABCPRS)
• Specificity, Progression, Overload,
Reversibility, Tedium. (SPORT)
• Frequency, Intensity, Time, Type. (FITT)
REMEMBER !!!
• Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation. (RICE)
• Danger, Response, Airway, Breathing,
Circulation. (DRABC)