Download 6. Soil conditions

Integrated Crop Production III.
Pepó, Péter
Csajbók, József
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Integrated Crop Production III.
Pepó, Péter
Csajbók, József
TÁMOP-4.1.2.A/1-11/1-2011-0009
University of Debrecen, Service Sciences Methodology Centre
Debrecen, 2013.
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Tartalom
Tárgymutató ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1. Week 1. INTEGRATED SUGAR BEET PRODUCTION I. ......................................................... 2
1. General characterization of the root and tuberous plants ...................................................... 2
2. The importance of the production ......................................................................................... 3
3. Botanical and plant physiological characteristics .................................................................. 5
4. Biological bases .................................................................................................................... 9
5. Ecological conditions .......................................................................................................... 10
6. Questionsrelated to the integrated sugar beet production .................................................... 11
2. Week 2. INTEGRATED SUGAR BEET PRODUCTION II. ...................................................... 12
1. Agrotechnical elements ....................................................................................................... 12
2. Nutrient supply .................................................................................................................... 13
3. Sowing technology .............................................................................................................. 17
4. Plant protection ................................................................................................................... 17
5. Weed control ....................................................................................................................... 17
6. Diseases and the protection against them ............................................................................ 19
7. Animal pests and the protection against them ..................................................................... 21
8. Irrigation ............................................................................................................................. 22
9. Harvest ................................................................................................................................ 23
10. Questions related to the integrated sugar beet production ................................................. 25
3. Week 3-4. INTEGRATED POTATO PRODUCTION ................................................................ 26
1. Origin of potato ................................................................................................................... 26
2. Significance of potato ......................................................................................................... 26
3. Taxonomical classification of potato .................................................................................. 27
4. Morphology of potato ......................................................................................................... 27
5. Nutrition content of potato tubers ....................................................................................... 28
6. Development stages of potato ............................................................................................. 28
7. Grouping possibilities of potato .......................................................................................... 29
8. Features expected from varieties ......................................................................................... 31
9. Climatic conditions ............................................................................................................. 31
10. Soil conditions ................................................................................................................... 32
11. Crop rotation ..................................................................................................................... 32
12. Soil preparation ................................................................................................................. 32
13. Nutrient supply ................................................................................................................. 33
14. Planting of potato .............................................................................................................. 33
15. Irrigation of potato ............................................................................................................ 34
16. Diseases of potato ............................................................................................................. 34
17. Physiological disorders of potato ...................................................................................... 36
18. Pests of potato ................................................................................................................... 36
19. Weeds and weed control ................................................................................................... 37
20. Harvesting ......................................................................................................................... 37
21. Questions related to the integrated potato production ....................................................... 38
4. Week 5. PRODUCTION OF OTHER ROOT-TUBER CROPS (CASSAVA, JERUSALEM
ARTICHOKE) .................................................................................................................................. 39
1. Origin of cassava ................................................................................................................. 40
2. Taxonomical classification of cassava ................................................................................ 40
3. Uses of cassava ................................................................................................................... 41
4. Morphology of cassava ....................................................................................................... 41
5. Climatic conditions ............................................................................................................. 42
6. Soil conditions ..................................................................................................................... 42
7. Nutrient supply of cassava ................................................................................................. 42
8. Planting of cassava .............................................................................................................. 43
9. Diseases of cassava ............................................................................................................. 43
10. Pests of cassava ................................................................................................................. 44
11. Weed control of cassava .................................................................................................... 44
12. Harvesting of cassava ........................................................................................................ 44
13. Jerusalem artichoke ........................................................................................................... 45
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Integrated Crop Production III.
14. Taxonomical classification of Jerusalem artichoke ...........................................................
15. Uses of Jerusalem artichoke ..............................................................................................
16. Morphology of Jerusalem artichoke ..................................................................................
17. Climatic conditions of Jerusalem artichoke ......................................................................
18. Soil conditions ...................................................................................................................
19. Nutrient supply of Jerusalem artichoke .............................................................................
20. Planting of Jerusalem artichoke ........................................................................................
21. Diseases of Jerusalem artichoke ........................................................................................
22. Pests of Jerusalem artichoke .............................................................................................
23. Weed control of Jerusalem artichoke ................................................................................
24. Harvesting of Jerusalem artichoke ....................................................................................
25. Questions related to production of other root-tuber crops .................................................
5. Week 6. PRODUCTION OF OTHER SUGAR-CROPS (SUGARCANE) ..................................
1. Origin of sugarcane .............................................................................................................
2. Significance of sugarcane ...................................................................................................
3. Uses of sugarcane ................................................................................................................
4. Taxonomical classification of sugarcane ............................................................................
5. Morphology of sugarcane ...................................................................................................
6. Soil conditions of sugarcane ...............................................................................................
7. Climatic conditions .............................................................................................................
8. Crop rotation .......................................................................................................................
9. Nutrient supply ....................................................................................................................
10. Propagation and planting of sugarcane .............................................................................
11. Plant care ...........................................................................................................................
12. Diseases of sugarcane .......................................................................................................
13. Pests of sugarcane .............................................................................................................
14. Weed control .....................................................................................................................
15. Harvesting .........................................................................................................................
16. Questions related to the production of other sugar crops (sugarcane) ...............................
6. Week 7. FIBER CROPS PRODUCTION IN TEMPERATE CLIMATE ....................................
1. Taxonomical classification of hemp ....................................................................................
2. Geographical races of hemp ................................................................................................
3. Morphology of hemp ...........................................................................................................
4. Developing stages of hemp .................................................................................................
5. Climatic conditions .............................................................................................................
6. Soil conditions .....................................................................................................................
7. Crop rotation .......................................................................................................................
8. Nutrient supply ....................................................................................................................
9. Soil preparation ...................................................................................................................
10. Sowing of hemp ................................................................................................................
11. Diseases of hemp ..............................................................................................................
12. Pests of hemp ....................................................................................................................
13. Harvesting of hemp ...........................................................................................................
14. Questions related to fiber crops production in temperate climate (hemp) .........................
7. Week 8. FIBER CROPS PRODUCTION IN TROPICAL CLIMATE ........................................
1. Origin of cotton ...................................................................................................................
2. Taxonomical classification of cotton ..................................................................................
3. Uses of cotton ......................................................................................................................
4. Morphology of cotton .........................................................................................................
5. Nutrient content of cotton seed ...........................................................................................
6. Development stages of cotton .............................................................................................
7. Climatic conditions (upland cotton) ....................................................................................
8. Soil conditions (upland cotton) ...........................................................................................
9. Crop rotation (upland cotton) ..............................................................................................
10. Soil preparation (upland cotton) ........................................................................................
11. Nutrient supply (upland cotton) ........................................................................................
12. Sowing of cotton (upland cotton) ......................................................................................
13. Diseases of cotton (upland cotton) ....................................................................................
14. Pests ..................................................................................................................................
15. Weed control .....................................................................................................................
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Integrated Crop Production III.
16. Harvesting of cotton (upland cotton) ................................................................................. 77
17. Questions related to fiber crops production in tropical climate (cotton) .......................... 78
8. Week 9. TOBACCO PRODUCTION IN TEMPERATE CLIMATE .......................................... 79
1. Origin of tobacco ................................................................................................................ 79
2. Taxonomical classification of tobacco ................................................................................ 79
3. Uses of tobacco ................................................................................................................... 79
4. Morphology of tobacco ....................................................................................................... 80
5. Chemical composition of dry tobacco leaf .......................................................................... 81
6. Main tobacco types ............................................................................................................. 81
7. Climatic conditions ............................................................................................................. 82
8. Soil conditions ..................................................................................................................... 82
9. Crop rotation ....................................................................................................................... 82
10. Soil preparation ................................................................................................................. 83
11. Nutrient supply .................................................................................................................. 83
12. Seedling production with floating trays (float-bed) .......................................................... 83
13. Diseases of tobacco ........................................................................................................... 84
14. Pests of tobacco ................................................................................................................. 85
15. Weeds and weed control of tobacco .................................................................................. 86
16. Weed control ..................................................................................................................... 86
17. Plant management ............................................................................................................. 86
18. Harvesting ......................................................................................................................... 87
19. Questions related to integrated tobacco production .......................................................... 87
9. Week 10. COFFEE AND COCOA TREE PRODUCTION IN TROPICAL CLIMATE ............. 88
1. Origin of coffee ................................................................................................................... 88
2. Taxonomical classification of the coffee ............................................................................. 89
3. Morphology of the coffee .................................................................................................... 89
4. Uses of coffee ...................................................................................................................... 89
5. Climatic conditions of coffee (arabica) ............................................................................... 90
6. Soil conditions of coffee plant ............................................................................................ 90
7. Nutrient supply of coffee plantations .................................................................................. 90
8. Propagation of coffee .......................................................................................................... 91
9. Diseases of coffee ............................................................................................................... 91
10. Pests of coffee ................................................................................................................... 91
11. Harvesting coffee .............................................................................................................. 92
12. Cocoa tree ......................................................................................................................... 92
13. Taxonomical classification of cocoa tree .......................................................................... 93
14. Morphology of cocoa tree ................................................................................................. 93
15. Uses of cocoa .................................................................................................................... 94
16. Climatic conditions of cocoa tree ...................................................................................... 94
17. Soil conditions ................................................................................................................... 94
18. Nutrient supply of cocoa tree plantations .......................................................................... 95
19. Planting of cocoa trees ...................................................................................................... 95
20. Diseases of cocoa tree ....................................................................................................... 95
21. Pests of cocoa tree ............................................................................................................. 96
22. Harvesting cocoa ............................................................................................................... 96
23. Questions related to coffee and cocoa tree production in tropical climate ........................ 96
10. Week 11. INTEGRATED TEA PRODUCTION ....................................................................... 98
1. Origin of tea plants .............................................................................................................. 98
2. History of tea ....................................................................................................................... 99
3. Taxonomical classification of tea plant ............................................................................... 99
4. List of the most important varieties ................................................................................... 100
5. Uses of tea ......................................................................................................................... 100
6. Health effects of tea .......................................................................................................... 100
7. Morphology of tea plant .................................................................................................... 100
8. Chemical components of tea leaves .................................................................................. 102
9. Climatic conditions ........................................................................................................... 102
10. Soil conditions ................................................................................................................. 103
11. Propagation of tea plant .................................................................................................. 103
12. Soil preparation ............................................................................................................... 103
13. Planting ........................................................................................................................... 104
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14. Irrigation and water management ....................................................................................
15. Quality of tea plants ........................................................................................................
16. Nutrient supply ................................................................................................................
17. Diseases of tea .................................................................................................................
18. Pests of tea plant .............................................................................................................
19. Weeds and weed control .................................................................................................
20. Harvesting .......................................................................................................................
21. Storage of tea ..................................................................................................................
22. Questions related to the tea production ...........................................................................
11. Week 12-13. INTEGRATED ALFALFA PRODUCTION ......................................................
1. Origin of alfalfa .................................................................................................................
2. Uses of alfalfa ...................................................................................................................
3. Taxonomic classification of alfalfa ...................................................................................
4. Morphology of alfalfa .......................................................................................................
5. Chemical composition of alfalfa hay ................................................................................
6. Development stages of alfalfa from harvesting aspect (Al-Amoodi, 2011) ......................
7. Development stages of alfalfa ...........................................................................................
8. Alfalfa types ......................................................................................................................
9. Soil conditions ...................................................................................................................
10. Climatic conditions .........................................................................................................
11. Crop rotation ...................................................................................................................
12. Nutrient supply ................................................................................................................
13. Soil preparation ...............................................................................................................
14. Sowing of alfalfa .............................................................................................................
15. Diseases of alfalfa ...........................................................................................................
16. Pests of alfalfa .................................................................................................................
17. Weeds of alfalfa ..............................................................................................................
18. Irrigation .........................................................................................................................
19. Harvesting .......................................................................................................................
20. Questions related to the integrated alfalfa production .....................................................
12. Week 14. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF OTHER FODDER CROPS (SORGHUMS) ..
1. Origin of sorghums ...........................................................................................................
2. Taxonomical classification of sorghums ..........................................................................
3. Uses of sorghum ................................................................................................................
4. Nutrient content of the kernel of grain sorghum ...............................................................
5. Soil conditions ...................................................................................................................
6. Climatic conditions ...........................................................................................................
7. Crop rotation .....................................................................................................................
8. Nutrient supply ..................................................................................................................
9. Soil preparation .................................................................................................................
10. Sowing of sorghums ........................................................................................................
11. Diseases of sorghums ......................................................................................................
12. Pests of sorghums ............................................................................................................
13. Weeds and weed control of sorghums .............................................................................
14. Questions related to the integrated production of other fodder crops (sorghums) ..........
13. Week 15. INTEGRATED PRODUCTION OF RED CLOVER ..............................................
1. Origin of red clover ...........................................................................................................
2. Uses and significance of red clover ...................................................................................
3. Taxonomical classification of red clover ..........................................................................
4. Nutrient content of red clover hay .....................................................................................
5. Morphology of red clover .................................................................................................
6. Development stages of red clover ....................................................................................
7. Soil conditions ..................................................................................................................
8. Climatic conditions of red clover ......................................................................................
9. Crop rotation .....................................................................................................................
10. Nutrient supply ...............................................................................................................
11. Soil preparation ..............................................................................................................
12. Sowing of red clover .......................................................................................................
13. Diseases of red clover .....................................................................................................
14. Pests of red clover ...........................................................................................................
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Integrated Crop Production III.
15. Weeds and weed control of red clover ............................................................................
16. Harvesting of red clover ..................................................................................................
17. Questions related to integrated production of red clover ................................................
18. References .......................................................................................................................
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Az ábrák listája
1.1. Table 1. ........................................................................................................................................ 3
1.2. Table 2. ........................................................................................................................................ 4
1.3. Table 3. ........................................................................................................................................ 4
1.4. Figure 1. ....................................................................................................................................... 6
1.5. Figure 2. ....................................................................................................................................... 6
2.1. Figure 3. ..................................................................................................................................... 14
2.2. Figure 4. ..................................................................................................................................... 14
2.3. Figure 5. ..................................................................................................................................... 14
2.4. Figure 6. ..................................................................................................................................... 15
2.5. Figure 7. ..................................................................................................................................... 15
2.6. Figure 8. ..................................................................................................................................... 19
2.7. Figure 9. ..................................................................................................................................... 20
2.8. Figure 10. ................................................................................................................................... 20
2.9. Figure 11. ................................................................................................................................... 21
2.10. Figure 12. ................................................................................................................................. 22
2.11. Figure 13. ................................................................................................................................. 22
2.12. Figure 14. ................................................................................................................................. 25
3.1. Figure 15.The main potato producers in the world (2010) ........................................................ 26
3.2. Figure 16. The yield of main potato producers (2010) .............................................................. 26
3.3. Figure 17. The leaf of the potato plant ....................................................................................... 29
3.4. Figure 18. The flowers of potato ............................................................................................... 29
3.5. Figure 19. Potato in flowering ................................................................................................... 30
3.6. Figure 20. Tubers of Rioja (Százszorszép) potato variety ......................................................... 30
3.7. Figure 21. ................................................................................................................................... 36
4.1. Figure 22. World Production of Root and Tuber Crops (1000 t) (2010, FAOSTAT) ............... 39
4.2. Figure 23. The main cassava producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) .................. 39
4.3. Figure 24. The yield of main cassava producers (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) ......................... 40
4.4. Figure 25. Cassava ..................................................................................................................... 41
4.5. Figure 26. Helianthus tuberosus L. ............................................................................................ 45
5.1. Figure 27. The main sugarcane producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) .............. 50
5.2. Figure 28. The yield of main sugarcane producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) . 51
5.3. Figure 29. ................................................................................................................................... 52
5.4. Figure 30. Sugarcane harvester with topping ............................................................................ 57
6.1. Figure 31. Uses of hemp ............................................................................................................ 60
6.2. Figure 32. ................................................................................................................................... 63
6.3. Figure 33. Female inflorescence of hemp .................................................................................. 63
6.4. Figure 34. Male inflorescence of hemp ..................................................................................... 64
6.5. Figure 35. Fiber hemp crop ....................................................................................................... 64
7.1. Figure 36. Main fiber crops production in the world (Faostat Database, 2010) ........................ 70
7.2. Figure 37. The main cotton producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) .................... 70
7.3. Figure 38. The yield of main cotton producers (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) ........................... 70
7.4. Figure 39. Opened capsules of cotton ........................................................................................ 72
8.1. Figure 40. The main tobacco producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database, 2011) ................. 79
8.2. Figure 41. The yield of main tobacco producers (FAOSTAT Database, 2011) ........................ 80
8.3. Figure 42. Tobacco plants .......................................................................................................... 81
8.4. Figure 43. Floating tray beds in greenhouse .............................................................................. 83
9.1. Figure 44. The main coffee producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) .................... 88
9.2. Figure 45. The yield of main coffee producers (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) ........................... 88
9.3. Figure 46. Coffea arabica .......................................................................................................... 89
9.4. Figure 47. The main cocoa producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) ..................... 92
9.5. Figure 48. The yield of main cocoa bean producers (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) ................... 93
9.6. Figure 49. Cocoa tree ................................................................................................................. 94
10.1. Figure 50. Area of the tea in the main tea producer countries (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) .. 98
10.2. Figure 51. The yield of the tea in the main tea producer countries (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) 98
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10.3. Figure 52. Morphology of tea plant (Source: John Coakley Lettsom: The natural history of the teatree, with observations on the medical qualities of tea and on the effects of tea drinking. London, Printed
by J. Nichols for C. Dilly, 1799) .................................................................................................... 101
10.4. Figure 53.Flowers and leaves of tea plant ............................................................................. 102
10.5. Figure 54. Processing of tea ................................................................................................... 110
11.1. Figure 55. The quantity of exported alfalfa meal and pellets in the world (2010) ................. 112
11.2. Figure 56. The main alfalfa meal and pellets importers of the world (2010) ......................... 112
11.3. Figure 57. Trifoliolate leaf of alfalfa ..................................................................................... 114
11.4. Figure 58. Blue alfalfa ........................................................................................................... 114
11.5. Figure 59. Medicago x varia (photo: Dr. József Kruppa) ...................................................... 115
12.1. Figure 60. The main grain sorghum producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database, 2010) ... 126
12.2. Figure 61. The yield of main grain sorghum producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database, 2010)
......................................................................................................................................................... 127
12.3. Figure 62. Aerial roots of sorghums ...................................................................................... 128
12.4. Figure 63. Grain sorghum ...................................................................................................... 129
12.5. Figure 64. Tillers of silo sorghum ......................................................................................... 129
12.6. Figure 65. Sudangrass ............................................................................................................ 130
13.1. Figure 66. Red clover seeds ................................................................................................... 137
13.2. Figure 67. Wireworms ........................................................................................................... 142
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A táblázatok listája
3.1. Table 4. Planting data of potato ................................................................................................. 33
4.1. Table 5. Nutrient content of cassava fresh tubers ...................................................................... 42
4.2. Table 6. Nutrient content of Jerusalem artichoke fresh tubers ................................................... 46
5.1. Table 7. Criteria to classify the aptitude of soils for growing sugarcane ................................... 53
5.2. Table 8. Planting data of sugarcane ........................................................................................... 54
6.1. Table 9. Area and yield (fiber) of hemp in the World (FAOSTAT Database, 1961-2010) ....... 59
6.2. Table 10. Area and yield (dry stalk) of the hemp in Hungary (HSI and FAOSTAT) ................ 60
6.3. Table 11. Sexual dimorphism of hemp plant ............................................................................. 65
6.4. Table 12. Sowing data of hemp ................................................................................................. 67
6.5. Table 13. Quality specifications of hemp in Hungary ............................................................... 69
7.1. Table 14. Sowing data of cotton ................................................................................................ 75
8.1. Table 15. Sowing data in seedlings production ......................................................................... 84
8.2. Table 16. Planting data of tobacco ............................................................................................ 84
10.1. Table 17. Fertilization of tea plants ....................................................................................... 105
11.1. Table 18. Average crude protein content of alfalfa hay in various stages of maturity (%, dry matter
basis) ............................................................................................................................................... 116
11.2. Table 19. Spring sowing data ................................................................................................ 120
11.3. Table 20. Late summer sowing data ...................................................................................... 120
12.1. Table 21. Potential yield of sorghums ................................................................................... 127
12.2. Table 22. Prussic acid (cyanide) content in the fresh leaves (mg/100g) ................................ 131
12.3. Table 23. Specific nutrient demand (kg/100 kg): .................................................................. 132
12.4. Table 24. Recommended nutrient doses (kg/ha) .................................................................... 132
12.5. Table 25. Sowing data of sorghums ....................................................................................... 132
12.6. Table 26. Harvesting of sorghums ......................................................................................... 135
13.1. Table 27. Spring sowing data of red clover ........................................................................... 140
13.2. Table 28. Late summer sowing data of red clover ................................................................. 140
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Tárgymutató
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1. fejezet - Week 1. INTEGRATED
SUGAR BEET PRODUCTION I.
1. General characterization of the root and tuberous
plants
The root and tuberous plants has a central place among field crops. Their common characteristics:
• their crop – in industrial sense – is the vegetative part of the plant located in the soil (modified root or
modified shoot)
• in their used vegetative part, a significant amount of stored carbohydrates can be found.
• they are sensitive to the changes of the environmental or agrotechnical conditions
• their propagation is carried out partially by generative and partially by vegetative plant parts
• generally, they need intensive agrotechnique
• their industrial crop can be stored only for a short time
• they can be utilized in many ways
In the different climatic zones, different types of root and tuberous plants are produced. Under temperate
climatic conditions, the two most important tuberous plants are
• sugar beet
• potato.
Other plants, produced on smaller areas also belong to this group, like:
• chicory
• Jerusalem artichoke
• cattle turnip
• carrots
• Brassica species (e.g. field mustard, etc.)
The root and tuberous plants possess the highest productivity in the temperate climate zone. Among them, sugar
beet is the crop producing the largest biomass energy on unit area. Their dry material productions are 18-22 t/ha
under favourable ecological and agrotechnical conditions.
They need intensive agrotechnique. In the past, the introduction of new agrotechnical and technical tools began
in these plants, especially in sugar beet. Chemical fertilizer use and the application of new tillage tools (e.g.
steam plough, seed-by-seed sowing machine, etc.) began in sugar beet.
Their common feature is the relatively high water content of their industrial crop (75-80%). During their
production, large masses have to be transported, processes and stored, which needs adequate logistics.
They are used in several ways. Their crop and the main and by-products generated during the processing can be
utilized in:
• human nutrition
• animal nutrition
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Week 1. INTEGRATED SUGAR
BEET PRODUCTION I.
• the base material of different industrial branches (starch production, alcohol industry, manufacturing of
intermediates, etc.)
• biofuel production.
In our country, these plants were produced on large areas (150-200 thousand ha, the 4-5% of the arable land)
until the 1980s. Due to the economic and production regulation changes, the sowing areas of these plants
considerably decreased (30-50 thousand ha, the 1-1.5% of the arable land). As a direct consequence, the
processing industry (sugar factories) ruined and – due to the relatively high manual power need of the plants –,
the demand for employment significantly decreased. The area decrease of these plants was not only the question
of quantity but negatively effected the qualitative level of field crop production.
Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L. var. altissima)
2. The importance of the production
Sugar beet is one of the most important industrial plants of the temperate climate zone. On one hand, its
production needs intensive agrotechnique, and on the other hand, large, well-organized industrial background
(sugar factories) is needed for its processing.
Sugar beet is able to produce huge biomass. In the temperate zone, the most energy per unit area can be
produced with its produced biomass.
Sugar beet is a relatively young cultural plant. In spite of the fact that 2000 B.C., Beta carrots were produced in
Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean and people consumed their leaves and roots, its conscious production
began in 1474, when S. Margraff, a German chemist explored that the white Silesian beet contains saccharose
(5-7%). This exploration was utilized by his disciple, F. C. Achard, establishing the first sugar factory in 1801.
Since then, honey or sugar made of sugarcane was used for as sweeteners. Napoleon’s trade embargo
significantly boosted the European sugar manufacturing by hindering the import of sugar made of sugarcane
from the colonies at the beginning of the 1800s. Sámuel Tessedik brought it into Hungary around 1790. In our
country, the first sugar factory was founded by József Lilien and afterwards other modern factories were
established. From 2004, Hungary is a member state of the EU, which has very strict rules on sugar beet and
sugar production. A quota system determines the amount of producible white sugar. Between 2006 and 2008,
the domestic sugar factories, which were transferred into foreign ownership, gave the majority of the quota
back, thus the produced amount of sugar (~400 thousand tons) significantly decreased (~100 thousand tons). As
a consequence of this, the sowing area of sugar beet decreased (~8000 ha) and only one sugar factory remained
(Kaposvár). Recently, the sowing area of sugar beet increased (~15 000 ha).
Sugar beet has been and is still in competition with sugarcane. Currently, this competition is complicated by the
isosugar made of other plants (maize) and the rapid spread of artificial sweeteners. The sugar consumption is
18-20 kg/capita/year worldwide. In Hungary, it was close to 40 kg/capita/year in the 1980s. Since then, due to
the spread of healthy nutrition, its consumption decreased (~28-30 kg/capita/year).
The majority of the sowing areas of sugar beet can be found on areas of the temperate climate zone. Sugarcane
is the perennial plant of subtropical and tropical areas. There are countries (e.g. USA, Egypt, etc.), where either
the production of sugar beet or that of sugarcane can be done on areas of different climatic conditions. The
sowing area of sugar beet constantly decreased during the past decades. While it was ~7 million ha in the 1960s,
nowadays the
1.1. ábra - Table 1.
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size of the area is ~4.5 million ha. Although the sugar content of sugarcane is lower (11-14%) than that of sugar
beet (17-19%), due to its higher productivity and lesser production costs (the plantation needs little investments
in the first 5-10 years), the sowing area of sugarcane rapidly grows worldwide. Sugarcane was produced on ~9
million ha, which is nowadays ~25 million ha. The current yield averages of the world show the high and
different productivities of the two plants: sugar beet: ~48-50 t/ha, sugarcane: ~70-74 t/ha.
1.2. ábra - Table 2.
The largest sugar beet producer countries of the world are located in the temperate climate zone, mainly in
Europe (Russia, The Ukraine, France, Germany, etc.). Outside Europe, considerable sugar beet production takes
place in the USA and China. The most important sugarcane producer countries are Brazil, India, Thailand,
Australia, China, USA, Cuba, Pakistan, and South Africa.
The highest world yield averages of sugar beet are close to those of sugarcane. By careful agrotechnique, under
favourable ecological conditions, the Western European countries (France, The Netherlands, Belgium,
Germany, etc.) can perform sugar beet yield averages of 70-80 t/ha.
In Hungary, the sowing area of sugar beet varied between 100 and 120 thousand ha in the 1960s-1970s-1980s1990s. The yield averages were 35-38 t/ha in these decades. From the middle of the 1990s, due to the
modernization of the agrotechnique, the yield averages increased to 45-50 t/ha, as a consequence of which the
sowing area decreased to ~50 thousand ha. Because of giving the production quota back and the closing of sugar
factories, the smallest sowing area in 2008 was ~9 thousand ha, and the yield averages increased further (~55-60
t/ha, depending on the cropyear). Since then, the sowing area increased to ~15 thousand ha.
1.3. ábra - Table 3.
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Sugar beet is a valuable industrial base material. During the processing of 10 tons of sugar beet bodies, the
following materials are produced:
• 1,3-1,5 t sugar (human consumption, food industry, confiteries etc.)
• 0,5 t (of 50% sugar content) molasses (alcohol, animal feeding, row material in amino acid fermentation etc.)
• 4,0 t (14% dry material) of wet beet pulp (animal feeding)
• 0,5 t industrial lime from sugar production (soil melioration)
Chemical composition of sugar beet root-body:
• water 74-78%
• saccharoz 14-20%
• non-sugary materials 6-8%
• of which fibre 4-5%
soluble organic materials 1,5-2,5%
• ask 0,5%
• potassium (K+ ) 60-80 mmol/1000 g carrot
• sodium (Na+ ) 15-35 mmol/1000 g beet
• α-amino N 15-50 mmol/1000 g beet
• betain N 20-40 mmol/1000 g beet
Currently, the ratio of sugars made of sugarcane and sugar beet is 80 and 20%, respectively.
3. Botanical and plant physiological characteristics
Sugar beet is a C3, while sugarcane is a C4 type of plant. Both plants are characterized by excellent dry material
production.
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Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L. var. altissima) belongs to the family of goosefoots (Chenopodiaceae). Sugar beet is
a biannual plant. In the first year, it develops the vegetative parts (tuber, leaf, rootage), while in the second year
the seed stalk, the flower and the fruit.
1.4. ábra - Figure 1.
The economically most important part of sugar beet is the tuber, which is partially of stem (hypocotyl and
epicotyl) and partially of root origin. The tuber consists of the following parts:
• Beet top (of epicotyl origin)
The upper part of the tuber, the leaves are found on it. It is of poor sugar content, thus this part is removed
during harvesting (decapitation).
• Beet neck (of hypocotyl origin)
The part connecting the beet top and the root body, without any leaf buds or sideroots. A part rich in sugar.
• Root body (of root origin)
The part of the tuber, from which the sideroots are originating. The main mass of the harvested tuber.
• Root cap
The fastigiated part of the root body. Its sugar content is moderate. The root cap is continued in the main root.
Sugar beet is a deeply rooting plant, its main root can penetrate into the soil even to the depth of 200-300 cm.
• Root stria
On both sides of the root body, two longitudinal striae of different depth are found. The side roots, which are
very important in the nutrient and water supply, are originating from the root stria. Due to the adherence of
soil parts, the deep root stria increases the contamination in harvest, thus it is disadvantageous (breeding).
1.5. ábra - Figure 2.
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On the cross-section of the tuber of sugar beet, characteristic, circular vascular bundle rings can be found. The
vascular bundle rings alternate circularly with the storing parenchyma parts, they are important in sugar storage.
The number of the rings is 9-12 in sugar beet and 5-8 in cattle turnip.
After the germination-emergence of sugar beet, the characteristic, longish two cotyledons appear. Afterwards,
the first real foliage leaf is developed. The leaf development is continuously taking places until harvest. In the
first year of the development of sugar beet, the following leaf types can be distinguished:
• Type A leaves
They develop in the first third of the vegetation period. They have large, smooth surface and short leaf-stalk.
These leaves have the highest photosynthetic ability among all.
• Type B leaves
They develop in the second third of the vegetation period. Their leaf surfaces are a bit smaller, they are
usually ribbed and they leaf-stalks are long. They photosynthesize intensively. They have the most important
roles in sugar accumulation.
• Type C leaves
They appear in the last third of the vegetation period. Their leaf surfaces are smaller; they are less ribbed and
crispy. Their sugar accumulation is less, since they use the assimilates for their own growth. Thus, it is
recommended to reduce their generation to the minimum.
The different types of leaves (A, B, C) can be found simultaneously in certain stages of the vegetation period.
The second year of sugar beet is the generative stage. This is important in terms of seed beet production. In the
second year, sugar beet develops seed stalk (120-190 cm), on which the inflorescence is located. Its
inflorescence is glomerate spica. The fruit is capsule, whose surface is rugged due to the remains of the flower
parts. Within the capsule, many seeds (polygerm) or one seed (monogerm) is located. The current, modern
hybrids are monogerm (thus, the hard, manual labour intensive plant number settings are not needed). The
diameter of the glomerate fruit (capsule) is 3-7 mm, brown in colour, the thousand glomerate weight is 15-30
grams.
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Sugar beet has a two-year ontogenesis: in the first year the vegetative, in the second year the generative organs
are developed. The two years of the ontogenesis can be divided into several stages; it is important to know these
stages for the agrotechnical operations.
The stages of the ontogenesis in the first year:
• Germination – emergence
Under adequate environmental conditions, the pelleted seeds begin to germinate and emerge (the two
cotyledons appear). The field emergence percentage of sugar beet (~80-85%) is significantly lower than that
of the majority of field plants.
• Primary differentiation
It takes place from the formation of the cotyledons until the appearance of the first pair of real foliage leaves.
In addition to the leaves, the main root also develops and begins its longitudinal growth.
• Secondary differentiation
It takes place from the development of the first pair of real foliage leaves to the formation of the 6th leaf. The
vascular bundle rings are developed, the thickening, the secondary growth of the tuber begins.
• Decortication
It takes place from the appearance of the 6th to the 12th leaf. The cortex cannot follow the rapid growth of the
hypocotyls, thus it cracks and detaches.
The thickening of the tuber goes on and other leaves appear. The beet is the most susceptible to infections in
this period.
• Tuberization
It takes place from the 12th leaf to the development of the total leaf number (from the beginning of June to
the middle of August). The growth of the tuber is the most intensive during this period. By the end of
tuberization, the leaf number reaches 26-30. Sugar development and accumulation are the most intensive
during the period of tuberization.
• Maturation
The weight increase of the root and the intensity of sugar accumulation decreases in this stage. Although leaf
development lasts until the harvesting of sugar beet, lesser leaves of smaller surface are developed during this
period, the leaf weight decreases.
• Winter stationary stage
This stage is important only in the case of seed beet. The life processes slow down. The beets spend the
stationary stage in the stockpile (steckling) or in the soil (overwintering seed beet production).
The stages of the ontogenesis in the second year:
• the repeated budding of the basal leaves
• seed stalk growth
• florescence
• fructification
The second year is important in terms of seed production. Under certain unfavourable ecological (e.g. frost) and
agrotechnical conditions (e.g. herbicide effect), sugar beet can develop seed stalk even in the first year. This is
unfavourable since hardens harvest and the sugar content of the sugar beet developing seed stalk is significantly
lower.
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4. Biological bases
The ancestor of the sugar beet was the Silesian beet; its sugar content was low (5-7%) and produced low yields.
As a result of breeding, great changes took place in the cultivated varieties and hybrids. While earlier polygerm
varieties were cultivated, currently solely monogerm hybrids are produced. The domestic sugar beet production
achieved excellent results in the 1960s-1970s, nowadays breeding does not take place in our country. We only
produce hybrids of foreign breeding institutes. The domestic hybrid portfolio is broad; in its formation, the sugar
factory plays determining role.
The sugar beet varieties/hybrids can be classified based on many aspects, which features determine their
agronomical values too. The aspects of the classification are:
• On the basis of yield potential and sugar content
• E = high yield potential
Excellent yield potential and moderate sugar content
• N = normal yield potential
Good yield potential and average sugar content
• Z = high sugar content
Average yield potential and high sugar content
• ZZ = extra high sugar content
Moderate yield potential and excellent sugar content
Nowadays the N-Z types of sugar beet are widely grown.
• On the basis of botanical structure of the crop
• policarp (poligerm)
• monogerm
• On the basis of genetic make-up
• diploid
• triploid
• tetraploid
Previously, the production of tetrapolidic varieties took place; nowadays mainly triploidic and partially
diploidic hybrids are produced.
• Based on disease resistance
• The most efficient protection against the numerous diseases of sugar beet is the resistance/tolerance
developed by breeding. Previously, in addition to the hybrids resistant only to one disease, ones possessing
double tolerance (resistance to two diseases) appeared.
• Cr – Cerkospore-resistant
• Rt (Rz) – Rhizomania-tolerant
• Rt (Rz) + Cr – Rhizomania-tolerant and Cerkospore-resistant
• Rt (Rz) + Me – Rhizomania-tolerant and Powdery-mildew resistant
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• Rt (Rz) + Rc – Rhizomania-tolerant and Rhizoctonia-resistant
The sugar beet varieties/hybrids have to fulfil double requirement:
• The crop productions requirements concerning the genotypes:
• high productivity
• good abiotic stress tolerance (adaptation to the unfavourable weather and soil conditions)
• good biotic stress resistance (disease resistance)
• the excellent biological value of the seed (monogerm, germinability, field emergence)
• agronomical traits (moderate seeding, conical tuber, shallow root stria, good harvestibility by machines)
• good agrotechnical reaction (nureint, irrigation, plant number, herbicide tolerance, etc.)
• Requirements of the processing industry concerning the genotypes:
• high sugar content (17-20%)
• low amount on adverse non-sugar type of materials (α-amino, Na+ and other elements)
• physical traits (cutting resistance, permeability, elasticity, saccharose diffusion constant)
Currently, the wide hybrid portfolio makes the selection of the appropriate genotype possible.
5. Ecological conditions
Sugar beet is demanding for the environmental conditions, this concerns both the weather and the soil
conditions.
Sugar beet is a plant of the temperate climate zone. Its vegetation period is 180-200 days long. During the
vegetation period, it needs 2400-2700oC heat sum, whose distribution is the following:
• emergens - decortication (12 leaves) 600°C
• tuber development 1100-1200°C
• maturation 700-1000°C
For the optimal germination-emergence of the beet, 6-8oC is needed. It can bear the short, slight frosts (-3- 4oC) after emergence. In the later developmental stages, mild warmth is the optimal for it. These daily annual
temperatures are the following:
April
12-14oC
May
16-18oC
June
20-21oC
July
21-22oC
August
19-20oC
September
17-18oC
October
15-18oC
In terms of the temperature, the best is when in September and October, the favourable daily temperature is
followed by cool nights, thus the minority of the produced sugar is used during the night dissimilation.
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Sugar beet is a long-day plant; it needs 1000-1200 sunny hours during its vegetation period. It is also a crop of
high water demand, needing 550-600 mm water in the vegetation period. Therefore, in Hungary, in favour of
high yield, irrigation (the application of 50-200 mm irrigation water) is essential in the majority of the
cropyears. Its transpiration coefficient is 300-600 L/1 kg dry material. In addition to its high water demand, it is
also demanding for the adequate airing of the soil. Its static water demand is 70:30%. The crucial stages of water
uptake during the vegetation period are:
• germination-emergence (not the amount of absorbed water is significant but easily available water is needed
from the rapidly drying soil layer of 0-5 cm)
• July-August (the absolute water demand is the highest then, the amount of absorbed water is 320-340 mm, the
50-60% of its total water demand)
The precipitation in autumn is unfavourable, since it increases the re-development of leaves, decreases sugar
content and makes the harvest harder.
Sugar beet is pronouncedly demanding for the soils. The best soils are adequate for its production, which can be
characterized by the following traits:
• thick top soil (80-140 cm)
• high humus content (3-5%)
• mid-hard, loamy structure (40-45 KA )
• neutral pH (6,5-7,5 pH)
• mid-deep water table (~200-300 cm)
• excellent nutrient-, water-, air- and heat management
• good soil life
• good agricultural soil
The following soil types are adequate for sugar beet production:
• chernozem
• grassland and silty soils of better quality
• typical grassland soil
• brown forest soil of better quality.
In the case of chernozem, it is important not to ruin the structure of the soil with too many soil operations
(deflation, soil crackling). In the case of the grassland and silty soils, the high inland water can cause problems.
According to a practical observation, the yield of sugar beet is average on grassland soils, but the sugar content
is high. In brown forest soils, the reduction of the acidic pH of the soil is of special importance.
6. Questionsrelated to the integrated sugar beet
production
1. What is the importance of sugar beet production in the World and in Hungary?
2. What is the chemical composition of sugar beet?
3. How can we classify the genotypes of sugar beet?
4. What are the most important ecological factors in sugar beet production?
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2. fejezet - Week 2. INTEGRATED
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1. Agrotechnical elements
Sugar beet is a plant that needs intensive agrotechnique. It is demanding for the amounts of inputs used in the
agrotechnical elements and the quality of their implementation.
Crop rotation
The planning of the crop rotation of sugar beet needs great carefulness. In addition to the selection of the direct
preceding crop, the species of the plants during the long previous period (four years) of crop rotation are also
important. In the crop rotation of sugar beet, the following aspects have to be taken into consideration:
• The harvest of the preceding crop in time in favour of the implementation of the soil and nutrient
replenishment (livestock manure, chemical fertilizer) works.
• The amount of stem remains left behind by the preceding crop has to be small.
• The preceding crop should leave the soil behind in favourable physical state, it should not use its whole
nutrient and water supply.
• The preceding crop has to be favourable in terms of plant protection (good weed suppression, no common
diseases and animal pests).
• The preceding crop should not increase the nitrogen supply of the soil to a great extent.
• Herbicides adverse for sugar beet should not be left.
The preceding crops of sugar beet are classified into the following groups:
• good forecrops
• small grain cereals (mainly winter wheat and others)
• other crops (flex, poppy seed, rape etc.)
• medium forecrops
• silage maize
• bad forecrops
• root and tuber crops
• maize for grain
• sunflower
• crop increasing soil N-content (leguminous crops, forage legumes)
• sorghum crops
• horticultural, herbs- and spices-crops
• itself (4 years)
In the practice, sugar beet follows winter wheat. It can come after itself after four years. In the case of certain
diseases (e.g. Rhizomania), sugar beet can come after itself only when 6-8 years elapsed (Rhizomania tolerant
hybrids).
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Winter wheat can follow sugar beet if its harvest is early, but the most frequently, spring crops are sown after
sugar beet. Due to the high N uptake of sugar beet, spring (beer) barley can come after it. By necessity, other
spring crops (e.g. pea, soybean, sunflower, maize, etc.) can be sown after sugar beet.
Soil cultivation
Sugar beet reacts very sensitively to the adequate state of the soil. On one hand, it needs deeply cultivated
(typical crop of periodic deep cultivation), and on the other hand, small-crumbed-settled, moist seedbed. The
soil cultivation consists of four operation groups, which are influenced by soil features and other agrotechnical
operations.
• Preparations
In the majority of the cases, sugar beet is produced after winter wheat preceding crop. The carrying out of
stubble cleaning + closing in time is important. Afterwards, stubble care + closing can be done by different
tools once or more times.
• Basic tillage
The depth and the tools of basic tillage are determined by the soil features and the livestock manuring. Sugar
beet needs and thanks deep cultivation. In basic tillage, if allowed by the soil features, deep cultivation is
carried out. In the case of unfavourable soil lamination, the combination of soil loosening + ploughing can be
applied. When livestock manure is applied directly under sugar beet, it can be done by shallow ploughing or
by heavy discs once or two times (better, since, energy and time saving, the water loss is lower). Therefore, in
basic tillage, many solutions are possible:
• deep ploughing (35-40 cm)
• reploughing (working in of livestock manure) (20-24 cm) + deep ploughing (~35 cm)
• heavy disc (working in of livestock manure) (16-20 cm) + deep ploughing (~35 cm)
• mid-deep loosening (~35 cm) + ploughing (25-30 cm)
• deep loosening (45-60 cm) + ploughing (26-30 cm)
In the last years, nice results were obtained in the soil cultivation of sugar beet without ploughing.
• Grading of basic tillage
The basic tillage has to be graded as soon as possible in one or more stages. The ploughing has to be graded
roughly, ensuring the recipience of the autumn-winter-early spring precipitation, the formation of the smooth
soil surface, the reduction of the decay of the physical structure of the soil due frost and spring soil works to
the minimum. For grading, we can use discs and combined tools.
• Seedbed preparation
In the case of the spring soil works, our most important task is to reduce the water loss of the soil and the
formation of small-crumbed, but not over-cultivated seedbed. The spring soil cultivation has to be of one
action is possible. Its traditional tool is the combination cultivator. The germinator and compactor work much
better. The too many soil operations cause deflation in dry, windy spring weather, while in a moist one,
crackling.
The soil preparation of sugar beet needs special carefulness. Due to improper soil preparation, its plant number
increases, its emergence decays and inhomogeneous stock forms, decreasing root yield and sugar content. The
homogenous, optimal stock density is the most important factor in sugar beet production in terms of yield and
crop quality.
2. Nutrient supply
Sugar beet is a crop of high nutrient demand. The sufficient nutrient supply significantly influences the yield
amount and the crop quality. Macro-, meso- and microelements are needed for the adequate fructification.
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Nitrogen increases mainly the root and leaf mass of sugar beet. As an effect of excessive nitrogen fertilization,
the quality of sugar beet declines (the sugar content decreases, the α-amino nitrogen content increases.
Therefore, the N supply fitting the needs and the nutrient uptake dynamics of sugar beet is important. The N
uptake of sugar beet is considerable (~200 kg/ha), its most intensive period is in June and July. Sugar beet is
constantly absorbing nitrogen up to the end of the vegetation period. Thus, it is unfavourable that due to the
moist autumn weather, the amount of easily available nitrogen increases, which can be absorbed by sugar beet.
2.1. ábra - Figure 3.
Phosphorus promotes rootage and foliage development, favourably effects sugar synthesis and sugar
accumulation, and promotes ripening. The amount of absorbed phosphorus is ~75 kg/ha.
2.2. ábra - Figure 4.
Sugar beets absorbs potassium to the greatest extent (~350 kg/ha). Potassium is essential in carbohydrate
formation and sugar accumulation. At the beginning of the vegetation period, it improves the cold resistance of
sugar beet and takes favourable effect on drought and disease resistance too. As an effect of excessive K supply,
the ash content of the tuber increases, decreasing the amount of obtainable sugar.
2.3. ábra - Figure 5.
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Among the mesoelements, in addition to their function as nutrients, Ca and Mg play role in the neutralization of
the pH of the soil. Sugar beet thanks liming (e.g. caustic sludge in sugar factories).
In the physiological processes of sugar beet, numerous microelements (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Mo, etc.) play important
role. Out of them, boron (B) is the most important one. Due to the lack of boron, the beet top and the young
(core) leaves die (core flush).
2.4. ábra - Figure 6.
Sugar beet is a halophytic plant deriving from the sea-shore. Therefore it takes up a significant amount of Na
during its vegetation period. In the soils, the sufficient amount of Na can be found, thus replenishment is not
needed.
2.5. ábra - Figure 7.
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For the optimal fertilization of sugar beet, one has to know its specific nutrient demand (the amount of a nutrient
needed for the formation of 100 kg main + by-product):
N
0,2-0,4 kg
P2O5
0,15-0,20 kg
K2O
0,3-0,6 kg
CaO
0,10-0,17 kg
Mg
0,08-0,15 kg
NaO
0,02-0,03 kg
In case of sugar beet, the average nutrient amounts to be applied are the following:
N
60-120 kg/ha
P2O5
100-120 kg/ha
K2O
130-180 kg/ha
The nutrient demand of sugar beet can be satisfied by livestock manure and chemical fertilizers. Sugar beet is a
field crop thanking livestock manure very much. In the past, sugar beet was fertilized by livestock manure. The
dose of livestock manure is 40-60 t/ha, depending on the soil features. Livestock manure can be applied directly
under sugar beet, but can be used under the preceding crop (winter wheat) too. In the latter case, the weeding
effect of the livestock manure takes place only to a lesser extent. Nowadays, due to quantitative causes,
livestock manure is rarely applied under sugar beet. Its nutrient supply is mainly satisfied by chemical
fertilizers.
The determination of the fertilizer demand of sugar beet needs more precise methods than those of other field
crops. Thus, the EUF method (occasionally the Nmin method) is used in sugar beet. In case of chemical
fertilization, the P and K fertilizers are applied and worked into the soil in autumn, before ploughing. The N is
applied dividedly, in autumn and in spring. The amount of autumn and spring N amounts are determined based
on the data of soil studies.
In sugar beet production, the employment of liming substances is reasonable. These materials have to be worked
into the soil always shallowly (Ca and Mg moves within the soil easily). The application of the liming
substances on the graded plough can be carried out in autumn, but their application is more favourable in spring
with seedbed preparation; they have to be worked into the soil shallowly.
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Leaf manuring is recommended in the case of sugar beet, due to its high microelement uptake, which can be
carried out jointly with the plant protection operations.
3. Sowing technology
For the formation of homogenous sugar beet stocks, in addition to soil cultivation, sowing technology plays
important role. Thus, the implementation of sowing in optimal time, germ number and depth is of basic
importance in terms of yield and crop quality.
The optimal sowing time of sugar beet comes when soil temperatures reaches 6-8oC, generally between 20
March and 5 April. It is important to carry out sowing in the shortest possible time (1-3 days) within the optimal
sowing interval.
Sugar beet is produced with the row distance of 45 cm. The optimal plant number at harvest is 100 thousand/ha.
The germination ability (85-90%) and especially the field emergence (70-85%) of sugar beet are behind those of
other field crops. Therefore, during sowing, higher germ number has to be applied. In sugar beet sowing, U
(unit) is used as dimension, which stands for 100 thousand seeds. In favour of obtaining the optimal stock at
harvest (~100 thousand/ha), we sow higher germ number, out of which, a certain amount is eliminated at the end
of the vegetation period (plant number setting). In the sowing of sugar beet, the following sowing modes are
applied:
• Precision sowing
The sown germ number is 1.2-1.3 U/ha. In this case, no plant number setting is carried out. The plant distance
is 15-18 cm. Currently, mainly this method is employed.
• Loosened sowing
The sown germ number is 1.5-1.9 U/ha. Plant number settings can be carried out by long-handled hoes. The
plant distance at sowing is 10-13 cm. This method is rarely applied, only in the case of unfavourable
conditions at sowing (e.g. soil state).
• Dense sowing
The sown germ number is 2.5-3.0 U/ha. Plant number settings are carried out by short-handled hoes. Its
manual labour intensity is high. The plant distance at sowing is 6-9 cm. This method is not used in practice.
The final plant distance of sugar beet is 20-25 cm. In this case, the development of tubers is optimal (0.7-0.8
kg/plant) and the sugar content is also favourable.
The optimal sowing depth of sugar beet is 3-4 cm.
Recently, the experiences with the special, cultivation path production technology of sugar beet are favourable,
but this technology is rarely applied in practice.
4. Plant protection
Sugar beet responses sensitively to weeding and to the damages caused by diseases and animal pests. In sugar
beet, we have to deal with plant protection problems along the whole vegetation period. Sugar beet needs
intensive protection; the methods of integrated plant protection have to be applied.
5. Weed control
The weed suppressing ability of sugar beet is weak, and it is sensitive to the different herbicides, which make its
weed control harder. Its weed clearing can only be successful by the application of many methods.
Mainly the annual weeds occur in sugar beet stocks (the majority is T4 weeds but also T3 and T2 weeds can
emerge). Occasionally perennial weeds (G1 and G3 weeds) can cause serious damages. The most important
weeds of sugar beet are the following:
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• Annual weeds
• dicotyledones
Lamb’s-quarters (Chenopodium sp.)
Redroot amaranth (Amaranthus sp.)
Knotgrass species (Polygonum sp.)
Common ragweed (Ambrosiaelatior)
European black nightshade (Solanumnigrum)
Wild mustard (Sinapisarvensis)
Field pennycress (Thalpsiarvense)
• monocotyledones
Common barnyard grass (Echinocloa crus-galli)
Foxtail species (Setaria sp.)
Wild oat (Avena fatua)
Slender meadow foxtail (Alopecurus myosuroides)
• Perennial weeds
• dicotyledons
Creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense)
Field blindweed (Convolulus arvensis)
• monocotyledons
Reed (Phragmites communis)
Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense)
In the weed control of sugar beet, two types of methods can be applied:
• Chemical weed control
Sugar beet is pronouncedly sensitive to herbicides. Chemical weed clearing can only be efficient by the
combined application of several methods. These methods are as follows:
• Pre-sowing weed control
It can be applied mainly against monocotyledonous weeds before sowing, by working the chemicals into
the soil. Its advantage is that it can be applied under dry conditions too; the disadvantage is that it dries the
soil, delays harvest and results in unfavourable seedbed.
• Pre-emergent weed control
It is applied after sowing, before emergence. Generally, the mono- and dicotyledonous herbicides are
applied jointly onto the soil surface. The amount of 15-20 mm precipitation is needed within two weeks for
their effects to take place.
• Post-emergent weed control
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Usually, the effectiveness of the pre-emergent treatment is not satisfactory, thus post-emergent treatment
has to be applied. Every post-emergent herbicide represents stress for the sugar beet, it can retroject its
development with some days. This is true for the dicotyledonous post-emergent chemicals. Sugar beet is
the most sensitive to the dicotyledonous post-emergent herbicides at the 2-6-leaf stage; it has to be taken
into consideration during the application. To reduce unfavourable stress, so-called divided treatment is
employed. First, one half of the herbicide is applied, the other half comes one week after.
Sugar beet is not sensitive to the monocotyledonous post-emergent herbicides, they can be applied
independently to phenophases.
• Mechanical weed control
The row distance (45 cm) of sugar beet makes inter-row cultivation possible. Depending on the weediness,
one or two inter-row cultivations have to be carried out. In addition to weed clearing, the favourable airing of
the soil is ensured. The first inter-row cultivation of sugar beet can be done from the 4-6-leaf stage (row
protecting discs have to be applied in favour of the protection of the young, undeveloped sugar beets). The
second inter-row cultivations have to be carried out before row closing (beginning of June).
Weeds can remain on the area even in the case of the most careful chemical control and cultivation. Since the
weed suppressing ability of sugar beet is weak, the manual hoeing of the overgrowing, large weeds (weed
hoeing) is recommended to be done in July-August. With this, not only the development of sugar beet is
promoted but also the harvest is eased.
6. Diseases and the protection against them
Sugar beet can be invaded by viral, bacterial and fungal diseases from sowing to harvest.
• Viruses
• Rhizomania virus
2.6. ábra - Figure 8.
A very serious disease of sugar beet, spread by a slime mould living in the soil (Polimyxabetae). As an
effect of the virus, a “bearded” beet is formed developing a vast amount of rootage, instead of the conical
tuber. The virus can keep its vitality for a long time (6-10 years). One can protect against it by the
production of tolerant hybrids or partially by crop rotation.
• other viruses (mosaic virus, yellows virus, etc.)
• Bacteria
• The majority of the bacteria damage the root of sugar beet. These can be the following ones:
• Agrobacterium tumefaciens
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• Xanthomonas beticola
• Erwinia carotevora
• Bacteria damaging the leaves of sugar beet:
• Peudomonas syringae
Bacteria do not cause serious damages in sugar beet, no protection is needed against them.
• Fungi
• Fungi causing root rot (Alternaria , Fusarium , Phoma , Pythium , Rhyzoctonia )
These fungi can cause damages mainly during germination-emergence. Young plants die, thus the stock
will be incomplete and inhomogeneous. One can protect against it by the dressing of the seed and by
providing optimal conditions for emergence.
• Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora beticola)
One of the most important diseases of sugar beet, causing brown-grey spots on the leaves; these dead parts
fall out (the leaf becomes spotted and holey). The disease can emerge from the second half of July until the
end of the vegetation period. Fungicidal stock protection is needed against it; and we also have Cercospora
tolerant hybrids.
2.7. ábra - Figure 9.
• Powdery mildew (Erysiphe betae)
Another pronouncedly dangerous pathogen of sugar beet. It forms white, farinose coverage on the leaves,
decreasing assimilation. The disease endangers the stocks from the beginning of August to the end of
summer. Protection is possible by stock treatment and the use of tolerant hybrids.
2.8. ábra - Figure 10.
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The other fungal diseases emerge in certain cropyears on certain areas to significant extent. Their damages are
less. These fungi are the following:
• Alternaria leaf spot (Alternariaalternata)
• Ramularia leaf spot (Ramulariabeticola)
• Peronospora (Peronosporaschachtii )
• Phoma leaf spot (Phomabetae)
• Beet rust (Uromycesbetae )
The use of the non-chemical methods of integrated protection against diseases is also important.
7. Animal pests and the protection against them
At the beginning of the vegetation periods, animal pests living in the soil threaten the emerging stocks
(wireworms, false wireworms, grubs, etc.). We can protect against them by soil disinfection.
The young sugar beet stocks are threatened by
• the sugar beet flea beetle
• the different weevils (sugar beet weevil, snout beetle, beet leaf weevil-, striped beet weevil, Cleonus pedestris
)
2.9. ábra - Figure 11.
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The sugar beet weevil chews characteristic wholes on the leaves. Weevils which chew down the stocks in days
are especially dangerous (“brush chewing”).
During the later stages of the vegetation period, in the summery months, the following pests can cause damages:
• beet moth
• different aphids.
2.10. ábra - Figure 12.
2.11. ábra - Figure 13.
Especially the damages caused by aphids can be considerable.
During the last third of the vegetation period (from August to harvest), the caterpillars of
• different bollworms (turnip moth, cabbage moth, bright-line brown-eye, silver Y)
threaten the sugar beet stocks. As a consequence of their chewing, the assimilation surface decreases, and the
sugar beet is forced to redevelop leaves, thus the sugar content decreases.
Insecticide protection can be applied against the different insect pests.
Occasionally, the sugar beet wireworm can cause damages too.
8. Irrigation
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Sugar beet is a plant of high water demand. Under the domestic conditions, the irrigation of sugar beet is needed
in the majority of the cropyears. The professional implementation of irrigation is important to avoid yield and
sugar content decrease.
The most important aspects of the irrigation of sugar beet can be summarized as follows:
• We begin irrigation in the second half of June (we can only deviate from this in exceptional cases, e.g.
germinating irrigation). In the case of too early irrigation, the optimal conical shape of sugar beet cannot
develop (it will be globular) and the rootage would not penetrate into adequate depth.
• The irrigation of sugar beet is ended during the second half of August. As an effect of too late irrigation,
digestion decreases (sugar content).
• Sugar beet is sensitive to soil airing, thus always irrigated with little water norms (15-35 mm).
• After the beginning of irrigation, water supplementation has to be constantly provided in the case of dry
weather. Therefore, irrigation has to be carried out with 8-12-day rounds.
• We apply irrigation modes saving the soil structure (the linear irrigators are better than the drum ones).
The irrigation order of sugar beet is the following:
1. irrigation 15-25 mm
2. irrigation 20-30 mm
3. irrigation 25-35 mm
4. irrigation 25-30 mm
5. irrigation 15-20 mm
During the determination of whether irrigation is needed or not, weather and soil conditions have to be taken
into consideration.
Sugar beet is the crop thanking irrigation to the greatest extent. During an average cropyear, its irrigation yield
excess can be 10-15 t/ha, while in a dry one, 20-30 t/ha. In the case of professional irrigation, sugar content will
not decrease or only to a minimal extent.
9. Harvest
The harvest of the large amount of sugar beet crops needs especially organized work from either the farm or the
sugar factory.
The yield and sugar content of sugar beet are constantly increasing during the vegetation period. Both the
harvest (30-50 days) and the processing in the sugar factory (80-100 days) are quite long, thus timing is needed
for the harvest of sugar beet. In the case of sugar beet, two types of maturation stages are distinguished:
• Technical maturation
The sugar content of sugar beet reached the minimum value (~14%) at which processing can begin. Usually,
this happens in the second half of September.
• Biological maturation
The amount of sugar produced in the leaves of sugar beet is identical with the amount of sugar used during
respiration at night. Thus, the sugar amount will not increase further. Biological maturation occurs in the
middle-second half of October.
During the interval between the technical and the biological maturation, the harvest date is determined by the
sugar factory. After biological maturation, the pace of the harvest is determined by the capacity of the harvester
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machines of the factory, thus one has to endeavour to harvest and put sugar beet into stockpiles as quickly as
possible. At this time, rainy weather can come any time, which can increase harvest losses.
The factors determining harvest losses are the following:
• the date of harvest
• the homogeneity of the stock
• soil unevenness
• the wetness of the soil
• the compactness and culture-state of the soil
• the weediness of the stock
• the health status of the stock
• the harvestability of the variety/hybrid by machines
• the type of the harvester machine
• the technical state, settings and operation of the harvester machine
Harvesting consists of the following operations:
• decapitation of beets
• taking the beets out of the soil
• putting the beets on transporters.
The different types of the harvester machines were set in accordance with the number of stages they use for
carrying out the operations. They can be:
• three-stage harvesting machines
• decapitation
• taking out
• putting on vehicles
• two-stage harvesting machines
• two types can be distinguished:
a. First stage – decapitation
Second stage – taking out + putting on vehicles
b. First stage – decapitation + taking out
Second stage – putting on vehicles
• one-stage harvesting machines
carries out every operation in one stage
a. after the beets are taken out, it puts them immediately on the vehicle
b. after the beets are taken out, it collects them in a container then puts them into stockpiles on the edge of
the field
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The harvesting machines can be
• self-propelled
• fixed on a tractor
• pulled
The self-propelled machines are usually of 6 row, while the other two of 1-4 row (rarely of 6 row).
2.12. ábra - Figure 14.
In Hungary, in the 1970s-1980s-1990s, two-stage (decapitation + putting on vehicles, Herrian machines)
harvester machines were used the most frequently. Currently, the one-stage self-propelled machines became
widespread. In terms of work organization, machines with collecting containers are better. The beets are taken
up and put on the transporters from the stockpiles by special loaders.
The harvest of sugar beet has significant losses (6-9%), which can increase to 20-25% under unfavourable
weather and operation conditions.
10. Questions related to the integrated sugar beet
production
1. What are the most important forecrops in sugar beet production?
2. What are the most important principles and elements of tillage in sugar beet production?
3. What are the most important macro-, meso- and micro elements in sugar beet production?
4. What is the optimum fertilizer technology in integrated sugar beet production?
5. What are the most important weeds in sugar beet production? What is the herbicide technology?
6. What are the most important diseases in sugar beet? How can we protect against them?
7. What are the most important pests in sugar beet? How can we protect against them?
8. What is the optimum harvest technology in integrated sugar beet production?
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3. fejezet - Week 3-4. INTEGRATED
POTATO PRODUCTION
1. Origin of potato
Potato is originated from South-America, the primary gene centre is in Chile and Peru. Probably a secondary
introduction occurred in Mexico. The progenitor of the cultivated potato lives on mid to high elevations of the
Andes, at 3000-4000 m above sea level.
It entered Europe in 1570. Potato production started in the end of XVIIIth century in Hungary.
2. Significance of potato
Potato is grown in more than 100 countries in the world. It is essentially a “cool weather crop”, it is grown under
wide range of climatic conditions, mainly temperate, but also subtropical and tropical (high elevations).
Food: Potato is staple food crop in many countries worldwide. The food industry uses potato in several ways.
Industry:
starch production, alcohol production, cosmetics
Pharmaceutical industry:
inactive ingredient in many medicines
3.1. ábra - Figure 15.The main potato producers in the world (2010)
3.2. ábra - Figure 16. The yield of main potato producers (2010)
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3. Taxonomical classification of potato
Kingdom: Plantae – Plants
Phylum: Anthophyta – Flowering Plants
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Order: Solanales
Family:
Solanaceae
Genus: Solanum
Species:
Nightshade family
Potatoes or Nightshades (some 230 wild species)
Solanum tuberosum L.
cultivated potato, “Irish” potato
4. Morphology of potato
Roots
The seminal (real) roots develop only when it is grown from true seeds in breeding. It has fibrous, adventitious
roots in the cultivation. Adventitious roots develop only from sprouts and stem in the soil.
Stem
Potato has stout, branched herbaceous stem. It is 60-100 cm high. It develops stolons, the underground stems
that bear tubers. The tuber is modified stem, it is modified to starch and sugar storage. Tubers can develop only
on stolons. The green parts of plant are poisonous forasmuch they content toxic alkaloids (solanine, chaconine
and others).
Leaf
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Potato plant has odd-pinnate leaves. There are 3-4 pairs ovate leaflets with smaller one in-between. They are
dark green and more or less fleshy.
Flower
The inflorescence is compact racemose. The colour of the flowers varies in wide range: white, pink, blue or
purple, but mostly it is whitish. There are five sepals, five petals and five stamens in the flower. Potato is mainly
cross-pollinated.
Fruit
The fruit is a berry, containing 60-120 seeds. It is globose and smooth, 2-2.5 cm in diameter. The berry contains
high amount of toxic solanine and can be fatal if it was eaten.
5. Nutrition content of potato tubers
Protein:
2.0 %
Carbohydrates:
18 % (most of it is starch)
Oil:
0.1 %
Minerals:
0.5 %
Water:
75-79 %
Vitamins: C, B6, thiamin, riboflavin, folate, niacin
Glycoalkaloid content of potato (mostly solanine, but chaconine, solanidine, demissine, solasonine and others):
normal potato (whole):
12–20 mg/kg
peeled potato:
0.1–5 mg/kg
green tuber:
250–280 mg/kg
green tuber peel:
1500–2200 mg/kg
stolons:
150–270 mg/kg
leaf:
510–520 mg/kg
According to food safety, generally accepted upper limit for glycoalkaloid content of potato is 20 mg per 100 g.
The peel contains 3-10 times more alkaloid than the flesh. The alkaloids can cause serious gastrointestinal
problems and have effects on the nervous system (headache, nausea, fatigue, vomiting, abdominal pain and
diarrhea). Heat treatment (cooking or frying) does not destroy solanine.
6. Development stages of potato
• Dormant period of the tuber
• Germinating, emergence
• Stem and stolon development
• Tuber initiation
• Flowering-tuber formation
• Tuber ripe
• Stem drying
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7. Grouping possibilities of potato
According to gastronomical use:
salad (A)
cooking (B)
frying (C)
industrial or fodder (D)
According to colour of the skin:
white (yellow)
red
blue
purple
According to food industry:
pommes-frites (>55 mm)
chips (41-55 mm)
purée (<40 mm)
3.3. ábra - Figure 17. The leaf of the potato plant
3.4. ábra - Figure 18. The flowers of potato
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3.5. ábra - Figure 19. Potato in flowering
3.6. ábra - Figure 20. Tubers of Rioja (Százszorszép) potato variety
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8. Features expected from varieties
• Yield
• Tuber size
• Tuber form
• Marketability
• Food quality
• Tolerance against physiological disorders
• Disease resistance
• Storability
• Resistance to mechanical injury
• Nutrient content
• Cooking features
9. Climatic conditions
Potato prefers cool climate. The favourable average temperature of the summer months is between 15-21 °C.
For germination of the tubers it requires minimum 6-8 °C soil temperature. Potato is sensitive to frosts, below 0
°C temperatures cause damage of shoots. Tuber formation halts when soil temperature exceeds 26 °C. Above 25
°C temperatures cause fertility problems in flowering period (It is important to breeders only.).
In the tropical areas it is grown at 1500-3000 m elevations.
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HU: 1300-1500 °C
Water demand: 400-500 (600) mm, in June-July: 300-350 mm. Potato prefers soil water content about 60-70 %
of the available water capacity (AWC). It requires good aeration of the soil.
10. Soil conditions
Potato prefers lightly acidic soils which have good physical structure, good water balance and good nutrient
supplying ability.
Good soils for potato production:
• chernozem
• good quality brown forest soils
• alluvial and meadow soils
• better sandy soils (humus content above 1.5 %)
Not suitable soils:
• soils in bad culture state
• very heavy alluvial and meadow soils and heavy soils in general
• eroded and thin layer soils
• sodic soils
• soils with pH higher than 7.5
11. Crop rotation
It is essential to leave 4 years between potato crops on same field. Two years skip should be left after crops
belong to the Solanaceae family (tomato, tobacco, pepper, eggplant).
Good forecrops: cereals (winter wheat, winter barley, triticale, rye), pulses (lupins, fababean, bean), rapeseed,
linseed, oil radish
Moderate forecrops: maize, sunflower
Bad forecrops: sugarbeet, sudangrass, sorghums and every crop with high water use
12. Soil preparation
Early forecrop, with low plant residues:
• Stubble stripping + closing (6-10 cm) (cultivator + ring-shaped roll) save moisture content in the soil
• Stubble maintenance + closing (10-12 cm)
• Primary tillage (ploughing (30-35 cm deep) or loosening (50 cm deep)+ ploughing (18-20 cm deep))
• Integrated preparation
• Seedbed preparation (combinators, seedbed conditioners, germinators, etc.)
Late harvested forecrop, with many residues:
• Stubble chopping
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• Heavy disk tillage
• Ploughing (30-35 cm deep)
• Integrated preparation
• Seedbed preparation (combinators, seedbed conditioners, germinators, etc.)
13. Nutrient supply
Potato gives high yield when there are adequate amount of readily available nutrients in its root zone in the
whole growing season. Due to its adventitious root system, potato has relatively weak water and nutrient uptake
ability. Nitrogen requirements increase rapidly with potatoes plants growth.
It has high potassium demand, because potassium plays important role in the carbohydrate metabolism
processes. The potassium also has effects on the water use of the potato and its susceptibility to diseases.
Potassium should be applied as K2SO4 form instead of KCl, due to potato is sensitive to the chlorine content of
the soil.
From micronutrients especially the copper, molybdenum, boron and zinc supplying is important for the potato.
Applying 20-35 t/ha animal manure before potato is beneficial.
Specific nutrient demand of potato
Potato plant removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg yield +
stem:
N:
0.45 – 0.50
P2O5 : 0.20 – 0.23
K2O:
0.80 – 1.00
CaO: 0.3
Recommended fertilizer doses (kg/ha):
Nutrients
Commercial potato
N
150-160
P2O5
70-80
K 2O
170-180
Irrigated
170-200
Seed
120-140
80-100
200-240
100-110
200-220
14. Planting of potato
3.1. táblázat - Table 4. Planting data of potato
Planting time:
commercial
30 March-20 April
25 March-10 April
seed
Row spacing:
75 cm
Depth:
2-4 cm (below the original soil surface)
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Planting rate:
45-55 thousand tubers/ha
commercial
60-75 thousand tubers/ha
seed
Seed tuber size:
2.5-6 cm
Seed mass (tuber):
2.5-3.0 t/ha
Hilling
• primary hilling (earthing up): 10-12 cm high (planting machine)
• secondary hilling: 30-35 cm high (potato hiller)
Benefits of hilling
Hilling decreases the risk of foliar diseases, because it lifts the foliage from the soil surface. Developing tubers
have enough space to grow and they can develop freely in the loose soil of the hill. Potato plants form more and
better quality tubers. Harvesting will be easier and there will be less dirt in the harvested yield.
15. Irrigation of potato
Potato is a very moisture sensitive crop. Its active root zone is shallow, the roots penetrate only 90 cm deep into
the soil. About 90 % of the root activity takes place in the top 60 cm depth of the soil.
Continuous availability of moisture in the root zone is crucial for high yields. The soil moisture should maintain
in the root zone above 65 % of the available soil water (ASW) capacity of the soil.
The water use of potato is the highest in tuber formation and flowering period, usually from middle of May to
end of August. Potato prefers frequent, light irrigation, 20-30 mm water at once. Optimum water content of the
soil is 70-80 % of available soil water (ASW) capacity. On irrigated field higher plant density can be used (1015 % higher). Usually the yield quality will be better in irrigated potato.
16. Diseases of potato
Viral diseases
At least 38 virus diseases can infect potato plant. They are more important in potato than usually in other crops.
There are two groups, persistent viruses, and non-persistent viruses.
• persistent viruses (PLRV) have to pass through the digestive system of the aphid and once the virus has been
acquired, an aphid remains infective for life.
• non-persistent viruses (PVY, PVA, PVV, PVS) reside in the epidermal cells of plants, and are carried on the
aphid mouthparts, so can be passed on to another plant within a few seconds' probing.
Potato virus Y (PVY): Symptoms include mosaics, leaf mottling and deformations, necrotic spots, stunting.
Infected shoots often prematurely die. PVY is transmitted from infected plants to healthy plants by many
different species of aphids. It causes serious yield loss in sensitive varieties. It is a non-persistent virus.
Potato virus A (PVA): Symptoms are severe mosaics, alternating light and dark green zones on the leaves of
the potato. It is a non-persistent virus. There are tolerant potato species.
Potato virus X (PVX): Causes light mosaic patterns, chlorosis and reduced leaf size. There are few symptoms,
but yield loss about 15 % in sensitive varieties. PVX is primarily mechanically transmitted, for example, by
plant to plant contact or machinery contact.
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Potato virus S (PVS): Inconspicuous mosaics appear on the leaves, therefore it is very difficult to detect. PVS
can cause yield loss up to 20%. It is non-persistently transmitted by aphids.
Potato virus M (PVM): It is less significant than PVY or PVS. The symptom is also appearing mosaics on the
leaves. It is transmitted by aphids and mechanical contact or infected tubers.
Potato leaf roll virus (PLRV): Far the most dangerous virus disease of the potato. Main symptoms are rolling
and yellowing of upper leaves. Tubers show net necrosis. It is a persistent virus. Yield losses in infected field
may exceed 50 %. It may impact potato crops throughout the world.
Bacterial diseases
Common scab (Streptomyces scabies): Common scab produces patches of corky tissue (lesions) on the surface
of tubers. There are less susceptible potato varieties.
Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas (Ralstonia) solanacearum):Symptoms are wilting of the leaves and rapid dying.
Early symptom in the tuber appears as a brown discolouration of the vascular ring. The pathogen bacterium is a
soil-borne organism primarily inhabiting in the roots. It is quarantine pathogen in many countries, due to its very
destructive characteristics.
Potato blackleg (Erwinia carotovora): The stems turn brown or black 10 cm above and below soil level. The
infected plants wilt and die soon. Stored potato can also be infected resulted in a rapid soft rot or brown dry rot
depending on subsequent storage conditions. Rotting can spread in store by tuber to tuber contact.
Fungal diseases
Stem canker and black scurf (Rhizoctonia solani): It is a widespread disease, but it causes economically
significant damage only in cool, wet soils. The infection of this soil-born fungus causes damage by reducing the
tuber production of stolons. Tubers also can be affected causing black patches on the tuber surface, called black
scurf.
Gangrene (Phoma foveata): Gangrene is an important storage disease of potato. Early symptom is dark
depressions on the surface of the tubers, later rots the surface and flesh of tubers.
Potato blight (Phytophthora infestans):This diseasecan cause both foliar and tuber infections. Dark blotches
develop on the leaves, the entire foliage can quickly die. Spreads rapidly, infected tubers may rot in the ground.
Early blight (Alternaria solani): Symptoms are dry, brown spots and concentric rings causing "bulls-eye"
pattern on the leaves.
Black dot (Colletotrichum coccodes): Above ground symptom is the disorder of the vascular system causing
wilt of the plant. Below ground it can cause severe rotting of roots, shoots and stolons, leading to early plant
decline. Dark brown to grey blemish appears on the potato’s surface. Severe infection results in significantly
reduced yields.
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium spp.):Fusarium wilt or dry rot is one of the most important diseases of potato,
affecting tubers in storage and seed pieces after planting. Developing sprouts of the infected plants die. Crop
losses can be up to 25%.
Control of diseases:
• crop rotation
• plow under crop residues
• grow resistant/tolerant varieties
• pathogen-free seed tubers
• many virus diseases are transmitted by aphids so control of virus diseases is controlling the aphids (and other
vectors)
• reducing mechanical injuries
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• foliar fungicide
17. Physiological disorders of potato
• Black heart: It is caused by oxygen deficiency in the internal tissue of the tubers.
• Hollow heart (brown center):It is caused by very quick tuber enlargement in sensitive varieties, usually
varieties with very large tubers.
• Jelly end: It is caused by some carbohydrate translocation due to second growth of the tubers.
• Swollen lenticels: The gas exchange openings (lenticels) swell due to long time excess water in the soil.
3.7. ábra - Figure 21.
18. Pests of potato
Nematodes (Globodera, spp, Meloidogyne spp, Pratylenchus spp.): These soil-borne pests damage the roots of
the potato. Affected roots progressively die. Plant develops new roots, but the result is yield decreasing.
Wireworms (click beetles) (Elateridae): Wireworms are the larvae of click beetle species. They feed on roots of
many plant species and can severely damage seed pieces and tubers of potato.
White grubs (Melolontha spp.): White grubs attack the roots of many cultivated crops. In addition to damaging
roots and stolons of potato, they feed on tubers, leaving large shallow circular holes in them.
Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata): Probably Colorado potato beetle is the most important
insect pest of the potato. The larvae and also the adults feed on the leaves and terminal stem of potato. They can
cause severe damage and significant yield loss by defoliation of potato plants. Adult beetles are able to fly big
distances (several kilometers) to find a new potato field. It is noticeable that the beetle has ability to develop
resistance to chemicals that is used to control it.
Flea beetles (Psylliodes spp.): They are tiny beetles which can jump. They feed small holes in the leaves,
causing loss in the assimilation area. They are mainly early season pests.
Aphids (Aphis spp.): They live in colonies on the leaf of the potato. They cause mottling of the foliage and
distorted growth. They also transmit dangerous virus infections.
Potato moth (Phthorimaea operculella): It is a small grey moth but is a serious pest of potato that could be very
destructive in some potato production areas. The larvae mine in the leaves, stems, berries and bore in the tubers.
The damage allows entry of pathogen organisms.
Control of pests:
• crop rotation
• soil treatment
• foliar insecticide spray
• plow under crop residues
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PRODUCTION
19. Weeds and weed control
Weeds can reduce yields through direct competition for light, moisture, and nutrients, or by harboring insects
and diseases that attack potatoes. Pre-emergent or post-emergent herbicides are suitable to control weeds on
potato fields.
Most dangerous weeds on potato fields:
Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli)
Foxtail species (Setaria spp.)
Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus)
White goosefoot (Chenopodium album)
Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia)
Couch grass (Agropyron repens)
Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense)
Common reed (Phragmites communis)
Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense)
Field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis)
20. Harvesting
It is important to allow tubers to establish a good skin set before harvesting. Avoid harvesting tubers from very
wet or poorly drained field areas.
Harvesting begins from June in case of new potatoes and from end of August-September in case of mature
potatoes. Special potato harvesters can be used to harvest potatoes.
When potato is mature, the stem and the foliage are drying down. The foliage should be removed before
harvesting (mechanically or chemically). This also reduces the spread of infections.
Take care not to wound or damage tubers during the harvest. Identify and discard any infected potatoes during
harvest and before storage. Below 8°C soil temperature the injury of tubers could be very high.
Harvested tubers are stored in special potato storage facilities. Short-term storage can be at 7-10 °C temperature.
Dormant period of potato tubers last for three to five months after harvest at low temperature. Safe long-term
storage of potatoes is possible only at 4 - 4.5 °C environment. In professional warehouses potatoes can be stored
for 10-12 month.
At temperatures below 4 °C the starch content of the tubers begins to convert into sugar.
Phases of storage
• drying period (high level ventilation)
• healing wounds (85-95 % relative air humidity, 13-15 °C, 10-14 days)
• cooling (down to 4 °C, 0.5 °C/day)
• holding
• reconditioning (slow warming before manipulating)
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Week 3-4. INTEGRATED POTATO
PRODUCTION
21. Questions related to the integrated potato
production
1. Where does the potato origin from?
2. Explain the morphology of the potato plant!
3. What plant family does the potato belong to?
4. What climatic conditions prefer the potato?
5. Compare the planting data of seed and commercial potato!
6. What are the most dangerous diseases of potato?
7. Explain the irrigation of the potato!
8. What are the conditions of the safe storage of potato?
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4. fejezet - Week 5. PRODUCTION OF
OTHER ROOT-TUBER CROPS
(CASSAVA, JERUSALEM
ARTICHOKE)
4.1. ábra - Figure 22. World Production of Root and Tuber Crops (1000 t) (2010,
FAOSTAT)
4.2. ábra - Figure 23. The main cassava producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database,
2010)
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4.3. ábra - Figure 24. The yield of main cassava producers (FAOSTAT Database, 2010)
1. Origin of cassava
Cassava is originated from South America (Brazil, Paraguay, Venezuela and Mexico), no wild forms is being
known. It was domesticated probably in Brazil 10,000 years BC.
2. Taxonomical classification of cassava
Kingdom: Plantae – Plants
Phylum: Anthophyta – Flowering Plants
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Subkingdom: Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Family:
Euphorbiaceae
Genus: Manihot
Spurge family
Cassava
Manihot esculenta Crantz
cassava, manioc, mandioca, yuca, tapioca
4.4. ábra - Figure 25. Cassava
3. Uses of cassava
Food
staple food on tropics (the enlarged roots)
Livestock feedstock
dried cassava
Industry
cassava starch
cosmetics
adhesives
alcohol (Belgian gin)
4. Morphology of cassava
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Cassava is a shrubby, 1-4 m high plant. It is a short-lived perennial. Its roots thicken and form great tubers in the
soil. There are 5-10 tubers below a plant, they are 15-100 cm long and 3-15 cm wide. Cassava has deeply lobed,
dark green leaves. Flowers are unisexual, red or yellow in colour. It is propagated vegetatively (sprouts or stem
cuttings).
4.1. táblázat - Table 5. Nutrient content of cassava fresh tubers
Protein:
1.5-3.5 %
Carbohydrates:
85-95 %
Fat:
0.7 %
Minerals:
1.5-2.0 %
linamarin glycoside! (hydrocyanic acid source)
Cassava tubers contain cyanogenic glucosides, linamarin and lotaustralin. They are converted to HCN in the
presence of linamarase enzyme, naturally occurring in cassava. All plant parts contain glucosides with the leaves
having the highest concentrations. In the roots, the peel has a higher concentration than the interior.
Cassava was categorized as sweet or bitter, signifying the toxic levels of cyanogenic glucosides. Sweet cultivars
can produce as little as 20 mg/kg HCN of fresh roots, while bitter ones more than 1000 mg/kg.
5. Climatic conditions
Cassava is a lowland tropical crop. It requires warm climatic conditions. Its optimum growing temperature is
between 25-29 °C. It can tolerate periods of drought if those do not last long. The required annual rainfall is
from 500 to 1500 mm.
6. Soil conditions
Good soils:
wide range of soils is suitable, if the pH is between 5-9
best soils are: sandy soils, sandy-loam soils with good nutrient supply, red soils
Not suitable soils:
saline soils, water-logged soils, stony, shallow-layer soils, heavy clay soils
7. Nutrient supply of cassava
Cassava can grow well in poor and degraded soils, due to its very efficient nutrient and water absorption ability.
There are regions in the world, where most cassava is cultivated with little or no fertilizer inputs. In spite of this,
cassava yields much better on fertilized fields. A balanced nutrient supply is important for high and good quality
yields. High yielded varieties have higher nutrient demand.
Specific nutrient demand of cassava
Cassava removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg yield:
N:
0.45 (kg/100kg)
P2O5 :
0.083 (kg/100kg)
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K2O:
0.66 (kg/100kg)
Recommended fertilizer doses for cassava production
N:
30-80 (kg/ha)
P2O5 :
15-50 (kg/ha)
K2O:
40-90 (kg/ha)
8. Planting of cassava
Cassava is propagated vegetatively. It is planted using 7-30 cm long stem cuttings. Healthy, disease-free and
pest-free cuttings are essential to success. Cuttings are planted by hand in the prepared soil, burying the lower
half. The polarity of the cuttings is important.
Plant spacing: 0.8-1 m x 1 m. Plant density: 10 000-15 000 plant/ha.
9. Diseases of cassava
Cassava common mosaic virus(CsCMV): CsCMV is a viral disease of cassava. Symptoms are characteristic
mosaic patterns and chlorosis on the leaves of infected plants. Distortion and reduced leaf size also may occur in
severe infection. It spreads by insect vectors; the main vector of the virus is the whitefly (Bemisia tabaci).
Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis): This bacterial disease can cause leaf spots, wilt,
shoot die- back, gumming and vascular necrosis. It is a very dangerous disease of cassava. The yield loss can be
up to 90 % in case of severe infections.
Cassava ash (Oidium manihotis): It can be identified by the presence of yellowish leaf spots. Usually it has
minor economic importance.
Brown leaf spot (Cercosporidium (Cercospora) henningsii): Symptom is appearing small brown spots with
dark borders on the leaf. There are several cercospora-like fungi can infect cassava causing some degree of
different symptoms.
Diplodia stem and root rot (Diplodia manihoti): The first symptom of this fungal disease is the root rot. Later
the systemic infection cause rotting of stem. In the cut stem the necrosis of the vascular system can be seen.
Infected plants die suddenly. It can cause considerable damage and yield loss on cassava fields.
Ring leaf spot (Phyllosticta manihotae (Phomopsis manihotis)): Symptoms are large water-soaked spots on the
leaves. The first light green spots turn to brown later. Severe infection causes defoliation and dieback. The yield
loss can be serious.
Superelongation disease (Sphaceloma manihoticola): White spots appear on the leaves, young leaves will be
distorted, curled and remain small. Young shoots become elongated. It can cause severe yield loss.
Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora spp.): A group of Phytophthora fungi can cause root rot of cassava, in
consequence the plant suddenly wilts and dies.
Fusarium root rot (Fusarium oxysporum): This soil-borne disease can infect plants in every developing stage,
but causes severe damage in young plants usually. The infected roots rot, the plant wilt suddenly and die.
Control:
• plant pathogen-free cuttings or tubers
• crop rotation
• control virus vectors
• foliar fungicide
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10. Pests of cassava
Cassava white scale (Aonidomytilus albus): It attacks the stems of the cassava plant in the field and also the
stored planting material. Planting infected stem cuttings results in poor establishment of the crop. White scale
prefers dry, warm weather. Chemical control of white scale pests is not easy, because the protective waxy
scales.
Variegated grasshopper (Zonocerus variegatus): They are green with yellow, black, white and orange
markings. They can appear in large numbers on cassava fields. The grasshoppers feed on cassava leaves and
young stems. They can cause complete defoliation. The damage can be severe.
Aphids (Aphis spp.): Rapidly spreading aphid colonies can cause leaf and shoot distortion on cassava plants.
They suck the plant’s sap and weaken it. They are also virus vectors.
Cassava hornworm (Erinnyis ello): It is a Sphingidae moth. The caterpillars can cause rapid complete
defoliation of cassava plants. The serious yield loss is uncommon, but in young stage plantation the damage can
be significant.
White fly (Bemisia tabaci): It is sucking pest. The adults and nymphs may occur on the under surfaces of young
leaves in large number, causing serious damage. It transmits Cassava common mosaic virus.
Cassava root scale (Stictococcus vayssierrei): It attacks cassava only in Central Africa. It lives underground on
the roots mainly on swollen storage roots. The result is small and distorted tubers (storage roots).
Green spider mite (Mononychellus tanajoae): Green mites suck sap from the leaves. This feeding habit results
in chlorotic patches on cassava leaves. (The patches are very similar to cassava mosaic disease.) Attacked young
leaves and shoots remain small and narrow. The damage is more severe in the dry than in the wet season.
Rats, mice, squirrels (Thryonomys sp., Cricetomys sp. etc.): These rodents can cause severe damage to cassava
plants. They chew the stems and the storage roots.
Control:
• plant pest-free cuttings or tubers
• crop rotation
• soil treatment
• biological control
• foliar pesticide
11. Weed control of cassava
Mechanical weed control methods are slashing or hoe weeding, but they are very labour intensive processes.
Proper soil tillage helps a lot in the weed control. Mulching also can reduce weed problem significantly.
The competitive ability of the cassava varieties is different. Growing varieties with early, low, and much
branching habit helps eliminating the weeds. There is a possibility to use fallow plant as “live mulch” on land
for planting cassava. We can also use cover crops on seedbed before cassava planting for the reason of weed
control.
12. Harvesting of cassava
Roots can be harvested at any time of the year. Food quality of roots is optimal 12-15 months after planting.
Harvesting cassava roots is usually done by hand.
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Cassava is usually processed immediately after it is taken from the ground because it is highly
perishable. Spoiling starts within 48 to 72 hours after harvest. Young leaves and shoots of cassava are also can
be harvested to be consumed as vegetables.
13. Jerusalem artichoke
Origin of Jerusalem artichoke
Jerusalem artichoke had its origin in North America, the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys. It was first grown
by Native Americans. It was introduced to Europe in 1612.
4.5. ábra - Figure 26. Helianthus tuberosus L.
14. Taxonomical classification of Jerusalem artichoke
Kingdom: Plantae – Plants
Phylum: Anthophyta – Flowering Plants
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Family:
Asteraceae
Genus: Helianthus
Aster family
Sunflowers (>50 species)
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Helianthus tuberosus L.
Jerusalem artichoke (perennial), sunchoke, sunflower artichoke,
sunroot
Helianthus annuus L.
Sunflower (annual)
15. Uses of Jerusalem artichoke
• Food
It is used as food in many ways.
It can be used as substitute for potatoes.
• Livestock feed
Tubers.
Silage (the whole plant above ground).
• Industry
Dietary fiber.
Spirits.
Fructose production.
16. Morphology of Jerusalem artichoke
Jerusalem artichoke is a herbaceous perennial plant. It is usually 1.5-3 m high. It develops rhizomes in the soil.
The swollen rhizomes, the tubers are 7-10 cm long, 3-5 cm wide. The leaves are simple, rough and hairy. The
flower heads are yellow, sunflower-like. Jerusalem artichoke is a cross-pollinated plant. It rarely produces seeds.
The achenes are black.
4.2. táblázat - Table 6. Nutrient content of Jerusalem artichoke fresh tubers
Protein:
10-12 %
Carbohydrates:
75-80 % (inulin)
Fat:
2.5-3.5
Minerals:
5-7 %
17. Climatic conditions of Jerusalem artichoke
Jerusalem artichoke requires a growing season of at least 125 frost-free days. It is hardy to -20 - -25 °C
temperatures. It prefers sunny, dry conditions and has high drought tolerance. The leaves wilt in drought, but
they readily recover after rainfall.
18. Soil conditions
Jerusalem artichoke adapts well to a wide range of soil types.
Good soils:
sandy soils, slightly alkaline soils
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Not suitable soils:
very acidic soils, water-logged soils, heavy clay soils
19. Nutrient supply of Jerusalem artichoke
Jerusalem artichoke removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg
tuber yield + stem:
Specific nutrient demand
N:
0.40
(kg/100 kg)
P2O5 :
0.13
(kg/100 kg)
K2O:
0.80
(kg/100 kg)
Recommended fertilizer doses
N:
P2O5 :
K2O:
100-120 (kg/ha)
80-100 (kg/ha)
150-200 (kg/ha)
20. Planting of Jerusalem artichoke
Jerusalem artichoke is propagated by seedstock tubers, which have at least 2-3 buds to germinate. There are few
varieties in the world. Seeds are used only in breeding process. It is difficult to remove all of the tubers during
harvest, therefore additional planting may not be necessary in the second year.
Plant spacing: 70-90 cm x 40-50 cm
Planting depth: 6-8 cm
Plant density: 25 000-35 000 plants/ha
Planting rate: 500-2 500 kg/ha tubers
Tubers overwinter and volunteer Jerusalem artichokes become a weed in the following crop. It can remain in the
ground for years and can be a problem if not managed properly.
21. Diseases of Jerusalem artichoke
Jerusalem artichoke is a very healthy plant. Only few diseases can infect it and they rarely cause serious
damage.
White mold (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum):
Rust (Puccinia helianthi): The symptom is appearing small brown pustules on the leaves. Seriously affected
leaves can dry down. In case of severe infection the tuber yield loss can be significant, up to 20-30 %.
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichoracearum): White, powdery cover appears on the leaves, first in patches, later
it can spread on the whole surface of the leaves. On Jerusalem artichoke fields the infection usually sporadic and
remains insignificant.
Southern blight (Sclerotium rolfsii): White profuse mycelium mass appears at the base of the stem. The inner
tissue of the stem dies. The plant mortality rate is high. It can cause high plant and in consequence yield losses
when Jerusalem artichoke is grown on same field repeatedly for two or more years.
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Control:
• plant pathogen-free tubers
• crop rotation
• control virus vectors
• foliar fungicide
22. Pests of Jerusalem artichoke
Pests rarely cause severe damages in Jerusalem artichoke crop.
Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.): These soil-borne pests cause damage in the roots and tubers.
Aphids (Aphis spp.): They feed on leaves and young shoots sucking the plant sap. Severe damage rarely occurs
on Jerusalem artichoke fields.
Cutworms (Mamestra sp., Heliothis sp.): The caterpillars called cutworms feed on young shoots of the plant
after emerging. They cut and eat the soft young stem at the base or just below the ground surface.
Rodents (Microtus arvalis, Arvicola sp.): Rodents readily feed on tubers of Jerusalem artichoke, causing yield
loss. They can also damage the tubers during the storage. Applying anticoagulants in the storing facility solves
the problem.
Control:
• plant pest-free tubers
• crop rotation
• soil treatment
• biological control
• foliar pesticide
23. Weed control of Jerusalem artichoke
Mechanical:
• Jerusalem artichoke is extremely vigorous crop and will compete strongly with weeds, if it has adequate water
in the soil to establish.
• Early season cultivation is recommended to reduce emerging weeds, with a subsequent tillage operation to
improve hilling of rows.
Chemical:
• There are no herbicides registered for use in Jerusalem artichoke fields.
Volunteer Jerusalem artichokes can be a serious weed problem in the following crop.
24. Harvesting of Jerusalem artichoke
Harvesting is similar to potatoes. Jerusalem artichoke tubers are strongly attached and intertwined with the
roots, therefore separating is not easy. Its tubers are smaller than potatoes, so potato digger must be modified to
decrease the potential 50 % loss.
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Tubers can be harvested in fall or left in the ground for winter storage and spring harvest. Artichoke tubers will
wilt and soften much faster than potato tubers and thus cannot be left at low humidity too long. Harvested tubers
should be stored at 0.5 to 1.5 °C and at very high humidity
Yield: 10-50 t/ha tubers.
25. Questions related to production of other roottuber crops
1. What are the uses of cassava?
2. What are the data of Jerusalem artichoke planting?
3. What are the main diseases of cassava?
4. What are the most dangerous pests of cassava?
5. How can we harvest cassava roots?
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5. fejezet - Week 6. PRODUCTION OF
OTHER SUGAR-CROPS
(SUGARCANE)
1. Origin of sugarcane
Sugarcane species are originated from tropical South and Southeast Asia. It is probably domesticated in New
Guinea around 6,000 B.C. first. There are evidences that it was produced in India around 1,000 B.C.
In the VIIIth century the Arabs introduced it into the Mediterranean, North Africa and Mesopotamia. It reached
America around 1,500 A.D. from the Canary Islands. Now sugarcane is a major export crop for many tropical
countries.
2. Significance of sugarcane
Sugarcane is grown on 23.88 million hectares in the world, the average yield is 71.7 t/ha, the total production is
more than 1 711 million tons (Faostat, 2010). Sugarcane is reported as a renewable, natural agricultural energy
source. It gives 70 per cents of the world’s total sugar production.
3. Uses of sugarcane
• The main purpose of sugarcane growing is to produce sugar. Sugar is usable directly for human consumption
and food industry, or it may be used in further processing.
• The cane-sugar is used to produce ethanol for utilizing in many ways: biofuel (bioethanol) an alternative to
gasoline, industrial alcohol, alcoholic beverages, etc.
• It can be used in fibre, paper and cardboard production.
• Mixed with other ingredients sugarcane bagass can be used as organic fertilizer .
• The by-products of sugar industry, the bagass and molasses.
• Leftover sugarcane biomass can be burned and converted into electricity.
• Molasses can be fermented to make rum. Sugarcane was first used to make rum in the West Indies.
• Sugarcane can be used to produce bioplastics (beverage bottles, food containers, packagings, etc.).
5.1. ábra - Figure 27. The main sugarcane producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database,
2010)
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5.2. ábra - Figure 28. The yield of main sugarcane producers in the world (FAOSTAT
Database, 2010)
4. Taxonomical classification of sugarcane
Kingdom: Plantae - Plants
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta - Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta - Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants
Class: Liliopsida - Monocotyledons
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Subclass: Commelinidae
Order: Cyperales
Family:
Poaceae
Genus:
Saccharum
Grass
Sugarcane
Saccharum barberi Jesw.
wild sugarcane (India)
S. officinarum L.
noble sugarcane (New Guinea)
S. edule
vegetable cane (New Guinea)
S. robustrum Br.
robust cane (New Guinea)
5.3. ábra - Figure 29.
5. Morphology of sugarcane
Roots
Sugarcane is vegetatively propagated. As it belongs to the Grass family (Poaceae) it has a fibrous root system. It
has sett roots and shoot roots. The roots can penetrate deep in the soil, the rooting zone can be found in the 30800 cm layer of the soil.
Stem
It is a herbaceous, perennial grass, belongs to C4 type plants. The talks are 300-400 (600) cm high and up to 5
cm in diameter. The stem covered by wax layer. There are joints consists of one node, one internode. Sugarcane
develops 5-50 tillers (secondary shoots).
Leaves
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The leaf consists of sheath and blade. The blade is 100-150 cm long and 10 cm wide, gently curved. It is
pubescent.
Flower
The inflorescence is a 60 cm long panicle, often called ”arrow”. The spikelets are 3 mm long, bear long silky
hairs. The plant is harvested before the inflorescence appears.
Fruit
The fruit is dry caryopsis. There is one grain in a spikelet. 1000 grain mass: 4 g.
Growth stages of sugarcane
• germination and establishment
• tillering
• grand growth period
• ripening
6. Soil conditions of sugarcane
Best soils for sugarcane production are the fertile, deep layer soils that are well supplied with minerals and
organic matter. Free draining and good nutrient supplying ability are important. The soil could be light (but not
sandy) or heavy.
5.1. táblázat - Table 7. Criteria to classify the aptitude of soils for growing sugarcane
Characteristics
Class
Good
Average
Restricted
Unfit
Effective depth
Deep
Medium
Shallow
Too shallow
Soil texture
Clayey
Medium to clayey
Sandy
Too sandy
Relief
Flat
Rolling
Too rolling
Hilly
Fertility
High
Medium or low
Too low
Too low
Drainage
Good
Medium
accentuated
to Incomplete
Excessive
deficient
or incomplete
Restraints to
Absent
Medium
Strong
Too strong
Low
Medium
High
Too high
mechanization
Susceptibility
to erosion
Source: Kofeler and Bonzelli (1987)
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7. Climatic conditions
Due to its tropical origin, sugarcane prefers warm, wet climate. The optimum temperature is 32mean temperature should not fall below 21 °C. Light freezes (-3°C) kill the leaf tissue and stop sugar
accumulation. Sugarcane requires minimum 1500 mm rain in the growing season. Short dry period before
harvesting supports sucrose accumulation. It is a short day plant.
8. Crop rotation
Most sugarcane in the world is grown in monocropping system. It is grown for 2 to 5 years continuously, and
then new crop of sugarcane is planted.
Fallow should be left for 6-12 month before replanting sugarcane.
9. Nutrient supply
Recommended fertilizer doses
N:
40 – 220 (kg/ha)
P2O5 : 125 – 500 (kg/ha)
K2O:
60 – 375 (kg/ha)
N-fixation: Glucoacetobacter diazotrophicus bacteria live in the intercellular spaces of the stem of sugarcane.
These bacteria can fix aerial nitrogen and convert it into nitrites or nitrates, similar as the Rhizobium bacteria do
living on the roots of legumes.
10. Propagation and planting of sugarcane
Sugarcane is propagated from stem cuttings (setts). Cuttings are cut from the upper two-thirds of 8-12 month old
cane. They are 20-30 cm long, and have root primordia and buds. It is very important to select disease free
cuttings for propagation.
Planting
Cuttings are placed horizontally in the previously opened furrows. Soil covering should not exceed 2.5-5.0 cm.
When seed-cane is planted, each bud may form a primary shoot. Sugarcane is normally replanted in 2 years.
5.2. táblázat - Table 8. Planting data of sugarcane
Planting date:
Grown under diverse agro-climatic conditions in the
world, therefore there is variation in the optimum
planting periods in different countries.
Row spacing:
150-180 cm
Plant spacing:
60 cm
Depth:
2.5-5 cm (from the original soil surface)
Planting rate:
12 500 - 20 000 setts/ha
2200 - 4500 kg/ha
11. Plant care
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Control flowering:
If farmers allow sugarcane crop flowering, the fibre content increases and the sucrose content decreases.
Flowering can be controlled by chemicals or additional nitrogen application.
Earthing Up:
Earthing up is making ridges and furrows to support the plants with soil and avoid the direct contact of water.
The crop should be 5 to 5.5 months old and 2 to 3 internodes are visible.
Detrashing:
Detrashing is the removal of some of the older leaves to avoid attack of insect pests. Removed leaves are used
for cattle feeding or mulching.
12. Diseases of sugarcane
Viral diseases:
Sugarcane Mosaic Virus (ScMV): It causes mosaics on the leaves. There are small chlorotic areas on the leaf
blade from light pale green to yellow in colour. There are resistant varieties and growing them can eliminate the
risk of damage.
Maize Streak Virus (MSV): Elongated chlorotic lesions can be seen on the leaves. It infects the sensitive
cultivars only. This virus is much more difficult to control in sugarcane than it is in maize, because sugarcane is
vegetatively propagated and is a perennial plant.
Sugarcane Yellow Leaf Virus (ScYLV): The main symptom is the yellowing of the leaf midrib on the
underside of the leaf blade. Later the entire leaf becomes yellow. All leaves of the plant can be affected in
yellowing.
Bacterial diseases:
Bacterial gumming disease (Xanthomonas vasculorum): Yellow to orange streaks appear on the leaves. The
streaks become necrotic and grey with age. The bacterium can also infect the stem under favourable conditions.
In this case the vascular bundles has reddish discolouration. In susceptible cultivars it can cause economically
significant losses.
Bacterial leaf scald (Xanthomonas albilineans): It diseases the vascular system of the plant. The main symptom
is the characteristic white, pencil-like streak on the leaf parallel to the veins. Infected shoots wilt and are stunted.
It has economic importance only in susceptible varieties.
Fungal diseases:
Red rot (Colletotrichum falcatum): The symptom is red rot that can occur on every part of the plant. Infected
stalks break down. The vascular system turns to red. In case the infection of setts, the entire tissue of setts
becomes rotted. It can cause serious yield loss. There are resistant varieties to control this disease.
Pokkah boeng (Fusarium moniliforme): Symptoms are chlorosis, lesions, distorted, wrinkled leaves and brown
discolouration in stem’s tissue, especially in the vascular system. In the most advantaged stage the entire top of
the plant dies. It can cause serious yield loss.
Pineapple disease (Thielaviopsis paradoxa): This fungal disease occurs in all countries where sugarcane is
grown. It is named after the scent of the rotted seed pieces that reminiscent of ripe pineapple’s scent. The
internal tissue of the setts turns red and later black. The disease severely can reduce germination. Planting under
such conditions that favor to rapid germination can be an effective control method.
Eye spot (Helminthosporium (Bipolaris) sacchari, H. maydis): Symptom is presence of reddish-brown elliptical
lesions with yellowish-brown margins on the leaves. The disease can cause severe yield loss in susceptible
varieties (up to 30 %). There are resistant varieties. Chemical control is not effective.
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Downy mildew (Sclerospora sacchari): White streaks and down appear on the surface of the infected leaves.
The whole plant appears pale and stunted. Splitting of the affected leaves also may occur.
Sugarcane smut (Ustilago scitaminea): Characteristic symptom is developing of grey, whip-like structure
instead of the terminal bud of the stalk. Below the silvery membrane there is the black spore mass of the fungus.
Control of sugarcane diseases
Viral diseases:
controlling the aphids
virus-free setts
Bacterial diseases:
crop rotation
tolerant varieties
Fungal diseases:
resistant varieties
pathogen-free setts
crop rotation
foliar fungicid spray
13. Pests of sugarcane
Sugarcane borer (Diatraea saccharalis): It is a very dangerous pest in sugarcane production areas. It is a moth,
the larvae (caterpillars) feed in the stem making tunnels in it. The damage allows pathogen organisms to enter
and infect sugarcane. Only integrated pest management could be effective.
White grubs (Anomala spp, Euphoria spp, Cyclocephala spp.): Grubs damage the roots and underground stems
of sugarcane. Mature larvae are large in size and are the most damaging for sugarcane.
Cane beetle (Dermolepida albohirtum): It native in Australia. The adults feed on the leaves but the larvae
(small white grubs) cause the greater loss. They eat the roots of sugarcane.
Aphids (Aphis spp.): These sucking pests cause mottling of the foliage and distortion of the young shoots. They
propagate abundantly under favourable conditions. They also transmit virus infections.
Stalk borers (Proceras indicus, Chilotraea infuscatella): The larvae (caterpillars) feed on the unopened leaves
and then bore into the stem making long tunnel by feeding on the internal tissue. They cause severe damage in
sugarcane fields in India.
Rodents (mainly rats): They chew the lower internodes causing serious damage in some area. Burrow digging
also damages the roots. Sugarcane provides an undisturbed habitat for their burrowing, feeding and breeding
activities.
Wild pigs (Sus scrofa): Wild pigs can devastate sugarcane fields in some areas causing serious yield loss. It
occurs not only in Eurasia but it was introduced also to Australia, where it utilizes sugarcane fields as habitat.
Control
• biological control with parasites
• foliar spray with insecticide
• anticoagulants (rodents)
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14. Weed control
The weed control is essential in sugarcane cultivation, because:
• The relatively wide row spacing.
• The initial growth of sugarcane is very slow. Complete germination lasts 30 - 45 days and it requires another
60-75 days for developing full canopy cover.
• Sugarcane is grown under abundant water and nutrient supply conditions.
• In ratoon crop very little preparatory tillage is taken up.
• It is a perennial crop therefore weeds can be established well.
Weeds can reduce sugarcane yields by competing for moisture, nutrients, and light during the growing season.
Most dangerous weed species in sugarcane fields:
Purple nut sedge (Cyperus rotundus)
Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense)
Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon)
Milletspecies (Panicum spp.)
Egyptian crowfoot grass (Dactylocternium aegyptium)
Pigweed species (Amaranthus spp.)
Goosefootspecies (Chenopodium spp.)
Common purslane (Portulaca oleracea)
Bengal dayflower (Commelina bengalensis)
Desert horse purslane (Trianthema portulacastrum )
Chemical weed control:
preemergent: immediately after planting
postemergent: after germination
15. Harvesting
Traditionally, the cane has been burnt before harvesting to remove leaves and weeds, now it is harvested
green.The sucrose content is around 12 %.
The first harvest can be (12) - 18 - (24) month after planting. Sugarcane is ripe when the sugar content reaches
its maximum. It can be harvested in every 12 month, for up to 10 years.
Sugarcane can give yield up to 200 t/ha under good conditions. It can be harvested manually or with using
sugarcane harvester. The special harvester removes the leafy tops and cuts the stalk into short pieces and
conveys it to the trailer. Cut cane should be processed within 48 hours in cane mill.
5.4. ábra - Figure 30. Sugarcane harvester with topping
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16. Questions related to the production of other sugar
crops (sugarcane)
1. What is the significance of sugarcane?
2. Explain the climatic conditions of the sugarcane production!
3. What amount of nutrients need the sugarcane?
4. What harvesting methods can be used?
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6. fejezet - Week 7. FIBER CROPS
PRODUCTION IN TEMPERATE
CLIMATE
The main fiber crops in the world:
Cotton:
16-17 million ha
China, India, Pakistan, USA, Uzbegistan
Jute:
2 million ha
Asia
Flax:
600-700 thousand ha
China, Russia, Ukraine, France
Sisal:
350-400 thousand ha
South-America, Africa, Caribbean
Hemp:
60-70 thousand ha
India, Russia
6.1. táblázat - Table 9. Area and yield (fiber) of hemp in the World (FAOSTAT
Database, 1961-2010)
Area (ha)
Yield (t/ha)
Quantity (tons)
1961-1965
425 114
0.62
263 570.7
1966-1970
376 615
0.57
214 670.6
1971-1975
248 232
0.60
148 939.2
1976-1980
188 399
0.72
135 647.3
1981-1985
72 968
0.88
64 211.8
1986-1990
58 802
1.07
62 918.1
1991-1995
66 485
1.14
75 792.9
1996-2000
58 802
1.07
62 918.1
2000-2004
64 799
1.09
70 630.9
2005-2009
49 593
1.59
78 853.5
2010
48 956
1.42
69 517.5
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6.2. táblázat - Table 10. Area and yield (dry stalk) of the hemp in Hungary (HSI and
FAOSTAT)
Area ha
Yield (stem t/ha)
1934-40
11 420
4.66
1951-60
28 917
3.95
1961-70
19 384
5.84
1971-80
9 005
7.33
1981-90
4 716
7.82
1991-95
910
8.89
1996-2000
1 030
8.11
2003
332
5.90
2004
495
7.36
2005
463
8.24 (1.67)
2006-2010
300
FAO estimate
6.1. ábra - Figure 31. Uses of hemp
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1. Taxonomical classification of hemp
Kingdom: Plantae – Plants
Phylum: Anthophyta – Flowering Plants
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Family: Cannabinaceae
Genus: Cannabis
Cannabis sativa L.
Common hemp
Cannabis sativa var. vulgaris
common fiber hemp
Cannabis sativa var. indica Lam.
indian hemp
Cannabis sativa var. indica Lam. subvar. gigantea
Cannabis sativa var. ruderalis Janisch
giant hemp
wild hemp
2. Geographical races of hemp
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• Northern hemp (borealis)
It is low, usually lower than 150 cm.
It has very short growing season (75-90 days).
It gives low yield and medium fiber quality.
It is grown in northern Europe, locally significant.
It was produced in Hungary till XIXth century.
• Middle-Russian hemp (medioruthenica)
It grows between northern latitude 50-60th degree.
Its growing season is relatively short, 90-110 days.
It grows 120-200 cm high.
The leaves consist of 5-9 leaflets.
It gives medium yield and quality, but the seed production can be very high.
It has the greatest production area.
• Southern hemp (australis)
It is grown in Europe southern from the 50th degree of latitude.
The growing season is 110 days for fiber, 140-150 days for seed.
It grows very high; the height of mature plant is between 2.5-5 m.
The leaves consist of 9-11 leaflets.
It gives high yield and good fiber quality.
We produce this type of hemp in Hungary.
• Asian hemp (asiatica)
It is produced in Middle Asia, China, Japan and Korea.
It is usually low (130-300 cm), typically branching, the fiber quality is low.
There is great number of leaflets (9-13) in a leaf.
It has long growing season (150-170 days). Usually it doesn’t produce seed in Hungary.
It is important only for breeding material in Hungary.
It has high THC content (20 %) and it can be used as hashish.
3. Morphology of hemp
Root:
The root system of hemp is not well developed. The roots penetrate 2-2.5 m deep in the soil. Hemp has a weakly
branched stake-like root. Most of the root mass can be found in the upper 20 cm layer of the soil.
Stem
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The stem of hemp is herbaceous, becoming woody in the end of the growing season. It products remarkably
wood mass in the growing season.
In high plant density the stem grows 200-300 cm high and 3-9 mm thick. At low density it is 400-500 cm high
and 20-60 mm thick.
The fibre cells in the phloem fiber bundles are 1-10 cm in length. The quality of fibers is better, the fiber cells
are longer in male hemp. The mass of the leafless stem come to 65-70 % of the total plant mass.
6.2. ábra - Figure 32.
Leaves:
The leaves are digitately (palmately) compound. There are 7-11 leaflets (serrate) in a leaf. Leaves give 24-25 %
of the total plant mass.
Inflorescence:
Hemp is a dioecious plant. The male inflorescence (staminate) is a panicle. The female inflorescence (pistillate)
is a raceme. There are 10-30 thousand male flowers on one plant. Hemp is mainly wind pollinated.
Fruit:
The fruit of the hemp is a one seeded achene. 1000 kernel weight is 17-25 g. It has high oil content (30-33 %)
that is rich (90 %) in essential, multiply unsaturated fatty acids (linolic and linolenic). The protein content is 2025 % and the protein has very good biological value and good amino acid balance.
6.3. ábra - Figure 33. Female inflorescence of hemp
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6.4. ábra - Figure 34. Male inflorescence of hemp
6.5. ábra - Figure 35. Fiber hemp crop
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6.3. táblázat - Table 11. Sexual dimorphism of hemp plant
♂
♀
Ratio in the field
47 %
53 %
Stalk mass
lower (30-40 %)
higher
Growing season
shorter (with 5-6 weeks)
longer
Growing rate
quicker
slower
Habit
higher, thinner
lower, thicker
Quality
better
weaker
4. Developing stages of hemp
• Germination (10-12 days, till first leaves appear)
• Young growing stage (4 weeks, 5th leaf pair appears)
• Great period of growing (5-6 weeks, flower initiation)
• Flower formation (2-3 weeks)
• Flowering (2-3 weeks, first fruits appear)
• small buds stage
• green buds stage
• yellow buds stage
• opened flowers
• Technical ripe: 50 % of male flowers 50 % are opened, 50 % in yellow buds stage
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• Fruit formation (4-5 weeks)
• Ripe
5. Climatic conditions
Hemp prefers warm and wet climate. The germination starts at minimum 1-2 °C temperature, but quick and
even germination will be at 7-9 °C. In cotyledon stage the seedlings can survive -5 °C temperature; later hemp
becomes deliberately susceptible to frost.
Heat Unit:
fiber: 1800-2000 °C
seed:
2500-3000 °C
The water demand is 550 mm. Hemp crop uses high amount water during its growing season. It requires
adequate and even moisture content in its root zone to the rapid growing. The critical periods regarding to water
supply are the flower formation and flowering stages. Droughty weather decreases the yield and worsens the
fiber quality. The transpiration coefficient is 400-500 l/kg.
6. Soil conditions
Fiber hemp requires good quality soils. It is very selective to soils. It is important the good physical structure,
good drainage, the adequate nutrient supplying ability and lack of destructive chemicals.
Suitable soils are:
chernozem, well-drained, fertile loam soils (pH above 6.0, humus content above 2.8%)
Not suitable soils:
sandy soils, heavy soils, heavy meadow soils, saline soils, sodic soils, shallow layered
logged soils
soils, water-
Marshy soils are the best for seed production.
7. Crop rotation
Hemp was grown in monoculture traditionally in Hungary. The best fields beside a village often were called
“hemp field”. Nowadays hemp is grown mainly in rotation. It is very sensitive to residues of the herbicides used
in previous crop.
• Good forecrops: winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley, triticale
• Medium forecrops: maize for silage (herbicide residues!)
early maize (herbicide residues!)
alfalfa
potato, sugar beet, other root crops
hemp
• Bad forecrops: sunflower, rapeseed, sorghums
8. Nutrient supply
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Hemp takes up high amount of nutrients from the soil to produce high yield. It requires readily available
nutrients in the root zone. The nitrogen demand is high especially in the great period of growing development
stage. Adequate potassium supply is important to the high quality fiber production. The fibers will be longer and
smoother with good potassium supply.
Application of animal manure is beneficial if it is available.
Specific nutrient demand:
Hemp removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg stalk yield:
N:
1.5
kg/100 kg
P2O5 : 0.4
kg/100kg
K2O:
kg/100 kg
0.8
Recommended nutrient doses:
N:
P2O5 :
K2O:
120-150
kg/ha
70-100
kg/ha
100-120
kg/ha
9. Soil preparation
Hemp needs periodical deep cultivation. Preparing excellent quality clod-free seedbed is essential to good
germination and to reach the required plant density. To allow better water penetration into the soil is important
to take into consideration during the soil preparation process. Applying water conserving soil preparation
methods is beneficial, due to hemp’s high water demand.
Applying reduced soil preparation in spring is advantageous.
10. Sowing of hemp
The seeds of hemp are small, the 1000 seed mass is 14-20 g only. The seeds lost their germinability quickly. The
good plant density is important also from the point of view of weed control. Hemp should be sown early in
spring, when the soil temperature reaches 8-10 °C in the sowing depth. At this temperature the emergence will
be relatively rapid and even. Late sowing results in significant yield loss.
The optimal row spacing would be very narrow, 7.5 cm, but the available planters have 12 cm row spacing.
The optimal depth is 3-4 cm, but in special cases, for example in dry seedbed it may be 5 cm. From greater
depth only 40-60 % of the seeds can emerge and the plant density will be too low for good yield and good weed
suppression.
The sowing rate for early varieties is 3-3.5 million seed/ha, for late varieties 2-2.5 million/ha.
6.4. táblázat - Table 12. Sowing data of hemp
Sowing time:
20 March – 10 April
Row spacing:
12 cm (optimal would be 7.5 cm)
Depth:
3-4 (5) cm
Sowing rate:
early: 3-3.5 million/ha
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later: 2-2.5 million/ha
1000 kernel mass:
14-20 g
11. Diseases of hemp
Damping off, water mould (Pythium de Baryanum): The fungus attacks hemp in seedling stage. In case of
early infection the seedlings die in the soil, before emergence. Later infection results in damping off after
emergence. It can cause severe damage on heavy, wet, poorly draining soils.
White mould, hemp canker (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum): Symptom is rotting of the stem base, usually at the
ground level. It may occur also on the upper 1/3 of the stalk. Pale, light-brown cankers appear on the infected
stem. Severely infected plants wilt and the stem breaks easily.
Twig blight (Dendrophoma marconii): Infected leaves wilt and dry; the wilted foliage turns brown and dies but
remains on the plant. The diseased plant will die soon.
Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea): Grey mould is a common disease of hemp. The infected stems first show a
chlorotic discolouration in sections, then the stalk inner tissue rots. Affected stalks break.
Downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cannabina): The symptoms of downy mildew are yellow leaf spots of
irregular size, limited by leaf veins. On undersides of the leaves violet-grey mycelial growth can be seen. It can
cause severe, devastating damages on hemp fields.
Rust (Melampsora cannabina): Orange-brown pustules appear on the leaves. Usually it has less economical
significance.
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): The infected leaves (usually lower leaves) wilt suddenly. Later the stem
turn pale green or yellow, the whole plant wilts and dies. On the cross section of the affected stem brown
discolouration of the vascular system can be seen. It can cause severe damage and yield loss.
Control
• rotation with non host crops
• plow under crop residues
• pathogen-free seeds
• seed treatment
• grow resistant/tolerant varieties
• spray with copper compounds or systemic fungicides
12. Pests of hemp
Hemp flea beetle (Psylliodes attenuata): Adult flea beetles usually chew holes on the leaves, but they feed also
on flowers and unripe seeds. Larvae feed on roots of hemp. They could cause serious damage on young
seedlings, especially in late sowed crops. They are warm weather (14-15 °C) pests, damage increases in warm,
dry days.
Hemp moth (Grapholita delinetata): Hemp moth’s caterpillars feed on leaves of hemp in spring, later bore into
the petioles, branches and stalks. Infested stalks may break. Depending on the rate of the infection, the damage
can be very serious.
European corn borer (Pyrausta nubialis): Caterpillars feed on the young leaves, later they bore into the stem
and branches. They can cause wilting and stem break. The damage can be significant, because the yield is the
stalk.
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Hemp aphids (Aphys cannabis): They are tiny soft bodied insects which suck plant sap. They live in colonies
usually on the under side of the leaflets. Aphids cause distorted growth of young shoots and leaves. Seriously
attacked plants remain stunted. They transmit several virus infections.
Control
• plant pest-free seeds
• crop rotation
• soil treatment
• biological control
• foliar pesticide
13. Harvesting of hemp
The stalks have 25-35 % fiber content. Hemp crops reach the technological ripe stage, when 50 % of male
flowers are in yellow buds stage, 50 % of flowers are opened (normally in August).
The steps of the harvest:
• defoliation (Finale)
• mowing, binding the stems in sheaves (20-30 cm Ø) with hemp harvester machine
• cone making (40 sheaves/cone)
• compacting/baling (2 cones/bale, 400 kg/bale)
• loading (front loader) and transport
6.5. táblázat - Table 13. Quality specifications of hemp in Hungary
Class
I.
II.
III.
Industrial length, at least 85% of the stalks, 140
minimum (cm)
100
60
Thickness at least 85% of the stalks, maximum 10
(mm)
12
14
Tolerated defects, maximum (peaces %)
12
25
35
Impurities (leaves, dry-rotted, etc.) (mass%)
3
4
5
14. Questions related to fiber crops production in
temperate climate (hemp)
1. What is the uses of hemp?
2. Explain the climatic conditions of the hemp production!
3. What amount of nutrients need the hemp?
4. What are the data of the hemp sowing?
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7. fejezet - Week 8. FIBER CROPS
PRODUCTION IN TROPICAL
CLIMATE
7.1. ábra - Figure 36. Main fiber crops production in the world (Faostat Database, 2010)
7.2. ábra - Figure 37. The main cotton producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database,
2010)
7.3. ábra - Figure 38. The yield of main cotton producers (FAOSTAT Database, 2010)
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1. Origin of cotton
Cotton species were domesticated independently in different parts of the world (Asia, Africa, and America).
Upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is originated from Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean and southern
Florida. Extra-long staple cotton(Gossypium barbadense) is originated from tropical South America. Tree
cotton(Gossypium arboreum) is originated from India and Pakistan. Levant cotton(Gossypium herbaceum) is
originated southern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula.
2. Taxonomical classification of cotton
Kingdom: Plantae – Plants
Phylum: Anthophyta – Flowering Plants
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Family:
Malvaceae
Genus: Gossypium
Mallows family
Cotton (about 50 species)
Gossypium
cotton
hirsutum
production
Gossypium barbadense
upland
cotton,
90
extra-long staple cotton, 8 % of world
%
of
world
cotton
production
Gossypium arboreum
tree cotton
Gossypium herbaceum
Levant cotton, less than 2 % of world
production
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cotton
Week 8. FIBER CROPS
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CLIMATE
3. Uses of cotton
Fiber
• The major textile fiber of the world
• Cotton lint is spun into thread
• Clothing and fine textiles
• Household textiles
• Industry (bags, belts, hose, twine, awnings)
• Short lint: stuffing material, carpets, batting, wadding
Seed
• Animal feed (seed and extracted meal)
• Cottonseed oil
4. Morphology of cotton
Roots:
Cotton develops long taproot. The roots usually penetrate 180 – 200 cm deep in the soil, but under dry
conditions 300-400 cm deep.
Stem:
The stem is herbaceous, 60 – 150 cm high. The main stem is erect it has many lateral branches.
Leaves:
The leaves are palmate (digitate), there are 5-7 lobes on them. They can be found in spiral arrangement on the
stem. The leaves are hairy or glabrous. The leaves vary in shape, size, texture and hairiness.
Inflorescence
The flower is large, terminal and solitary. There are five petals and a staminal column with 90-100 stamens in
the flower. Its colour is white or creamy white and turn into pink or red later.
Fruit:
The fruit of the cotton is capsule (boll). It is smooth-skinned and has oil glands. It is 4 – 5 cm long, contains 5 –
17 naked or fuzzy seeds. The seeds bear long fibres called lint.
7.4. ábra - Figure 39. Opened capsules of cotton
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5. Nutrient content of cotton seed
Protein:
10-20%
Carbohydrates:
50-55%
Oil:
20-25%
Minerals:
2.2-2.8%
The seed also contains gossypol, a polyphenolic yellow pigment that toxic to non-ruminants.
6. Development stages of cotton
1. Germination and emergence of shoot – the phase of cotyledon.
2. True leaf formation.
3. Formation of sympodial shoot and square formation (flower bud).
4. Peak flowering.
5. Boll development and boll bursting.
7. Climatic conditions (upland cotton)
Cotton is grown as annual, although it is a long-lived perennial in the tropics where the mean temperature of the
coldest month does not fall below 18°C. The minimum temperature to germination is 16 °C, but rapid and even
germination occurs above 18 °C temperatures. Usually the growing period of cotton is about 140 days.
Heat Unit calculation:
s: sowing date
h: harvest date
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• March: low precipitation, uniform warm weather
• April: moderately warm, 40-60 mm precipitation
• May:
HU: 500-550 °C
water: about 100 mm
daily average temperature below 25 °C
• June: moderately warm, low precipitation, daily average temperature below 25 °C
• July: dry weather
Water demand: 380-420 mm. Transpiration coefficient: 650-750 l/kg.
Most of the varieties need long day length
8. Soil conditions (upland cotton)
Good soils:
optimum soil pH range is 6.5-6.8
chernozem, meadow soils, brown forest soils
Not suitable soils:
sandy soils, alkaline soils, very acidic soils, water-logged soils, saline soils
9. Crop rotation (upland cotton)
• Good forecrops: small grain cereals (wheat, triticale, barley, rye, oat), grain corn, legumes, vegetable crops
• Moderate forecrops: sorghums, sudangrass
• Bad forecrops: alfalfa and other perennial legumes, continuous cotton (monoculture)
10. Soil preparation (upland cotton)
Soil preparation process should result in a firm, fine textured, well-prepared, well-drained seedbed.
• strip tillage: conducted only over the seed row (10-30 cm wide)
• conservation tillage: reduce surface runoff and erosion
• ridges or beds in humid areas
• level or furrow in dryer regions
• form beds with hipper
• seedbed preparation
11. Nutrient supply (upland cotton)
Specific nutrient demand:
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Cotton plant removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg seed +
stalks
N:
6.0 – 7.0
(kg/100 kg)
P2O5 :
1.9 – 2.5
(kg/100 kg)
K2O:
6.0 – 8.0
(kg/100 kg)
Recommended fertilizer doses:
N:
60 – 120
(kg/ha)
P2O5 :
40 – 50
(kg/ha)
K2O:
30 – 45
(kg/ha)
12. Sowing of cotton (upland cotton)
Cotton should not be sown before the soil temperature reach 16 °C. In cooler soil the seeds germinate very
slowly, many seedlings die and the emerged seedlings are weak. Cotton sown late usually has reduced yields
due to the shorter growing season.
Row spacing varies between wide range (60-102 cm) depending on the soil type and fertility, the variety and
other conditions. Interspecific hybrids can sow also in 120 cm wide rows.
The seed rate also depends on the ecological conditions and variety.
7.1. táblázat - Table 14. Sowing data of cotton
Sowing time:
March – May
when the soil warms up minimum 16 °C at a depth of
20 cm
Row spacing (cm):
60-102 (120)
Depth (cm):
2.5 – 5
Seed rate (plants/ha):
62 000-125 000
Seed mass (kg/ha):
6-15
13. Diseases of cotton (upland cotton)
Viral diseases
Cotton leaf curl virus (CLCuV): This is a significant disease of cotton. The leaves of infested plants curl
upward and there are enations underside. Plants infected early in the season are stunted and yield is reduced
drastically. It is transmitted by Bemisia tabaci whitefly.
Cotton mosaic virus (TSV): The symptoms are yellow mosaics and necrotic patches on the leaves. It is also
transmitted by Bemisia tabaci whitefly.
Bacterial diseases
Lint degradation (Erwinia herbicola): It causes internal necrosis and rot of immature cotton bolls. Usually no
external boll damage can be observed. In sensitive varieties, the damage can be significant.
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Bronze wilt (Agrobacterium tumefaciens): The characteristic is bronze or red tint in the leaves and wilting of
them. The symptoms become progressively more severe as the plant mature. It is difficult to distinguish from
other diseases. It may be caused a complex of pathogens not only one.
Bacterial blight: (Xanthomonas malvacearum): This disease can attack cotton plant at all development stages.
There are small, pale green spots and lesions on the leaves. The bolls can be rotted. Yield losses can reach 1015% and the quality of lint is also reduced.
Fungal diseases
Seedling blights (Pythium sp, Fusarium spp, Rhizoctonia spp.): Seedling blights and damping-off are caused by
more soil-borne pathogen fungi. Seedlings can die before or after emergence. Damping-off can affect single
plants or more plants in patches.
Root rot (Phymatotrichum omnivorum): The leaves and roots become yellow. As the fungus grow, the plant
wilts progressively and dies. The disease is a problem where soils are alkaline (pH 7.0 – 8.5) and calcareous.
Symptoms will be more severe in heavy clay soils.
Verticillium wilt (Verticillium alboatrum): Verticillium alboatrum is a soil-borne fungus that infects the roots
and spread into the vascular system of the plant. Symptoms are wilting, mottling, shedding of the leaves and
discoloration of the vascular bundles. The defoliation results in significant yield loss.
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum): This is a soil-borne fungus. Infected plants become
stunted, the leaves turn yellow between the veins. Affected leaves wilt and most of the fall. The disease can
cause considerable reduction in yield.
Cotton rust (Puccinia stakmanii): Numerous small pustules develop on the undersurface of the leaf. The
significance is usually low.
Control:
• crop rotation
• plow under crop residues
• control aphids, whiteflies and mites (virus diseases)
• fungicide seed treatment
• plant pathogen-free seed
• foliar fungicide
• resistant varieties
14. Pests
Boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis): Larvae feed inside the cotton buds (squares). Infested squares become
yellow and drop from the plant. Adults feed on the young bolls doing punctures on them. Boll-rotting fungi may
enter through punctures. It is a very significant pest of cotton.
Tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens): The caterpillars bore and feed on buds and young bolls of cotton.
They can feed also on young foliage tissue if there are no buds or bolls on the plant. Serious damage may occur
in short period..
Cotton leafworm (Alabama argillacea): The larvae (caterpillars) feed on the leaves, buds and bolls of the
cotton. It has only regional significance in the USA.
Bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera): Bollworm is a highly polyphagous pest and among the great number of host
plants, there is also the cotton. It is a major pest in cotton fields. The caterpillars feed on bolls and buds. Larvae
chew holes into the base of bolls. Damaged bolls fall off or do not produce lint. The yield loss can be very
significant.
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Cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii): Cotton aphid is highly variable in body size and colour. Heavy populations can
cause crinkling of leaves, distorted growth of shoots. Under favorable conditions they can multiply rapidly and
create large colonies. They transmit plant pathogen viral diseases.
Cotton stem borer (buprestid stem borer) (Sphenoptera gossypii): The larvae of the beetle chew tunnels in
the stem or roots of cotton. The damage results in loss of foliage and retarded growth. It is spread in Africa and
Asia.
Red cotton bug (Dysdercus cingulatus): It is a colourful true bug that infests cotton in tropical Africa, tropical
Asia, USA and South America. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from the plant, usually from the young soft
parts. Attacked bolls open prematurely and the lint gets stained. Usually the seeds remain underdeveloped with
reduced oil content.
Spotted bollworm (Earias vitella): It is a major pest of cotton. The caterpillars bore into tender shoots, resulting
withering, drooping and drying. Later the larvae move from the shoots to the developing bolls by making
conspicuous holes into them. The attacked squares and bolls drop away from the plants.
Pest control:
• proper crop rotation
• ploughing down crop residues
• soil insecticide-nematicide
• pest-free seed
• pesticide seed treatment
• foliar pesticide use
• biological control
15. Weed control
Presowing weed control: Herbicides are sprayed on the field and incorporated into the surface soil before
sowing (control most grass weeds and some annual broadleaf weeds)
Preemergent weed control: Herbicides are sprayed after the planting but before emergence (control early-season
small-seeded annual weeds).
Postemergent weed control: Herbicides are applied when the cotton plants reached 8-15 cm or later, can be
directed or over-the-top (control broadleaf weeds, some dangerous grass weeds).
There are glyphosate tolerant cotton varieties (Roundup Ready, RUR).
16. Harvesting of cotton (upland cotton)
Cotton should be defoliated or desiccated prior harvesting. Cotton is harvested by machines, either a picker or a
stripper. Cotton picker machine is used on 70 % of cotton fields. Cotton stripper machine is used on 30 %. In the
developing countries cotton is harvested manually. Cotton-picking machines have spindles that pick (twist) the
seed cotton from the burrs that are attached to plants’ stems. Doffers then remove the seed cotton from the
spindles and knock the seed cotton into the conveying system.
Conventional cotton stripping machines use rollers equipped with alternating bats and brushes to knock the open
bolls from the plants into a conveyor.
Cotton should be ginned within a day after harvesting. Ginning is separation of the fibers from seeds.
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17. Questions related to fiber crops production in
tropical climate (cotton)
1. Where are the cotton species originated from?
2. What are the data of cotton sowing?
3. What are the main diseases of cotton?
4. What are the most dangerous pests of cotton?
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8. fejezet - Week 9. TOBACCO
PRODUCTION IN TEMPERATE
CLIMATE
1. Origin of tobacco
Tobacco has its origin in tropical and subtropical America. At 1560 Jean Nicot de Villemain brought tobacco
seeds to Europe.
2. Taxonomical classification of tobacco
Kingdom: Plantae – Plants
Phylum: Anthophyta – Flowering Plants
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Order: Solanales
Family:
Solanaceae
Genus: Nicotiana
Nightshade family
Tobaccoes (About 70 species belong to the genus.)
Nicotiana tabacum L.
Cultivated tobacco
Nicotiana rustica
Aztec tobacco
3. Uses of tobacco
• Cigarettes
• Cigars
• Chewing tobacco
• Nicotine can be extracted for insecticide use
8.1. ábra - Figure 40. The main tobacco producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database,
2011)
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8.2. ábra - Figure 41. The yield of main tobacco producers (FAOSTAT Database, 2011)
4. Morphology of tobacco
Roots:
Tobacco develops a branched taproot, which penetrates deep into the soil, but 95 % of the root mass can be
found in the upper 25-30 cm layer. After planting, only adventitious roots grow. The roots produce the nicotine
alkaloid.
Stem:
It is a herbaceous stem that grows 120 – 250 cm high. The stem is little branching, cylindrical, its colour is
green, and the whole plant has hairs.
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Leaves:
Tobacco has large green leaves, up to 60 cm long. The lower leaves are the largest. The shape of the leaf is
oblonged-elliptic. The leaf arrangement is alternate. There are 18-32 leaves on a plant. Leaves are covered with
short glandular hairs.
Inflorescence
The inflorescence is a terminal raceme panicle. The raceme arises from the axils of the leaves. The flower is
trumpet shape, 5-6 cm long; its colour can be white, pink or purple. Tobacco is mainly self-pollinated.
Fruit:
The fruit is ovoid or ellipsoid capsule. It is about 2 cm long and contains very numerous, very small seeds. 1000
seed mass: 0.02 g.
8.3. ábra - Figure 42. Tobacco plants
5. Chemical composition of dry tobacco leaf
Protein:
<8 %
Carbohydrates:
40-50 %
Minerals:
17-20 %
Vitamins (C, B1, B2, folic acid)
Nicotine:
2-5 (8) %
Citric acid:
0.6-9.2 %
Tobacco plant contains at least 17 phytochemicals (nicotine, nornicotine, anabazine, nicoteine). Every part of
the plant except the seed contains nicotine. It is produced by the root system. Nicotine affects the central
nervous system due to the direct action of brain receptors. The flying oils give the fragrance and taste of the
tobacco leaves.
6. Main tobacco types
• Virginia type („Bright leaf”): light coloured, very large and robust leaves, aromatic, the matured leaf turns
yellow-green
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• Burley type: large leaf, mature leaf turns whitish-yellow, mainly for cigarette production
• Oriental tobacco (Turkish tobacco): small leaf, aromatic, use in blends of pipe and cigarette tobacco
7. Climatic conditions
Tobacco prefers warm climate but it is a very adaptive plant, therefore it can be grown under wide range of
climatic conditions, depending on the type. Germinating starts at 13-15 °C soil temperature, but optimal
temperature for germinating is 25-27 °C. For adequate growth it requires 20-30 °C. The air humidity is optimal
between 80-85 %.
The growth rate is reduced below 15 °C and is stopped below 10 °C. Temperatures below 0°C cause severe
injuries and tobacco dies. Over 35-36 °C temperatures the leaves may be scorched.
HU: 3000-3500 °C total, from which it should get 2600-2700 °C in the field. Some tobacco varieties make do
with less degree days and they can be grown at cooler climate, but they have poor quality.
Tobacco is sensitive to water stress and droughty periods, due to shallow root system (it is grown transplanted).
Even water supply is securely required to high yield and good quality. The protein and nicotine content of the
leaves is higher beside this the carbohydrates content is lower in dry years than in wet years. The quality of the
leaves is reduced, consequently.
Stormy weather may also reduce quality significantly, because the strong winds cause injuries and damages
easily to sensitive, large, soft leaves of mature tobacco.
Water demand:
Virginia: 360-400 mm
Burley: 350-450 mm
Transpiration coefficient:
Virginia: 1200-1600 l/kg
Burley: 1600-1800 l/kg
8. Soil conditions
Virginia type varieties are more selective to the soil than Burley type ones. On very rich soils tobacco will
produce large leaves, but usually poor quality. On soils containing a large proportion of clay, tobacco produce
leaves that become dark brown during the curing process; while on sandy soils tobacco develop leaves that cures
out a yellow colour.
Good soils:
sandy soils (humus content above 1.5%), slightly acidic soils (pH 6.0-6.5), brown forest soils with good
potassium content
Not suitable soils:
heavy clay soils, alkaline soils, very acidic soils, soils with very good nitrogen supply,
soils, very loose sandy soils with low humus content, sodic soils
9. Crop rotation
• Good forecrops: small grain cereals (winter wheat, triticale, rye)
• Moderate forecrops: manured forage mixtures, crimson clover, sweet clovers
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water-logged
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CLIMATE
• Bad forecrops: lupines, alfalfa, bastard lucerne, sudangrass, sorghums, maize, sunflower, potato, cucumber,
tomato, peppers, melons
Tobacco can tolerate planting after itself on the same field, but the risk of plant protection problems is high.
10. Soil preparation
The good planting bed for tobacco is uniformly firm, has adequate soil moisture and weed free. Preparing the
land involves plowing and disking to incorporate the old stubble, the residues and root system of the previous
crop. Fall plowing should be 20-30 cm on deep layer soils, 16-18 cm deep on shallow layer soils.
11. Nutrient supply
Tobacco has high potassium demand. Potassium has congenial effect on the carbohydrate content of the leaves,
thus on their quality, also. Tobacco is sensitive to chlorine in the soil, because it reduces the quality of the
leaves. Potassium should be applied as K2SO4.
Specific demand:
Tobacco plant removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg yield
+ stem:
N:
4.0
P2O5 : 0.6
K2O:
kg/100 kg
kg/100 kg
6.5
kg/100 kg
CaO: 1.8
kg/100 kg
Recommended fertilizer doses:
N:
30 – 40
P2O5 : 60 – 80
K2O:
180 – 200
12. Seedling production with floating trays (float-bed)
Seedlings grow in trays made of cell polystyrene floating on 6-8 cm deep water. The holes of the trays are filled
with artificial growing media that is free of pathogens and pests. It is signified as method of efficient using of
water and fertilizers. There are 170-300 seedlings in one tray. Due to the artificial growing media chemical use
is reduced during the seedling production, consequently it is not only efficient but also an environmental
friendly method.
8.4. ábra - Figure 43. Floating tray beds in greenhouse
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8.1. táblázat - Table 15. Sowing data in seedlings production
Sowing time:
mid-March (13-15 °C soil temperature in the
greenhouse)
Seed rate (g/m2):
0.08 - 0.1
Seedlings/m2:
600-700
8.2. táblázat - Table 16. Planting data of tobacco
Planting time:
end of April – mid May, after the spring frosts (14-16
°C soil temperature)
Row spacing (cm):
110
Plant spacing (cm):
35-50
Plant rate (thousand/ha):
22-25
Planting can be made manually or by mechanical planters. Seedlings should be strong and 15-18 cm high for
planter machines. Irrigation about 30 mm water could be essential after planting in dry weather. Three or four
days after planting the dead seedlings should be replaced.
13. Diseases of tobacco
Potato Y virus (PYV): It can infect many crops from the Solanaceae family between them is also the tobacco.
It is a dangerous disease, can cause serious damage and yield loss. Symptoms are yellowing, mottling and
distortion of the leaves. In severe infection premature death of the stem may occur. It is transmitted by aphids.
Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV): It is a widespread disease, can infect more than 150 plant species. The
symptom is appearing patches of normal and light green or yellowish colours on the leaves. Affected plants are
stunted. It can cause severe damage in tobacco fields. TMV is very easily transmitted by contact of infected leaf
with a leaf of a healthy plant, by contaminated tools, and occasionally by workers whose hands become
contaminated after smoking cigarettes.
Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV): Symptoms resemble those caused by tobacco mosaic virus. There are green
mosaics on the leaves. Mottling and distortion of the leaves also may occur.
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Wildfire (Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci): This is a bacterial disease. Symptom is appearing characteristic
angular spots on the leaves with wide, yellowish border or halo. The most important thing in control is to
produce healthy seedlings. Most Burley type varieties are sensitive to wildfire.
Collar rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum): Symptom of the infection normally is a brown rot of the stem at the base,
later appearance a white, cottony mycelium there. It is potentially severe disease in seedling production. Under
favourable conditions, it can cause serious plant loss in greenhouses.
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe cichoriacearum): White mealy coating appears on the leaf surface, first in patches,
later, in severe infection, it can cover the entire leaf area. Affected leaves may dry down completely. In contrast
to other fungal diseases, it favors dry, warm weather.
Downy mildew (Peronospora tabacina): Symptoms are usually yellow chlorotic lesions on the surface of the
leaf, which eventually turn necrotic and brown later. Grayish mold appears on the underside. In a few days, the
entire leaf is dead. Affected plants are systematically infected. Cool, moist weather favors disease spreading.
Damping off (Rhizoctonia solani): This is a soil-borne disease. The roots of infected plants turn to black and
plants suddenly wilt and turn yellow or pale green. Dark or grayish-brown lesions are usually found at the basis
of the stem just above the ground. It is a very dangerous disease of tobacco seedlings.
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): Fusarium infection causes wilting, chlorosis and premature drying of
leaves. The vascular system becomes brown, red-brown. Fusarium wilt can cause severe damage and significant
yield loss.
Control:
• crop rotation
• plow under crop residues
• fungicide seed treatment
• control aphids
• plant pathogen-free transplants
• foliar fungicide
14. Pests of tobacco
Wireworms, click beetles (Elateridae): Wireworms are the larvae of click beetles. Several species of
wireworms can attack tobacco. They feed on the underground parts of tobacco plants. Crop rotation is not
effective control method, due to they have several host plants.
White grubs (Melolontha spp.): The damage is similar to wireworms. White grubs are the larvae of scarab
beetles for example chafers. They feed also on the roots of tobacco. Severely attacked plants may die.
Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.): They feed on roots and cause serious yield and quality losses in tobacco. In
addition, they make the crop more susceptible to other diseases. The symptom is stunting and poor growth and
there are small galls on the roots.
Stem break (Ditylenchus dipsaci): It is an endoparasite that feeds inside the stem. This nematode species
probably produces pectinase enzyme, in consequence affected stem becomes flawed and easily breaks.
Dark Sword-grass or Black cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon): Cutworms are caterpillars and can cause serious
damage by feeding on the stems of young plants near the soil surface causing the plants to fall over. Later in the
season, cutworms can climb the plants and feed on foliage.
Turnip Moth (Agrotis segetum): This moth is common in Europe but it spread also to Africa and America. It is
a very polyphagous species, can cause severe damage in wide range of crops including tobacco. The caterpillars
feed on seedlings and young plants causing damage to root collars and young stems, often destroying them
completely.
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Flea beetles (Psylloidea): They are small, tiny beetles. They chew small holes in the leaves, causing loss in the
assimilation area. If they occur in great number, they can cause serious damage on young, just transplanted
seedlings.
Aphids (Aphis spp.): They are sucking pests. Attacked shoots and leaves develop distorted. Under favorable
conditions, they can multiply rapidly and create large colonies. They transmit dangerous plant virus infections.
Thrips (Thrips tabaci): Thrips are very small sucking pests. Symptom is silvery discoloration on the leaves and
stunting of plants. They are less sensitive to most of the pesticides, thus it is difficult to control.
Control
• crop rotation
• insecticide/nematicide soil treatment
• pest free seedlings
• foliar spray with insecticide
• biological control
15. Weeds and weed control of tobacco
White goosefoot (Chenopodium album)
Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus)
Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli)
Foxtails (Setaria spp.)
Common purslane (Portulaca oleracea)
Broomrape (Orobanche ramosa) parasitic plant
Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia)
Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense)
Field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis)
16. Weed control
• Crop rotation especially important on fields infected by broomrape (Orobanche spp.)
• Mechanical weed control (inter-row cultivation )
• Chemical weed control
17. Plant management
• Topping: removing the inflorescence of the tobacco plant. Topping allows nourishment to flow directly to
the remaining leaves.
• Sucker control (suckering): (manually or chemically): removing or the side-shoots (suckers) that grow after
topping. Once topped, the plant develops suckers, or lateral shoots. Suckers are removed by hand or by
applying sucker suppressing chemicals because they take nutrients away from the growing leaves.
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Topping and suckering results in higher yields and better leaf quality.
18. Harvesting
In case of tobacco the yield is the leaves of the plant. Matured leaf is green-yellow, golden yellow or whitishyellow depending on the type.
The harvesting method is cutting or breaking the leaf stalk manually.
Curing is important after harvesting. Burley type tobacco varieties are air cured in barns, Virginias are fluecured. Curing process produces various compounds in the tobacco leaves that give the flavors and fragrance of
tobacco. The different curing methods give different results in carbohydrates and sugar balance and the level of
nicotine beside of flavors and fragrance and colour.
The yield is 1.5-2.0 t/ha.
19. Questions related to integrated tobacco
production
1. What are the suitable soils for tobacco production?
2. What are the data of tobacco planting?
3. What are the main diseases of the tobacco?
4. What are the most dangerous pests of the tobacco?
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9. fejezet - Week 10. COFFEE AND
COCOA TREE PRODUCTION IN
TROPICAL CLIMATE
1. Origin of coffee
Coffee is originated from Africa, from southwestern highlands of Ethiopia and South Sudan. It is cultivated in
the tropical areas of the world.
9.1. ábra - Figure 44. The main coffee producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database,
2010)
9.2. ábra - Figure 45. The yield of main coffee producers (FAOSTAT Database, 2010)
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TREE PRODUCTION IN
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2. Taxonomical classification of the coffee
Kingdom: Plantae – Plants
Phylum: Anthophyta – Flowering Plants
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta – Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta – Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Family:
Rubiaceae
Genus: Coffea
Bedstraw family
Coffees (40 species)
Coffea arabica L.
Arabica coffee
Coffea canephora (robusta) L.
Robusta coffee
3. Morphology of the coffee
Coffee is a bushy and branched small tree. It grows 5-9 m high, but usually pruned to 2 m for easy harvesting.
Blossoming and fruit setting occur mainly two to three times per year. Fruit is a fleshy berry, in which 2 seeds
(coffee beans) are imbedded.
4. Uses of coffee
• beverages (coffee and others)
• medicinal (caffeine)
• cookies, cakes and chocolates
9.3. ábra - Figure 46. Coffea arabica
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5. Climatic conditions of coffee (arabica)
Optimum temperature is 16-24 °C for the coffee production. The photosynthesis is slowed down at higher
temperatures.
Coffee is grown in the subtropical regions: at high altitudes (600-1200 m) with well-defined two seasons (rainy
and dry).
It is grown in the tropical regions at very high altitudes (1200-2100 m) with frequent rainfall (with two
harvesting seasons).
6. Soil conditions of coffee plant
Good soils:
deep volcanic or laterite (red, chocolate or brown) soils, fertile soils with high organic
and good water balance
Not suitable soils:
sandy soils, shallow layered soils, water-logged soils, soils with poor water drainage
7. Nutrient supply of coffee plantations
Recommended fertilizer doses
N:
P2O5 :
200 (kg/ha)
25 (kg/ha)
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Week 10. COFFEE AND COCOA
TREE PRODUCTION IN
TROPICAL CLIMATE
K2O:
300 (kg/ha)
CaO:
140 (kg/ha)
8. Propagation of coffee
Coffee plants are usually started from seed in nurseries. Coffee seedlings are grown in nursery beds or polybags
and are planted in the coffee fields when they reach the 20-40 cm height.
In Brazil, direct field planting is common, with 3 or 4 seeds sown to a hole.
Plant density: 3000- 7500 trees/ha.
9. Diseases of coffee
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides): It can infect flowers and green berries at any development
stages. Affected berries show dark sunken spits, the beans can also become infected. Under favourable
conditions, it can cause severe damage and the yield losses can reach up to 50 % (75% in some reports).
Bark disease (Fusarium stilboides): It is a soil-borne fungus. It can produce different symptoms: Storey’s bark
disease, scaly bark, or collar rot. The disease can affect shoots, branches or the trunk causing different damages
from branch dieback to the dying of the whole coffee tree.
Berry blotch (Brown eye spot) (Cercospora coffeicola): It is widespread in coffee growing areas of the world,
but rarely causes significant yield loss. On the infected leaves reddish-brown or brown circular spots appear
with a grayish centre. The spots usually bordered with yellow halo. The disease can attack also the berries
causing patch lesions on them.
Die back (Ascochyta tarda): This disease causes leaf spots and dieback of branches on coffee trees. It has less
economical importance usually, but regionally can be significant. It occurs mainly in Africa.
Leaf rust of coffee (Hemileia vastatrix): It is the most important disease of coffee. Coffea arabica is the most
susceptible species. Orange pustules develop on the underside of coffee leaves, with chlorotic patches on the
upper side. The pustules may be from 2-3 mm to several centimetres in diameter. The infection results in
defoliation that reduces the growth potential of the plant. The disease affects both yield quality and quantity.
The yield loss can be 50-70 % at severe infested plantation. The disease in one year directly affects yield of the
following year.
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): Symptoms are yellowing and curling then wilting of the leaves. Infected
leaves turn to brown, dry and drop off. Affected branches become dark brown and die back. The fungus attacks
the vascular system of the plant, causing water transport disorder. Orange-brown discolouration can be seen in
the vascular bundles of the plant. It is a serious disease in some countries of eastern Africa.
Control
• plant disease-free seedlings
• proper nutrient supply
• adequate water supply
• resistant/tolerant planting materials
• foliar fungicide
10. Pests of coffee
Shothole borer (Xylosandrus compactus): These small beetles bore tunnels into the current year's live twigs.
Attacked twigs die and break down from the weight of the berries. The pest seriously weakens the young coffee
trees.
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Aphids (many species) (Aphis spp.): They are sucking pests. The infested parts of the plants become distorted.
They prefer young shoots, leaves or flower buds. Ants often guard aphid colonies. They transmit virus diseases.
Leaf miner (Leucoptera caffeina): The white, 5 mm long caterpillars mine in the leaves of coffee. It has up to
ten generations in one year. It occurs mainly in South America. The damage can be serious depending on the
number of the larvae.
Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei): It is a serious pest of coffee plantations. It is a 2 mm long small
beetle that can damage the coffee berries seriously. The adult females bore into the green berries and the larvae
develop inside the berries feeding on the beans. Affected berries easily infected by many fungal and bacterial
diseases through the entrance hole.
Mealy bugs (Planococcus spp.): They can attack all of the above ground parts of the coffee. There are some
species, which can attack the roots; they are called root mealy bugs. Mealy bugs feed on the plant by sucking its
sap like aphids, causing to it become weak. Severely infested trees grow poorly their leaves are yellowish and
the yield is reduced.
Green scale (Coccus viridis): They feed on coffee plants by sucking the sap. They produce tough scaly cover to
protect themselves. Scales also inject toxic compounds to the plant and cause discoloration and deformation of
leaves and shoots. Many of them can cause a noticeable damage. They are tolerant to many insecticides
therefore it is difficult to control them.
Coffee bean beetle (weevil) (Araecerus fasciculatus): It is a 3-5 mm beetle, which damages coffee beans during
storage. The larva makes tunnel into the coffee bean feeding on it and hollow out it.
Pest control
• pest-free seedlings
• pruning
• biological control
• sleeving
• foliar pesticide use
11. Harvesting coffee
Coffee is harvested during the dry season when the berries are bright red, glossy, and firm. Coffee berries can be
harvested by hand (stripping) or mechanically with harvester machine. To maximize the amount of ripe coffee
harvested, it is necessary to pick the coffee berries selectivelyfrom the tree by hand. Mechanical harvesting
collects all berries (unripe, ripe and overripe).
Post harvest processing of coffee berries
The berries first are being floated to separate the defective berries from the good ones. After that, the pulping
machines remove most of the flesh from the berries. One day fermentation is required to remove the remained
flesh. The beans are then dried in open paved areas, either on mats or in trays, and polished in special mills. The
roasting process develops the coffee aroma.
12. Cocoa tree
Origin of cocoa tree
Cocoa tree had its origin in the tropical region of South America, the gene centre was probably in Brazil and
Peru.
9.4. ábra - Figure 47. The main cocoa producers in the world (FAOSTAT Database,
2010)
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9.5. ábra - Figure 48. The yield of main cocoa bean producers (FAOSTAT Database,
2010)
13. Taxonomical classification of cocoa tree
Family:
Malvaceae
Mallow family
Genus: Theobroma
(22 species)
Theobroma cacao L.
Cocoa tree
Theobroma grandiflorum
Cupuassu
14. Morphology of cocoa tree
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Cocoa is a small, low branching tree, 5-15 m high. The thickness of rooting zone in good soils is 30-50 cm.
Leaves are 30 cm long and 7.5 cm wide. Flowers are cauliflorous that means that flowers and fruits grow
attached directly to the stem or branch. The flowers are small, reddish-white color and odorless.
The fruit called cocoa pod is ovoid, 15-30 cm long and 8-10 wide. It contains 20-60 seeds (cacao beans).
15. Uses of cocoa
• cocoa powder
• cocoa butter
• chocolate
9.6. ábra - Figure 49. Cocoa tree
16. Climatic conditions of cocoa tree
It requires warm, wet, tropical climate. It could be grown within 15° of the equator, only. Minimum temperature
is 18-21 °C, maximum is 30-32 °C. Defoliation and dieback occurs at 4-8 °C temperatures and below. Cocoa
tree requires shade at least during the establishment period.
Annual rainfall: 1 250-3 000 mm and the rainfall must be well distributed in the growing season.
17. Soil conditions
Good soils:
good water balance, good water holding capacity, pH 4.5-7.0
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Not suitable soils:
waterlogged soils, shallow layered soils, stony or peaty soils
18. Nutrient supply of cocoa tree plantations
Recommended fertilizer doses (kg/ha)
N:
100-150
P2O5 :
80-100
K2O:
200-250
19. Planting of cocoa trees
Most of the cocoa trees are grown from seeds
Cocoa tree seedlings may be field planted after three to six months.
Shade must be well established prior to field planting, because establishment without shade is rarely successful
Plant density: 800-3 000 trees/ha
20. Diseases of cocoa tree
Black pod (Phytophthora spp.): Symptoms are initially small, dark spots on the pods, later entire rotting of the
pods. Internal tissues and beans are infected resulting in a mummified pod. It is the most aggressive pod disease
of cocoa, can cause significant losses in favourable environments.
Ceratocystis wilt (Ceratocystis fimbriata): It is a dangerous and lethal disease of cocoa trees in the Caribbean
and Central and South America. The pathogen enters the plants through wounds, such as those caused by pests
or pruning or pod harvesting. The fungus moves in the vascular system of the plant causing systematic infection.
Affected branch or the entire tree wilts and dies.
Wet (red) root rot (Ganoderma philippii): Attacked roots are covered red mycelium of the fungus. It develops
rhizomorphs in the soil. The leaves become pale green, later turn to yellow. The attacked plant usually dies. It
can cause serious damage in cocoa plantations.
Sudden death (Verticillium dahliae): It is a soil-borne disease. It infects the vascular system of the plant
therefore it is also called vascular wilt. The symptoms are the sudden wilting and drooping of the leaves. Later
they become dry and shredded. The affected branches die and break off.
Pink disease (Erythricium salmonicolor): White mycelium of the fungus can be seen on the infected branches
often at main fork. Usually pink crust appears on the stems. Affected branches wilt and die suddenly, the dried
leaves remain attached to the stem.
Witches' Broom (Moniliophthora perniciosa): During the last century, the fungus spread throughout all of
South America, Panama and the Caribbean, causing great losses in the production. It is one of the most
devastating diseases of cocoa. This disease can infect the actively growing trees throughout the growing season.
The fungus need wet plant surfaces to infection. Control is pruning of affected parts. In severe infection the tree
may die.
Frosty Pod Rot (Moniliophthora roreri): It attacks the actively growing parts of the plant (shoots, flowers and
pods) resulting in improductive branches. The pods become distorted and white mycelium mass can be seen on
the pod surface. Frosty pod rot is found in all north-western countries in South America. It can cause significant
losses in the cocoa farms.
Control
• plant disease-free seedlings
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• proper nutrient supply
• adequate water supply
• pruning
• resistant/tolerant planting materials
• foliar fungicide
21. Pests of cocoa tree
Broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus): It attacks the young tissues of growing shoots or leaves. Affected
leaves and shoots become distorted.
Yellow peach moth (Conogethes punctiferalis): The caterpillars feed on the developing fruit of cocoa.
Mirids (Distantiella theobroma): Cocoa mirids attack the stems, branches and pods resulting in small necrotic
lesions. Their feeding on shoots often result in the death of terminal branches and leaves, causing dieback. It can
reduce yields by as much as 75%.
Cocoa mosquito (Helopeltis schoutedeni): They are small, slender insects, about 7- 10 mm long. The nymphs
and adults feed on young leaves, young shoots, flowers and developing fruits. The result is discoloured, necrotic
area or lesion around the affected plant tissue. Heavy infestations can cause distorted pods and premature drop.
Cocoa pod borer (Conopomorpha cramerella): It attacks both young and mature cocoa pods. Infested pods
prematurely ripen that result in serious yield losses and reduced quality of beans. This pest now affects almost
all cocoa producing provinces in Indonesia.
Pest control
• pest-free seedlings
• pruning
• biological control
• sleeving
• foliar pesticide use
22. Harvesting cocoa
Cocoa harvest is not limited to one period, but spread over several months due to the tropical conditions. In
some regions pods may be available for harvest throughout the year. Ripe pods turn from green or deep red to
yellow or orange. Harvesting is done by hand using machetes or knives to cut pods from the tree.
After harvest, the pods are opened to extract wet beans. Fermentation of the beans is essential for the
development of chocolate flavour.
Yield: 300-2 000 kg/ha cocoa beans yearly.
23. Questions related to coffee and cocoa tree
production in tropical climate
1. What are the uses of coffee and cocoa?
2. What are the data of cocoa tree planting?
3. What are the main diseases of the coffee plant?
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4. What are the most dangerous pests of cocoa tree?
5. How and when can we harvest the cocoa?
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10. fejezet - Week 11. INTEGRATED
TEA PRODUCTION
Tea, because of its favorable effect to human health, is a popular beverage worldwide, which is made of the
tender or young leaves and unopened buds of tea plant.
Tea (Camellia sinensis) today is cultivated across the world in tropical and subtropical climate. It has been one
of the main agricultural export items in developing countries. In addition to cultivation, tea picking and
processing have provided job opportunities to millions of people in tea growing countries. The main tea
producers are India, Sri Lanka, China, Turkey and East-African countries.
1. Origin of tea plants
Camellia sinensis is native to East, South and Southeast Asia. Probably it is originated around the meeting
points of the lands of Northeast India, North Burma and Southwest China and from there it spread to Southeast
China, Indo -China and Assam.
10.1. ábra - Figure 50. Area of the tea in the main tea producer countries (FAOSTAT
Database, 2010)
10.2. ábra - Figure 51. The yield of the tea in the main tea producer countries
(FAOSTAT Database, 2010)
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2. History of tea
It is believed, that the culture of tea planting and drinking had been started in China, with the earliest records of
tea consumption dating to the 10th century BC. Confucius (500 BC) had mentioned the positive health effects of
drinking tea and the benefits of growing tea plants. It was already a common drink during the Qin Dynasty (3rd
century BC) and became widely popular during the Tang Dynasty, when it was spread to Korea, Japan and
possibly Vietnam.
During 5th century Turkish Traders carried the tea to Turkey, and it became popular drink by the end of the 6th
century. Tea was imported to Europe during the Portuguese expansion of the 16th century, at which time it was
termed chá.
Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles II, took the tea drinking habit to Great Britain around 1660, but tea was
not widely consumed in Britain until the 19th century. In Ireland, tea had become an everyday beverage for all
levels of society by the late 19th century.
3. Taxonomical classification of tea plant
Family:
Theaceae
Genus: Camellia
Tea family (about 40 genera)
Camellias (about 100-250 species)
Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze Tea plant
Most commonly used for making tea:
C. sinensis var. sinensis – Chinese tea
C. sinensis var. Assamica – Assam tea
Sometimes used locally:
C. sinensis var. pubilimba
C. sinensis var. dehungensis
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4. List of the most important varieties
• Benifuuki
• Fushun
• Kanayamidori
• Meiryoku
• Saemidori
• Okumidori
• Turkey's Black Tea
• Yabukita
• Uji Hikari — a premium tea cultivar developed in Kyoto for producing matcha tea
• Gokou — developed especially for the climate of the Kyoto region and for producing matcha tea
• Zairai — term in Japan used to refer to a field that does not consist of a specific cultivar
The two main forms of cultivated tea are the China and Assam tea. The China type is fairly slow growing,
dwarf trees with dark green, erect, toothed and narrow leaves. This normally grows to a height of about 4.5
meters. This type is relatively resistant to low temperatures but it is rather low yielding. The Assam tea has a
faster rate of growth and their leaves are large and drooping. They are tolerant to tropical temperatures and
generally grow taller than the China type, often reaching a height of 9 to 10 m if un-pruned. Some hybrids and
vegetatively propagated clones have been developed too.
5. Uses of tea
Beverage: It is the second most popular drink in the world after water.
Tea oil: It is pressed from the seeds of Camellia sinensis and Camellia oleifera and used as a sweetish
seasoning and cooking oil. Tea oil is barely known outside East Asia, but it is the most important cooking oil for
hundreds of millions of people, particularly in southern China. Camellia oil, sometimes called tsubaki oil, is a
common Japanese blade cleaner used for a variety of knives. This oil eliminates rust and effectively shines and
clears the blade.
6. Health effects of tea
The green and black tea may protect against cancer. The catechins found in green tea are effective in preventing
certain obesity-related cancers (liver and colorectal). The green tea has significant protective effects of green tea
against cancer (oral, prostate, digestive, skin, lung, breast, liver). It lower the risk for cancer metastasis and
recurrence.
Both green and black tea may protect against cardiovascular disease. Green tea may lower blood low-density
lipoprotein and total cholesterol levels and it can reduce body fat.
7. Morphology of tea plant
Tea is an evergreen shrub or small tree that is usually trimmed to below 2 m when cultivated for its leaves. The
plant lives long, the waist-high bushes at a typical tea plantation are often 25 to 90 years old.
Roots:
The root of C. sinensis plants is made of taproot, lateral roots, radicels and fibrils. The strong taproot can
penetrate into the soil vertically 2-3 meters deep. Lateral roots and radicels are both called as transmit roots.
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Fibrils grow on radicels and they are called assimilating roots. The size of root system (lateral roots, fibrils and
radicels) generally is 1-1.5 times bigger than that of the camellia tree crown.
Stem:
The wild plants can be grown up to 9 meters high, but on tea plantations they are cut back to a bush of about
often one meter in height. The crown of the natural grown-up plant without artificial interference appears to be
in tower shape. Cultivated camellia plant commonly has a curved or flat crown.
10.3. ábra - Figure 52. Morphology of tea plant (Source: John Coakley Lettsom: The
natural history of the tea-tree, with observations on the medical qualities of tea and on
the effects of tea drinking. London, Printed by J. Nichols for C. Dilly, 1799)
Leaves:
The leaves are alternate, simple leaves in shapes of sub-lanceolate, elliptical, oblong, oval, but mostly oval and
ovoid. Mature leaves are bright green colored, smooth and leathery. The young, light green leaves have short
white hairs on the underside. The leaf blade is 4–15 (30) cm long and, 2–5 cm wide. The leaf size is the main
criterion for the classification of tea plants:
Assam type: characterized by the largest leaves
China type: characterized by the smallest leaves
Cambod: characterized by leaves of intermediate size
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The fresh leaves contain about 2-4 % caffeine. The different leaf ages produce differing tea qualities, since their
chemical compositions are different.
10.4. ábra - Figure 53.Flowers and leaves of tea plant
Inflorescence
Camellia’s flowers are hermaphrodite, the colour varies from yellow to white. Their size is 2.5–4 cm in diameter
with 7 to 8 petals. The flower buds generally develop during late June and blossom out in October. It is up to
one year and four months from buds blossom to fruits mature.
Fruit:
The tea plant begins to produce seeds at about eight years of age. Fruit is a flattened, smooth, rounded trigonous
three celled capsule, seed solitary in each, size of a small hazelnut.
The seed is composed of husk, seed capsule, cotyledon and embryo. It is rich in fat, starch, sugar with a small
amount of saponin (10-13 %).
The seeds of Camellia sinensis, C. oleifera and C. japonica can be pressed to yield tea oil. The seeds also can be
used to produce wine and saponin.
8. Chemical components of tea leaves
Tea leaves contain catechins, a type of antioxidant. In a freshly picked tea leaf, catechins can give up to 30 % of
the dry weight. Catechins are the highest concentration in white and green teas.
The amounts of carbohydrates, fat, and protein found in tea are negligible. In tea plants are various types of
phenolics and tannin, but it contains no tannic acid.
The tea leaves contain theanine and the stimulant caffeine at about 2-4 % of its dry weight (30 - 90 mg per 250
g).
Tea also contains small amounts of theobromine and theophylline, flavinoids, amino acids, vitamins and several
polysaccharides.
9. Climatic conditions
Tea plant prefers hot, wet climate. It can be produced from 43° N to 27° S latitude. The optimum temperature to
development ranges from 10 to 27 °C. China tea is more tolerant to cold than the Assam types.
Its water demand varies between 1 700 - 2 500 mm.
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Tea is produced between 600-2 400 meters above sea level in the tropics and lower elevations in temperate
regions. Many high-quality tea plants are cultivated at elevations of up to 1 500 m above sea level. At these
elevations the plants grow more slowly and acquire a better flavor and scent.
The best tea is produced in regions that have dry days and cool nights. Slow growth under some stress brings
out the best flavor in tea but yields are lower under these conditions.
10. Soil conditions
Tea is planted on soils of different geological origin of almost all physical types.
Good soils are deep layered, light, acidic and well-drained, friable loam or forest soils. Ideal if the soil is rich in
organic matter.
Tea soils are generally acidic (pH 4.0 to 6.0) in nature, low in calcium and rich in iron and manganese. Sandy
loam physical texture with sufficient moisture content is optimum for rooting. Calcareous soils are unsuitable
for tea cultivation.
11. Propagation of tea plant
Tea bushes can be grown from cuttings or seeds.
Seed propagation
Seeds are obtained from high yielding selected trees, which are grown in special seed gardens. The seed
capsules are collected and graded.
Seeds have short period of viability, so they should be sown in sand loam within four days. Sowing depth is 2.5
cm spaced at 12 to 15 cm apart.
Germination may be improved by soaking the seeds in about 12 °C temperature water for 30 minutes. This
treatment will also kill the larvae of the cover beetle.
The seedlings require regular watering and shading until they are hardened. They are nurtured in nursery beds
until ready for planting out. Depending upon the weather and region, one to one and half year old nursery
seedlings are used for planting to the field.
If allowed to remain in the nursery up to three years, the seedlings can be cut back and transplanted as base-root
plants.
Vegetative propagation
Propagation by cuttings is becoming popular, due to the increased yield and improved vigour, which can be
obtained from selected clones.
Cuttings have one node and a leaf attached. Green or moderately mature shoots are adequate for making
cuttings.
Special propagation beds are used. These beds are well watered and shaded. Rooted cuttings are normally
transferred to polythene bags and transplanted to nursery beds. About six to ten months time is required to root
and grow to 45 cm height when they are ready for planting out.
12. Soil preparation
Undulating land is more widely used where crops have not previously been grown. The forest, secondary bush
or grass land should be cleared and all stumps and roots be removed, preferably by burning.
On steep slopping sites, contour terracing will be essential and in valley drainage may be required. Adequate
steps should be taken to prevent soil erosion in sloppy areas.
Planting lines are drained and pits of a convenient size (generally 30 -45 cm deep and 24 cm wide) are dug.
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13. Planting
Seedlings grown in polythene bags are transplanted to well-prepared planting holes when they are of 40 to 50
cm height. This height may be attained when the seedlings are about 18 to 24 months old.
The normal accepted spacing is 120 x 75 cm, accommodating about 10 000 plants in a hectare.
Newly planted tea should be regularly watered during the first four months to ensure good root development.
In the higher altitudes the rows follow the contours of the hills or mountainsides to avoid soil erosion. At some
of the higher altitudes terraces are built, to avoid soil erosion and trap water. Sometimes trees are planted for
shade and windbreaks.
Mulching
Freshly planted tea plantations should be heavily mulched with dried grass, cereal straws or maize stalks to
conserve soil moisture. Mature tea plantation can be mulched with the pruned material.
Training and pruning
Before the first plucking, the bushes are severely pruned by a method known as "lung" pruning. The tea plant is
initially trained into a small bush within a few months of planting or at the nursery stage.
• removing the central leader stem.
• to encourage a quick development of the lateral branches.
• the lateral branches are cut to a convenient length of 40 to 50 cm.
• their growth above this length is periodically plucked.
Pruning and skiffing are done periodically to keep the height of the bush at convenient level for the pluckers to
operate and to encourage vegetative growth.
Maintenance
Tea plants require year round maintenance. Every one to five years the plants are trimmed from waist to knee
height to keep them from growing into trees and prevent the branches from extending too far sideways.
Seasonal pickings keep the bushes trimmed like a hedge.
14. Irrigation and water management
Majority of tea growing areas receive adequate rains for production. Due to the seasonal pattern of rainfall, most
of the districts are exposed to drought of varying degrees.
Irrigation systems are applied in tea plantations:
1. Subsoil irrigation
• It is recommended for young tea plants.
• It helps in the development of deep root system in young plants.
2. Sprinkler irrigation
• This is the most popular system of irrigation in tea plantations.
3. Drip irrigations
• Less water loss occurs through evaporation or percolation.
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• It means larger initial investment.
15. Quality of tea plants
The agronomic quality of tea plants is evaluated by three indices:
• bud length,
• hundred-bud weight,
• density of buds.
16. Nutrient supply
Balanced nutrition is an important measure to improve productivity and quality of tea.
Nitrogen (N) promotes quantity and speeds up the leafy growth.
Phosphorous (P) helps in promoting root growth
Potassium (K) promotes vigour, helps metabolism and gives strength to plant to fight out drought conditions.
Micronutrients application (Cu and Zn) are necessary to improving of fermentation process in black tea.
10.1. táblázat - Table 17. Fertilization of tea plants
Age of plant
Fertilizer doses (kg/ha)
First year
N
180
5
P2O5
90
1
K2O
270
5
N
240
6
P2O5
90
1
K2O
360
6
Third year onwards up to N
first pruning
P2O5
300
6
90
1
K2O
450
6
Second year
Number of applications
17. Diseases of tea
Tea like other agricultural crops is prone to attack by diseases caused by pathogens such as fungi, bacteria or
viruses.
Virus diseases of tea
Phloem necrosisvirus (Camellia Virus 1): The external symptoms are leaf curl and zigzag and dwarfing of the
shoots. Severely affected bushes became entirely unproductive.
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Camellia yellow mottle virus(CYMV): It causes yellow and creamy-white blotches on leaves of camellias. It is
transmitted by root grafts and propagation of diseased stock.
Bacterial diseases of tea
Bacterial canker (Xanthomonas campestris pv. theicola, Xanthomonas gorlencovianum): It is a relatively new
cankerous disease was found on the leaves and stems of tea plants. Small, water-soaked spots appear at the
beginning, then expanded and turned into brown hard spots with cracks at the top. The spots became typical
canker lesions later.
Crown gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens): It causes formation of tumors in over 140 species of dicotyledonous
plants including tea.
Important leaf diseases
Primary leaf diseases
Blister blight (Exopasidium vexans): It is capable of causing enormous crop loss in Asia, but is not known in
Africa or America. Small, pinhole-size spots are seen on young leaves and later become larger, light brown. The
young infected stems become bent and distorted. Cloudy, wet weather favors infection.
Black rot (Corticium theae, C. invisum): Both fungi produce similar effect and some times occur together. They
attack the maintenance leaves from May to September, causing gradual deterioration in the health of the bush
and consequent loss of crop.
Secondary leaf diseases
Grey blight (Pestalotiopsis theae, P. longiseta) and Brown blight (Glomerella cingulata, Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides) are very common leaf diseases and usually occur together but commonly they do not cause
economic loss. They appeared in weakened (lack of nutrients, frost, stem and root diseases and so on) or injured
plants. Brown blight occurs on old and young leaves and cause defoliation and death of young plants. Grey
blight flourishes as a saprophyte on the dead parts of the bush, and may cause sporadic attacks on seedlings and
vegetative propagated cuttings. Control: spraying with fungicide is unnecessary.
Important stem diseases
Primary stem diseases
Dieback of primaries and Seed decay are caused by Fusarium solani, a parasitic fungus. The symptoms are
blackening of the petioles of the leaves, which extends to the nodes and inter-nodes, followed by wilting of the
primaries. In the later stage of infestation, the seeds become light pinkish with powdery coverage.
Stem and branch canker ( Leptothyrium theae or Phomopsis theae): Theycan cause 3 types of disease: shoot
dieback in young tea during the early years, dieback of part of the plucking table because a major branch is
ringed and collar canker with complete ringing and death of the whole bush.
Secondary stem diseases
Red rust is the disease of young stems. The casual organism is Cephaleuros parasiticus, an alga. Tissues of the
stem are killed in patches and cause dieback. The leaves of the infected branches variegate with yellow patches.
Poria branch canker (Poria hypobrunnea) and Thorney stem blight (Tunstallia aculeata) are important stem
diseases. These pathogens are typical wound parasites and enter the plants through heavy pruning cuts. It is
important to protect the fresh wounds with protective paints to stop the infection.
Important root diseases
Primary root diseases
Charcoal stump rot (Ustulina deusta, U. zonata) and Brown root rot (Phellinus noxius) are common root
diseases in India. Red root rot (Ganoderma philippii, Poria hypolateritia) is occasionally found in tea
plantations, while Black root rot (Rosellinia arcuata, R. bunodes) is of rare occurrence. These diseases can
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spread by direct contact or the leftover diseased woody material. Depending on the age and size of the bush it
may require six months to four years to kill an infected plant.
Secondary root diseases
Violet root rot (Spherostilbe repens) and Diplodia disease (Botryodiplodia theobromae) are attack the weak
plants. They are very common on stiff clayey waterlogged soils and can be controlled by improvement of
drainage.
Control
• Plant pathogen-free plant material
• Bum the infected parts of the plants.
• Pruning is an important controlling measure.
• Fungicides
• Varieties with resistance or tolerance
• Adequate nutrient supply and timely plant protection
• Control aphids and mites
• Plant virus-free plant material
18. Pests of tea plant
Every part of tea plant is attacked by pests and the pest damage in tea can often lead to a significant impact of
productivity. The magnitude of pest infestation varies depending on altitude, climate and cultural practices.
Despite crop loss, pest infestation also adversely affects the quality of the processed tea.
More than 1000 species of pests, such as mites, insects, nematodes and rodents may attack tea plants.
Parasitic nematodes
Nematodes or eelworms are microscopic non-segmented roundworms, which are common inhabitants of the
soil. Some of these are plant endoparasites feeding on or in the roots of plants, causing diseases such as root
knots, transmit virus diseases and damaging the root system which can seriously affect the yield.
Some example:
Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne sp.)
Pin and Root lesion nematode (Paratylenchus sp.)
Spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus sp.)
Significant insects
Red spider mite (Oligonychus coffeae): It is the largest of all mites of tea and can be seen with naked eyes. This
is generally wide-spread pest of tea. Due to mites feeding, the upper surface of the leaves darken and then turn
brown.
Thrips (Scirtothrips bispinosus): Thrips are major pest in all tea growing countries. Due to heavy feeding, the
leaf surface becomes uneven, curled and matt.
Red coffee borer (Zeuzera coffeae): It is mostly seen in new clearings and occurs in batches. The larva bores
young stems and moves downwards and makes holes at intervals.
Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora, H. schoutedeni): It is a slender bug up to 10 mm in length and belongs
to the order Hemiptera. Nymphs (instars) and adults feed on the tea bush, they sucks the sap from buds, young
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leaves and tender stem. Leaves curl up, become gradually deformed and remain small. Feeding on the green
shoot and its tip may result in the death of the shoot.
Lepidoptera (butterflies and moth) pests
Large group of insects injurious to tea; flushworms, leaf rollers and tea tortrix are common caterpillar pests.
They make leaf nests by webbing the leaves, one above the other, feed from inside.
Tea tortrix (Homona coffearia) – Tortricide, Lepidoptera. Caterpillars make leaves folded longitudinally, they
make nests by webbing two or more leaves together. A single larva usually makes several nests. They also
attack fruits, shoots and flowers. The damage can be severe depending on the number of the caterpillars.
Willow Beauty (Peribatodes rhomboidaria): I is a moth of the family Geometridae. Willow Beauty larvae are
highly polyphagous and not adapted to a specific lineage of host plants. They feed on foliage of tea plants.
Turnip moth (Agrotis segetum): It is one of the most important species of the family Noctuidae,whose larvae
are called cutworms. It is a common European species but it is also found in Asia and Africa. They attack the
roots and lower stems of Camellia.
Carpenter moth (Teragra quadrangula): It is a potentially serious pest, especially in young tea. The moth itself
feeds on nectar from flowers and does little or no damage. The damage to tea is caused by its larva, a caterpillar,
feeding on the bark and leave ring barking stems and brunches. The leaves turn chlorotic, the plant withers even
if is well watered, and dies. In young tea it can cause a loss of up to 50 % of young plants, especially in dry
season.
Pest control:
• pest-free plant material
• soil insecticide-nematicide
• foliar pesticide use
• pesticide seed treatment
• biological control
• light trapping
19. Weeds and weed control
The weeds in tea plantations reduce the yield (15-40 %) and restrict branching and frame development in young
tea. They harbour and serve as alternate host for some important pest of tea. The weeds reduce plucking
efficiency. Creepers like Mikania contaminate plucked shoots. They reduce water flow in the drains.
Important weeds
Flossflower or blueweed (Ageratum houstonianum Mill.) – Asteraceae
Broadleaf carpet grass (Axonopus compressus (Sw.) Beauv.) – Poaceae
Shaggy button plant (Borreria articularis (Linn. f.) F.N.Will) – Rubiaceae
Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata (Linn.) King & Robins) – Asteraceae
Hill glory bower (Clerodendrum viscosum Vent) – Lamiaceae
Bermuda grass ( Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers) – Poaceae
Cock Grass(Digitaria scalarum) – Poaceae
Bitter Vine (Mikania micrantha HBK ex Kunth) – Poaceae
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Long-leaf paspalum (Paspalum longifolium Roxb) – Poaceae
Goatweed (Scoparia dulcis Linn) – Scrophulariaceae
Palm Grass (Setaria palmifolia (Koen) Stapf) – Poaceae
Common Wireweed (Sida acuta Burm. f.) – Malvaceae
Weed control
Weed infestation is severe in young tea and in the years following light pruning, medium pruning and deep
skiffing.
The critical period of weed competition in tea is from April to September. Weed control is the second most
expensive input in tea production costing. Manual removal/uprooting of weed is mostly followed in tea
nurseries and young plantations. Mechanical control in the form of cheeling (done by hand using a cheel hoe,
similar to a spade, with a long handle), sickling, hoeing or forking is commonly followed in young plantations.
Mechanical and manual control of weed are costly, time consuming, laborious (about 75 man days/ha annually
for young tea and 35 man days for mature tea). It also damages the surface root of young tea.
Chemical weed control
Pre- and post-emergence herbicides have been recommended for controlling weeds in tea. The choice of
herbicides is mainly dependent on the weed flora present, age of tea plantations and economic considerations.
The number of herbicide applications in a season depends on the type of weeds appearing after the initial
application.
Pre-emergence herbicides: simazine, diuron, oxyfluorfen.
Post-emergence herbicides: 2,4-D, dalapon, glyphosate, glufosinate ammonium.
Integrated approach of weed management: appropriate combination of different methods to reduce the weed
growth. Closer spacing of tea plants, inter-planting, using of quick growing planting materials will reduce weed
growth.
Alternative weed control methods
• mulch grass
• sawdust
• black polythene mulches
20. Harvesting
Plants grow in low regions are ready to harvest after three years and in high regions are ready to harvest after
five years. Vegetatively propagated plants can be harvested earlier.
They pluck new and tender "flush" (two leaves and a bud). The bushes are plucked every 7-14 days (depends on
altitude and climatic conditions of the growing area). A plucker can harvest about 25-40 kg fresh leaves/day.
They pick the leaves between 9:00 am and 3:00 pm when the leaves are in the best condition.
On large tea plantations the leaves are harvested by machines, but the quality of tea is much higher when the
leaves are hand-plucked.
In Asian countries, the tea-picking season starts with the beginning of spring and continues from May until
August. In Africa, the tea picking continues all year long.
The first tea crops of every year are called "new tea" and it is rich in flavor and aroma. The buds near the end of
a branch are considered to be the best quality. Lower quality one buds are found further down the branch.
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The tea flowers are also picked, dried and added to the blend to supplement the aroma.
Average moisture content of yields 75 to 80 % (2.5 kg. of harvested shoots will produce 0.5 kg of dried tea).
Tea plantations can produce 800 to 1000 kg/ha of processed tea. The yield may vary considerably due to
environmental factors, under good management, plantations which have good soil and climatic conditions may
produce yields of more than twice this amount.
Processing of harvested tea
Without careful moisture and temperature control during manufacture and packaging, the tea may become unfit
for consumption, due to the growth of undesired molds and bacteria. At minimum, it may alter the taste and
make it undesirable.
The most common types of tea are black and green tea. They come from the same plant but are processed
differently.
Tea can be bought in many forms – leaves, powder or tea bags. Some of them are added with flavors, like
vanilla, orange or lemon.
10.5. ábra - Figure 54. Processing of tea
Black tea
• First drying: The leaves picked from the tea plant are spread out over mats for vaporization in the sun.
Another method for drying the leaves is by blowing currents of warm air over them. In the drying phase, the
leaves lose about 60 % of their moisture.
• Rolling: The process of rolling the leaves has the purpose of releasing the liquids found in the leaf in order to
allow the fermentation and oxidization of the leaf to begin.
• Fermentation: During the leaves' fermentation process, the enzymes within the leaves are bound to the
oxygen in the air. This process causes the leaves to blacken and this is what creates the typical flavor of the
tea. The fermentation is conducted by blowing currents of humid air over the leaves. This stage takes about 3
hours.
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• Second drying: An additional drying stage is crucial to stopping the oxidization process. At the end of this
process, a long-lasting, stable product is produced.
Most black tea comes from Sri Lanka, Indonesia and eastern Africa.
Green tea
• First drying: After the tea picking, the leaves are sun-dried on bamboo trays for a few hours.
• Roasting: The tea leaves are "stir fried" in hot roasting pans in order to vaporize additional moisture.
• Rolling: The leaves are manually rolled.
• Second drying: The tea leaves are put back into the pans for additional drying and are also often rolled once
more. This is done in order to give them their final shape.
Green tea production does not include the fermentation stage. Without the oxidization which occurs during the
fermentation stage, the leaves retain their original green color and their delicate flavor. Japan is the biggest
producers of green tea.
White tea
• Tea picking: The tea buds are picked before ripening and opening.
• Drying: The closed buds are sun-dried.
The process of producing white tea does not include the rolling and fermentation stages. The delicate leaves are
hardly processed at all in order to preserve the original refreshing taste of the tea plant. White tea is produced in
small quantities and is very expensive.
Oolong Tea
The process of producing oolong tea is almost completely identical to that of black tea, except for a shorter
fermentation stage. This makes the flavor of oolong tea slightly weaker than that of black tea.
21. Storage of tea
Tea shelf life varies with storage conditions and type of tea. Black tea has a longer shelf life (2 years) than green
tea (maximum 1 year). Storage life for all teas can be extended by using desiccant packets, oxygen-absorbing
packets, vacuum sealing or store tea in closed containers in a refrigerator.
Improperly stored tea may lose flavor, acquire disagreeable flavors or odors from other foods, or become moldy.
22. Questions related to the tea production
1. Where are the tea species originated from?
2. What are the data of tea plant propagation?
3. What are the main diseases of tea plant?
4. What are the most dangerous pests of tea plant?
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1. Origin of alfalfa
Alfalfa is originated from southwestern Asia. There is evidence that it was cultivated in southwestern Iran
around 7000 BC. The name, alfalfa means best fodder in Arabic language. Now it is cultivated on all continents
(apart from the Antarctica).
2. Uses of alfalfa
• hay (dairy cows, beef cattle, horses, sheep, goats)
• meal and pellets
• silage, haylage
• grazing
• greenchop
• seed
• food (fresh alfalfa sprouts for salads)
• honey crop (it is important honey crop in some countries, for example in the USA)
11.1. ábra - Figure 55. The quantity of exported alfalfa meal and pellets in the world
(2010)
11.2. ábra - Figure 56. The main alfalfa meal and pellets importers of the world (2010)
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3. Taxonomic classification of alfalfa
Kingdom: Plantae - Plants
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta - Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta - Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Family:
Fabaceae
Genus: Medicago
Pea family
alfalfa
Medicago sativa L.
common alfalfa (blue alfalfa), lucerne
Medicago sativa subsp. falcata L. yellow flowered alfalfa
Medicago x varia Mart.
varied flowered alfalfa, sand lucerne
Medicago lupulina L.
black medic
4. Morphology of alfalfa
Alfalfa is a long living perennial plant, can live more than twenty years. Its persistence depends on many
factors, including the variety, the soil and the climatic conditions.
Roots
Alfalfa develops a straight, branched taproot that penetrates usually 2 – 4 m deep in the soil, but under favorable
conditions to a depth of 9 m. Branch roots mainly can be found in the upper 60 cm layer of the soil. Nodules
develop on the roots in which Rhizobium bacteria lives. The nodules are 3-4 mm long and 1-1.5 mm wide.
Branch roots bearing most of the nodules.
Nitrogen fixing
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Alfalfa plant lives in symbiosis with Rhizobium meliloti N-fixing bacteria. Rhizobium bacteria supply ammonia
or amino acids to the plant in return they receive organic acids as a carbon and energy source. The fixed amount
of nitrogen varies between 60-350 kg/ha/year.
Stem
The stem is herbaceous, 50-100 cm high. Alfalfa develops strong crown. Usually 5-20 stems grow from the
crown. Several short branches grow from each stem. The stem is glabrous, usually hollow.
Leaves
First leaves are unifoliolate, others are trifoliolate (3 leaflets). Leaves have highest protein content within the
whole plant. Leaves give up to 40-50 % of the above ground plant mass.
11.3. ábra - Figure 57. Trifoliolate leaf of alfalfa
Inflorescence
The inflorescences are oval racemes of 4-40 flowers. The flower colour differs in the species and varieties:
Medicago sativa: purple, blue or violet
Medicago sativasubsp. falcata: yellow
Medicagox varia: variegated (white, blue or purple)
The flower is a typical papilionaceous flower, consisting of tubular calyx of five unequal sepals and a five-part
corolla. It is small in size, usually 1.0-2.4 cm long.
Alfalfa requires being pollinated by insects to seed production. The pollinators are different species of wild bees
and leafcutter bees. Honey bees have less significance, due to the anatomy of the flower.
Fruit
The fruit is a pod with 2-8 small seeds. The pod has crescent shape with 1-3 spirals or sickles. The seeds are
yellow to olive-green to brown. They are kidney-shaped and very small. There are about 440000 seeds in one
kg.
11.4. ábra - Figure 58. Blue alfalfa
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11.5. ábra - Figure 59. Medicago x varia (photo: Dr. József Kruppa)
5. Chemical composition of alfalfa hay
Protein:
15-24 %
Fat:
2.6-3.8 %
Minerals:
2.5-4.0 %
Crude fiber:
23-38 %
NDF:
35-50 %
ADF:
25-45 %
NDF: neutral detergent fiber, ADF: acid detergent fiber
NEUTRAL DETERGENT FIBER (NDF) is an estimate of the percentage of cell wall material or plant
structured material in a feed. Measurement of this constituent is important because it is only partially available
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to animals. The lower the NDF percentage, the more of that hay an animal will eat. Thus, a low percentage of
NDF is desirable.
ACID DETERGENT FIBER (ADF) is an index of the percentage of highly indigestible plant material in a
feed or forage. This constituent is insoluble in acid detergent. ADF differs from crude fiber in that ADF contains
silica. Silica and lignin in plants are associated with low digestibility. The lower the ADF, the more feed an
animal can digest. Thus, a low ADF percentage is desirable.
11.1. táblázat - Table 18. Average crude protein content of alfalfa hay in various stages
of maturity (%, dry matter basis)
Immature
20-28
Early bloom
18-24
Mid-bloom
16-22
Full bloom
14-18
Mature
10-14
6. Development stages of alfalfa from harvesting
aspect (Al-Amoodi, 2011)
Early vegetative stage: Stem length less than 15 cm; no visible buds, flowers or seed pods
Mid vegetative stage: Stem length 15-30 cm; no visible buds, flowers or seed pods
Late vegetative stage: Stem length greater than 30 cm; no visible buds, flowers or seed pods
Early bud: 1-2 nodes with visible buds; no flowers or seed pods
Late bud: 3 or more nodes with visible buds; no flowers or seed pods
Early flower: 1 node with 1 open flower; no seed pods
Late flower: 2 or more nodes with open flowers; no seed pods
Early seedpod: 1-3 nodes with green seed pods
Late seed pod: 4 or more nodes with green seed pods
Ripe seed pod: Nodes with mostly brown, mature seed pods
7. Development stages of alfalfa
Germination: The radicle penetrates into the soil and starts absorbing water, then the hypocotyl elongates.
Emergence: The cotyledons are pulled over the soil surface.
Cotyledon: The two cotyledons grow and start photosynthesis.
Unifoliate: Appearing the first true leaf consisting only one leaflet.
First trifoliate: The first compound leaf appears consisting of three leaflets.
Third trifoliate: Appears the third compound leaf.
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Contractile growth and crown development: It begins one week after emergence and complete within 16
weeks.
Bud development: Small, round, hairy flower buds appear near the apex of the stem or an axillary branch.
Flowering: The flowers open in the racemes. They are 8-10 mm long. Wild bees and leafcutter bees pollinate
them. Flowering usually begins near the apex of the stem.
Pod development: The pollinated flowers develop pods. The small, spiral-shaped pods are green.
Ripening: Ripening pods become brown and dry. The seeds are mature.
8. Alfalfa types
Mediterranean type: This type has low winter hardiness and excellent drought tolerance. It grows quickly and
it is short lived.
Atlantic (Flemish) type: It is originated from northern France. It is moderately hardy and develops rapidly.
This purple flowered type is less persistent.
Eastern European type: This type is excellent winter hardy. It grows relatively slowly but is very persistent
type.
Turkistan type: It is originated from China. It recovers slowly after swathing. It has good winter hardiness.
Features expected from alfalfa varieties
• Productivity, yield stability
• Winter hardiness
• Standability
• High protein content
• Drought tolerance
• Disease resistance
• Adaptation ability
• High lysine content
9. Soil conditions
Alfalfa yields best on a deep, permeable soil with good soil moisture supplying capacity. It is very sensitive to
poor drainage and compacted soil conditions. Poor soil drainage also results in slow air change and slow
movement of oxygen to roots.
Alfalfa is most productive on loam or loamy soils that are both well drained and have good moisture-holding
capacity.
Alfalfa does not tolerate acid soils (pH below 6.2). This is partly due to nodulation requirements and partly to
sensitivity to manganese and aluminum present at low pH levels.
Groundwater table below 1 m is essential.
Good soils:
• pH: 6.2-7.8, adequate Ca- content
• chernozem
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• good quality brown forest soils
• alluvial soils
Not suitable soils:
• soils with high water table
• very heavy alluvial and meadow soils
• very loose sandy soils
• eroded and thin layer soils
• sodic or saline soils
10. Climatic conditions
Alfalfa can tolerate well the extreme conditions (high or low temperatures). It is hardy to -20 °C temperature. It
has high water demand, about 600 mm in the growing season, but in same time it has good drought tolerance.
The minimum temperature to germination is 2 °C. It will not germinate below 2 °C and above 40 °C.
Transpiration coefficient: 600-700 l/kg dry matter.
It requires warm, dry weather for seed production.
11. Crop rotation
Alfalfa plants produce biochemicals that are toxic to new alfalfa seedlings (allelopathy or autotoxicity). The
germination and the development of young seedlings are reduced, resulting in low plant density and weak,
stunted plants. We should wait 3-4 years before reseeding alfalfa in the same field.
Young alfalfa crop yields more than older, therefore plowdown after 3-4 years and resowing (not in the same
field) is more profitable than long term standing.
Good forecrops:
cereals (winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley)
hemp, rapeseed, sweetcorn, tobacco, poppyseed, potato, linseed
Medium forecrops:
maize for silage, maize
Bad forecrops:
peas, beans, soybeans, fababean, alfalfa, clovers, lupins, sunflower, sorghums,
sudangrass, sugarbeet
12. Nutrient supply
Alfalfa has high nitrogen demand, but it requires low level of nitrogen fertilization, because N-fixation ability. It
lives in symbiotic relationship with Rhizobium bacteria thatconvert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous
compounds useful to plant. It needs nitrogen fertilizer for the early development period only. Nitrogen fertilizer
should be spread in early spring. The potassium and phosphorous fertilizers should be broadcasted in fall during
the soil preparation. The phosphorous and potassium are relatively immobile in the soil therefore they also can
be applied for three or four years together. Applying boron fertilizer for alfalfa can be beneficial on sandy soils
that do not hold boron.
Specific demand
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Alfalfa removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg hay:
N:
2.7 – 3.0
P2O5 :
6.0 – 7.0
K2O:
1.5 – 2.4
Recommended fertilizer doses: (kg/ha)
N:
40 – 60
P2O5 :
35 – 40
K2O:
75 – 100
13. Soil preparation
Conventional tillage can be used to prepare soil to alfalfa sowing. Deep primary tillage is beneficial. Deep
plowing helps control the perennial weeds. Alfalfa needs well prepared, smooth, clod-free, firm seedbed
because it has very small seeds. Dusty surface of the soil (overworked) may result in crusting which means
barrier to emergence.
Early forecrop, with low plant residues:
• stubble stripping + closing (cultivator + ring-shaped roll)
• stubble maintenance + closing
• primary tillage (ploughing or loosening + ploughing)
• combined preparation
• seedbed preparation (combinator)
Late harvested forecrop, with many residues:
• Stubble chopping
• Heavy disking
• Ploughing
• Combined preparation, leveling
• Seedbed preparation
14. Sowing of alfalfa
Hard or impermeable seeds
There are hard seeds between alfalfa seeds. The percentage of hard seeds increases with maturity. Hard seeds
have thick seed coat that impermeable to water, and will germinate later. The delay in germination can be many
weeks or even many months. The percentage of hard seeds is 10-60 %. The proportion of the hard seed varies
depending on the variety and on the soil and climatic conditions. Hard seeds can be scarified for proper
germination.
Spring sowing:
Spring sowing is safer due to the adequate spring soil moisture. Alfalfa can be harvested one time fewer than in
case of late summer sowing. It should be sown very early in spring when the weather allows seedbed
preparation.
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11.2. táblázat - Table 19. Spring sowing data
Sowing time:
10 March - 10 April
Row spacing (cm):
12-15.4
Depth (cm):
1-2
Sowing rate (million/ha):
7-8
1000 seed mass (g):
1.7-2.6
Late summer sowing:
Success of late summer sowing depends on the presence of adequate soil moisture. Sowing in dry seedbed will
be not successful and the upper layer of the soils is dry in the late summer period, usually. The crown should be
in well-developed stage for surviving the winter. Seedling requires at least 6 weeks before the first serious frost
to develop the crown properly. The late summer sown alfalfa gives whole yield in next year if it established well
in fall.
11.3. táblázat - Table 20. Late summer sowing data
Sowing time:
10 - 25 August
Row spacing (cm):
12-15.4
Depth (cm):
1-2
Sowing rate (million/ha):
8 -10
1000 seed mass (g):
1.7-2.6
The seed of alfalfa is very small, the 1000 seed mass is 1.7-2.6 g therefore it should not be sown deeper than 1-2
cm. On heavy soils the sowing depth is 1 cm. The seed rate is 15-20 kg/ha. Seed inoculation can be beneficial in
case when there are not enough Rhizobium bacteria in the soil.
Sowing with companion crop:
The companion crop reduces seedling damage and helps in the weed competition during establishment. Oat,
spring barley, rye can be used as companion crop. Companion crops should be harvested in boot stage to avoid
competition with alfalfa. The seed rate of the companion crops is about 3 million/ha, a half of their generally
used seed rate. Alfalfa and companion crop seeds must be put in separate seed boxes.
Alfalfa may be sown together with some grasses like Cock’s foot (Dactylis glomerata), Tall fescue (Festuca
arundinacea), Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) and Hungarian brome (Bromus inermis). In this case the seed
rate of the grass is 4-6 million/ha and the alfalfa’s is 4-5 million/ha.
15. Diseases of alfalfa
Virus diseases
Alfalfa mosaic virus, AMV: The symptoms are white flecks, ringspots, mottles, mosaics or necrosis on the
leaves, malformation and dwarfing of the plant. It is transmitted by aphids.
Bean leaf roll virus, BLRV: Infected plant has upwardly rolled leaves other characteristic is the interveinal
yellowing.
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Alfalfa enation virus, (AEV): The infected alfalfa develops shortened internodes, the plant gets a bushy
appearance. Leaves are distorted and puckered.
Bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV): The main symptom is appearing the yellow mosaics on the leaves.
Red clover vein mosaic virus (RCVMV): Symptoms are vein mosaics, mosaics, streaking and stunting.
Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV): Mosaics can be seen on the leaves and the plant is stunting. It is also
transmitted by aphids.
Bacterial diseases
Bacterial wilt (Corynebacterium insidiosum): The leaves of infected plant turn to yellow. The plant is stunted,
later usually dies.
Bacterial leaf spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. alfalfae):It is a serious bacterial disease of alfalfa. Infected
plants suddenly wilt and die.
Crown and root rot (Pseudomonas viridiflava): The symptoms are wilting, chlorosis, leaf yellowing, stunting
and malformation of the plant organs.
Bacterial stem blight (Pseudomonas medicaginis): Brown necrotic spots appear on the stem.
Crown gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens):Large galls develop on the crown of the infected plant.
Fungal diseases
Downy mildew (Peronospora manschurica): Irregularly shaped, yellow to brown spots appear on the upper
side of the foliage. Underside the mycelium mass of the fungus can be seen. Cool, moist weather favors disease
spreading.
White mold (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum): It is one of the most damaging diseases of alfalfa. First small, brown
spots appear on the leaves and stems. Later the crown and lower parts of the stems soften and become
discoloured. White, fluffy mycelium mass grows on the affected parts. It can cause serious damage and yield
loss under favourable conditions.
Rhizoctonia root rot and stem blight (Rhizoctonia crocorum, R. solani): The fungus attacks the taproot
resulting in elliptical, sunken cankers on it. The root system rots. Later the disease spread into the crown causing
its rotting below the ground level. The losses can be significant.
Common leaf spot (Pseudopeziza medicaginis): Small, brown to black spots appear on the leaves. It causes
serious leaf drop resulting in high yield loss and reduced fodder quality. The severity depends on the condition
of the alfalfa plant. It is a widespread and significant disease of alfalfa.
Charcoal root rot (Macrophomina phaseolina): The pathogen is widely distributed in the soil. It is able to
infect alfalfa, when it is under stress, only. It causes general root rot in alfalfa crop. Above ground symptoms are
yellowing of the leaves and premature leaf drop.
Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta imperfecta): It is spread worldwide. All parts of the plant can be infected.
Symptoms are small dark-brown or black spots with yellowish border on the affected leaves, stems, petioles,
and pods. Infected stems break easily. The disease can develop very quickly. It is especially harmful under
irrigated conditions.
Rust (Uromyces striatus): Reddish brown pustules appear on the upper surface of the leaflets and petioles. Rust
decreases the assimilation area. In severe infection it significantly reduces the quantity and quality of the yield.
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum trifolii): It occurs more often in warm and wet weather. Large, sunken, ovalshaped lesions appear on the infected stems. The lesions are light brown coloured with brown borders. Affected
stems wilt suddenly and die back. The entire crown may be killed showing black-blue discolouration. The yield
losses caused by this disease can reach up to 20-25%.
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Verticillium wilt (Verticillium albo-atrum): The leaves of the infected plants become yellow and suddenly wilt.
The wilting spread stem to stem and the entire plant dies rapidly. It can be responsible for serious stand loss and
can reduce the yield by 50 %.
Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): It is a widespread and destructive soil-borne disease. Symptoms are
yellowing of the leaves and stunting or dwarfing. The vascular bundles in the cross section of the stem are
orange-brown colour. Affected plants may wilt and die rapidly.
Control
• plant pathogen-free seed
• crop rotation
• plow under crop residues
• fungicide seed treatment
• resistant varieties
• foliar fungicide
16. Pests of alfalfa
Wireworms, white grubs (Elateridae, Melolontha sp.): They are polyphagous soil inhabitant pests. Wireworms
are the larvae of the click beetles and the grubs are larvae of the chafers. They feed on the roots of alfalfa. The
damage can be significant depending on the number of the larvae.
Nematodes (Nemathodae): They are soil borne microscopic worms. They attack the root system of alfalfa. The
symptom is systemic chlorosis of the infected plant. Severely infected plants can be stunted and wilt.
Alfalfa ladybird (Subcoccinella vigintiquatorpunctata): This is a 3-4 mm long ladybird beetle. Adults and
larvae feed on the underside of the alfalfa leaves. They eat the lower epidermis and the green tissue, leaving the
other epidermis, resulting in characteristic transparent, parallel strips. It prefers warm weather. It can cause very
significant yield loss that can be up to 50 %.
Longhorned weevils (Sitona spp.): They feed on the leaves of the alfalfa causing foliar damage. The larvae of
the weevils specifically feed on the root nodules formed on the roots by Rhizobium bacteria.
Alfalfa beetle (Phytodecta fornicata): It is a major pest of alfalfa crop. The adults and larvae also can damage
alfalfa. They feed on the leaves chewing holes into the leaflets. The beetles also eat the buds and young shoot
ends. Since a female can lay 1000 eggs, the larvae appear in great number causing severe damage.
Alfalfa snout beetle (Otiorrhynchus ligustici): The adults are 12 mm long, dark grey, wingless weevils. They
feed on the foliage of alfalfa in spring. The larvae live in the soil and feed on the roots. Heavily damaged plants
die in summer. This pest can cause severe damage and plant loss in patches or stripes on the alfalfa fields.
Stink bugs (Heteroptera): Stink bugs extract plant sap with their tube-like mouthparts resulting in crinkled or
puckered leaves. They transmit virus diseases.
Aphids (Aphis spp.): Aphids suck plant sap from leaves and stems. Under favorable conditions they can
multiply rapidly and create large colonies. Heavy infestation leads to distortion and curling of leaves, and
general weakening of the plant. They transmit plant pathogen viral diseases.
Cutworms (Heliothis spp.): The caterpillars cut young plants near the surface of the soil. They can eat the
whole plant in seedling stage. They can cause serious damage also on regrowth after the alfalfa is harvested.
Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae): Symptoms are tiny yellow spots on leaves, webbing can be seen on the
leaves. Severely infected leaves turn yellow, then brown and they drop off. Soybean plants injured by mites
mature early and produce smaller seeds. Spider mites typically flourish in hot, dry weather.
Pest control
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• proper crop rotation
• plowing down crop residues
• pest-free seed
• pesticide seed treatment
• soil insecticide-nematicide applying
• foliar pesticide use
17. Weeds of alfalfa
Most dangerous species:
Dodder species (Cuscuta campestris, C. trifolii) (parasitic plants)
Foxtail species (Setaria spp.)
Wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis)
White goosefoot (Chenopodium album)
Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus)
Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli)
Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia)
Field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis)
Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense)
Couch grass (Agropyron repens)
Common reed (Phragmites communis)
Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense)
Cockleburs (Xanthium spp.)
Chemical weed control
pre-emergent spraying:
• It is effective at controlling many small seeded grasses and broadleaf weeds.
• Volunteer plants from the previous crop must be controlled in summer seeded alfalfa.
• In dry spring the pre-emergent treatments has weak effect.
post-emergent spraying:
• Postemergent herbicides can be applied when seedling alfalfa has two or more trifoliate leaves and the
majority of the weeds are 2.5 to 8 cm in height.
• proper weed identification is important for adequate chemical use
Weed control of established alfalfa
• Removing weeds from established alfalfa seldom increases the harvested yield, but the forage quality will be
increased.
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• Alfalfa does not spread into open areas, so removing weeds often means weed reinfestation.
• Some herbicides can be used in dormant period of alfalfa only to avoid the injury.
18. Irrigation
Any moisture stress during growth period reduces yield. Plant stress can occur when available soil moisture falls
below 50%. Thus, the recommended allowable depletion is 50 % of total available water content (AWC) of the
soil. High air humidity is essential in flowering to good seed production. Alfalfa is sensitive to over-irrigation,
due to its air demanding root system. Even short water-logged period can cause damage.
Critical periods in water supply:
• at seedling stage for new seedlings
• just after cutting for hay or other purposes
• at start of flowering stage for seed production
Yields are determined by the availability and use of water. Irrigation increases the yield up to 200 %, and yield
stability. Irrigation should be applied at one week after harvesting (cutting) when the injuries are healed.
Irrigated alfalfa has lower persistence, because the higher infestation level of fungal diseases and the poor
aeration of the irrigated soil.
19. Harvesting
Harvesting possibilities of alfalfa
• Hay
• Silage
• Haylage
• Dehydrated alfalfa
• Pasture
Hay:
Hay is cut and cured alfalfa, usually baled.
Leaves contain two-thirds of the protein and 75 percent of the total digestible nutrients (TDN) in alfalfa hay.
Harvesting alfalfa with as little leaf loss as possible is the key to making premium quality hay.
Swather cut machine or disk mower can be used to cut alfalfa. Three or four cuttings in a year are typical under
unirrigated conditions.
Towards maximum persistence cut alfalfa between first flower and 25 % flower stages. Proper timing is
important with respect to alfalfa maturity. Harvesting alfalfa at the 1/10 bloom stage provides the best
compromise between yield and quality. 35 to 40 days gap should be let between cuttings.
Alfalfa swaths aeration is important. The risk of quality loss caused by a rain is reduced when the hay is cured
rapidly. Tedding should do before the moisture fall below 35 % and leaves shatter. Uniform loose windrows
allow the even drying. Tedders are used to turn windrows for quick curing.
Alfalfa hay should be in a bale and under cover before it rains. Rectangular balers with good hay pickups and
gentle handling may cause a loss of only 2 to 5 %. Round balers with poor gathering and less gentle hay
packaging cause loss to vary from 5 to 15 %.
Silage:
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Cut, chopped and ensilaged alfalfa.
Haylage:
Cut and after short drying (prewilting) ensilaged alfalfa. Its benefit is the reduced protein degradation.
Dehydrated alfalfa:
Alfalfa is cut, chopped and dried quickly in a rotary drum dehydrator that is heated with gas (600-800 °C
temperature). This method stabilizes alfalfa while preserving its high protein content, vitamins and overall
nutritive value.
Pasture:
Grazing (cattle or swine). Grazing should be applied rotationally for preserve the future productivity of the crop.
Bloat is a potential risk of grazing alfalfa. It occurs when gases resulting from normal digestion are trapped in
stable foam. Saponin compounds contribute to formation the stable foam in the rumen.
20. Questions related to the integrated alfalfa
production
1. Where does the alfalfa origin from?
2. Explain the morphology of the alfalfa plant!
3. What plant family does the alfalfa belong to?
4. What are the development stages of alfalfa?
5. What is the nutrient demand of the alfalfa?
6. What are the most dangerous diseases of alfalfa?
7. What are the data of the alfalfa sowing?
8. What are the main steps of the alfalfa harvesting?
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12. fejezet - Week 14. INTEGRATED
PRODUCTION OF OTHER FODDER
CROPS (SORGHUMS)
1. Origin of sorghums
Cultivated sorghums are originated in north-eastern Africa, the gene centre is in Sudan and Ethiopia. The
domestication probably occurred at around 3,000-5,000 years BC. Now they are grown worldwide mainly in the
hot and dry regions.
Sorghums in Hungary
Grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)
Area: 3 – 5 thousand ha, yield: 1.5 – 2.0 t/ha
Silo (sugar) sorghum (Sorghum dochna var. saccharatum)
Area: 20 000 ha, yield: 32 – 35 t/ha
Sudangrass (Sorghum sudanense)
Area: 20 – 22 thousand ha, yield: 50 – 55 t/ha
Technical sorghum (Sorghum bicolor var. technicum)
Area: 3 000 ha, yield: 2 t/ha head and 1.0 – 1.5 t/ha grain
12.1. ábra - Figure 60. The main grain sorghum producers in the world (FAOSTAT
Database, 2010)
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12.2. ábra - Figure 61. The yield of main grain sorghum producers in the
world (FAOSTAT Database, 2010)
12.1. táblázat - Table 21. Potential yield of sorghums
Potential yield
Real yield
t/ha
Grain sorghum
8-10
4
Silo sorghum
80
25-35
Sudangrass
80-100
50-70
2. Taxonomical classification of sorghums
Kingdom: Plantae - Plants
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta - Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta - Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants
Class: Liliopsida - Monocotyledons
Subclass: Commelinidae
Order: Cyperales
Family: Poaceae - Grass family
Genus: Sorghum
Sorghums
Sorghum bicolor Moench
Grain sorghum
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Sorghum dochna var. saccharatum
Silo sorghum
Sorghum sudanense
Sudangrass
Sorghum bicolor var. technicum
Technical sorghum
Sorghum halepense
Johnson grass, invasive weed
The grain sorghums (Sorghum bicolor) were classified into five basic races:
• Bicolor: Grain elongate, glumes hold the grain, spikelets persistent. It is scattered on the African continent.
• Guinea: Grains are flattened, the grains are in 90 % between the glumes. Western Africa.
• Caudatum: Grains are symmetrical, glumes hold 50 % of the length of the grain. Uganda, western Kenya.
• Kafir: Grain more or less spherical, glumes clasping and variable in length. Cameroon, Tanzania.
• Durra: Grains are rounded, glumes very wide. Ethiopia, Sudan.
3. Uses of sorghum
Human food
Sorghum is used for human food all over the world. It is used as food mainly by poor people, especially in
Africa, Central America, and South Asia.
• flour, porridges, popped grain
• alcoholic beverages, and spirits
Feed
It is a significant crop for animal feeds in many countries.
• grain fodder
• silage
• pasture
Industrial uses
• fibers (wallboard, biodegradable packaging materials, paper)
• ethanol (biofuel)
12.3. ábra - Figure 62. Aerial roots of sorghums
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12.4. ábra - Figure 63. Grain sorghum
12.5. ábra - Figure 64. Tillers of silo sorghum
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12.6. ábra - Figure 65. Sudangrass
4. Nutrient content of the kernel of grain sorghum
Protein:
Lysine:
11 - 13 %
1.8 – 2.0 %
Carbohydrates: 68 - 73 % (from which 72-77 % amylopectin and 22-28 % amylose)
Oil:
2.8 – 3.0 %
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0.2 – 1.2 %
tannin:
12.2. táblázat - Table 22. Prussic acid (cyanide) content in the fresh leaves (mg/100g)
Growth stage
Silo sorghum
Sudangrass
Tillering
39.4
10.1
Stem extension
25.0
7.3
Heading
13.9
5.2
Flowering
8.2
3.5
Dough ripe
1.0
1.1
Regrowth
49.8
13.5
5. Soil conditions
Sorghums are not selective in soils. They can be grown on low fertility soils, but the yield decreases. They have
good tolerance to high salt content in the soil. Soils with pH above 5.5 are suitable. Cold, slowly warming soils
are not adequate for sorghums.
Not suitable soils:
very loose sandy soils, water-logged soils, very acidic soils,
6. Climatic conditions
Sorghums prefer warm climate due to their origin. Temperature is critical factor in every growing stage. HU: 2
600 –
-15 °C, but rapid emergence will occur only
above 16 °C soil temperatures. They require above 21 °C temperatures to adequate and rapid development. At
flowering stage they need minimum 23 °C. Low temperatures (lower than 15 °C) at flowering period cause
fertility problems.
The drought tolerance of sorghums is excellent. They can survive long droughty periods and recover rapidly
after a good rain.
They are C4 type plants and use water very efficiently. The transpiration coefficient is 130-140 l/kg dry matter.
7. Crop rotation
• Good forecrops: cereals (winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley, triticale, rye), rapeseed, potato
• Moderate forecrops: maize, sunflower
• Bad forecrops: sugarbeet, every crops with high water use, sorghums, alfalfa
Sorghums should be sown once in every three years on the same field.
8. Nutrient supply
Sorghum plants remove the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg yield
(grain or green mass):
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12.3. táblázat - Table 23. Specific nutrient demand (kg/100 kg):
N
P2O5
K2O
Grain sorghum
2.9
1.0
3.1
Sudangrass
0.45
0.12
0.35
Silo sorghum
0.42
0.14
0.32
12.4. táblázat - Table 24. Recommended nutrient doses (kg/ha)
N
P2O5
K2O
Grain sorghum
80-120
40-80
60-100
Sudangrass
120-180
60-100
90-120
Silo sorghum
90-150
40-90
60-100
9. Soil preparation
Conventional soil preparation can be used to sorghums. They do not have special requirements, the soil
preparation process is similar to that of maize, but the seedbed should be fine, firm and well prepared, due to the
small seed.
10. Sowing of sorghums
The sowing may begin when the soil temperature reaches 12-16 °C depending on the type and variety.
Sorghums have relatively small grains therefore they require shallow sowing (3-4 cm). The germinability of the
seed varies and can be as low as 75 %. The germination is slow and the seedlings are weak at the beginning.
Sudangrass can be sown from 25 April to 10 May as main crop. The sowing time can be delayed to 10 June as it
is sown as catch crop or cover crop. Earlier sowing results in higher yield. It yields best at high plant density so
the row spacing is 12-15.4 cm and the sowing rate is 1.2-2 million seed/ha.
Row spacing for grain sorghum can be 24 cm to low varieties or 50 cm to high varieties. The sowing rate is 250
000 seed/ha to wider row spacing and can be up to 500 000 seed/ha to narrower rows.
Silo sorghum is sown to 70 cm row spacing like maize. It can be sown also alternately with silo maize for better
silage quality.
12.5. táblázat - Table 25. Sowing data of sorghums
Grain sorghum
Silo sorghum
Sudangrass
Soil temperature:
12-14 °C
14-16 °C
14 °C
Sowing time:
25 April-10 May
1-15 May
25 April-10 June
Row spacing (cm)
24-50
70
12-15.4
Sowing rate (seed/ha)
250-500 thousand
300-400 thousand
1.2-2 million
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Depth (cm)
3-4
3-4
3-4
Seed mass (kg/ha)
10-12
12-14
50-55
11. Diseases of sorghums
Viral diseases:
Maize Dwarf Mosaic Virus (MDMV): Symptoms are mosaics or mottles particularly on the youngest leaves.
General chlorosis may also occur. Severely infected plants are stunted. Sorghum halepense (Johnsongrass) is a
perennial overwintering host of the virus. MDMV is transmitted by seeds and a broad range of aphids.
Bacterial diseases:
Bacterial leaf stripe (Burkholderia andropogonis): It is a major bacterial disease of sorghum. Linear purple,
brown or yellow lesions appear on the leaves. It is a soil-borne disease.
Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas syringae): Symptoms are small, irregular shaped, brown lesions with dark
margins on the leaves. It is one of the three major bacterial diseases of sorghums.
Fungal diseases:
Damping-off and seed rot (Fusarium spp, Aspergillus spp, Pythium spp, Rhizoctonia spp.): They infect the
germinating seeds or young seedlings from the soil, causing low plant populations. Affected roots turn to dark
brown or black, the stem rots at the basis and the plant dies. Damping-off disease can cause severe damage
when untreated seeds were sown.
Fusarium stalk rot (Fusarium spp.): Lower part of the stalk rots. The affected stalk lodge or break. Inside the
stalk red discolouration can be seen while outside it remains green. Infected plants die.
Smuts, covered, loose, head (Sphacelotheca (Sporisorium) spp.): They attack the head, or the grain of
sorghum. Fungicide seed treatments (covered, loose) or growing resistant varieties (head) control these diseases.
Control of diseases
Viral diseases:
controlling the aphids
virus-free seed
Bacterial diseases:
crop rotation
tolerant/resistant vareities
Fungal diseases:
crop rotation
plow under crop residues
fungicide seed treatment
resistant varieties
pathogen-free seed
foliar fungicide spray
12. Pests of sorghums
Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp, Pratylenchus spp.):
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Wireworms (click beetles) (Elateridae): Wireworms are the larvae of click beetles. Several species of
wireworms can attack sorghums. These pests feed on roots throughout the growing season causing root loss and
stand loss. They damage particularly the seedlings.
White grubs (Melolontha spp.): White grubs are the larvae of chafers. They are soil-borne pests and feed on the
roots of many plants, including also sorghums.
European corn borer (Pyrausta nubialis): The caterpillars feed on stalk of sorghums, tunneling in them.
Affected stalks can break easily. It can cause severe damage when the stalks break and the panicles fall down.
Flea beetles (Psylliodes spp.): These tiny beetles chew small holes in the leaves of young plants in spring.
Under favourable conditions they can cause serious damage in the just emerged seedlings. Later they have less
significance.
Aphids (Aphis spp.): Several species of aphids can damage sorghums. Aphids live in colonies on the leaf. They
cause mottling of the foliage and distorted growth. They also transmit dangerous virus infections.
Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae): They puncture the leaf and suck the sap from the cells. In case of severe
infection the affected leaves turn to silvery-gray colour and are covered by web of the mites. They can transfer
pathogenic plant viruses.
Pest control
• crop rotation
• insecticide soil treatment
• foliar spray with insecticide
• biological control
13. Weeds and weed control of sorghums
Most dangerous weed species in sorghum fields:
Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia)
Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense)!!
Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli)
Millet (Panicum miliaceum)
Cockleburs (Xanthium spp.)
Jimson weed (Datura stramonium)
Foxtail species (Setaria spp.)
White goosefoot (Chenopodium album)
Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus)
Field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis)
Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense)
Weed control of sorghums is not easy. Weed infestations in the early growing season will reduce yields
significantly. Early growth is very slow therefore the competitive ability of sorghums is low. In addition
sorghums are very sensitive to weed control chemicals. It would be essential to use antidote treatment of seeds
in case of some varieties and some herbicides to avoid severe injury.
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Pre-emergent spray: Herbicides are applied from sowing time to emergence of sorghums. The efficiency of the
treatment reduces significantly if there is no rain in two weeks after spraying. It is mainly to control grass weeds
and some broadleaf weeds.
Post-emergent spray: Herbicides are applied after the crop and weeds are emerged. It is mainly to control
broadleaf weeds.
12.6. táblázat - Table 26. Harvesting of sorghums
Grain sorghum
Silo sorghum
Sudangrass
grain
silage
silage
silage
green chop
pasturing
water content for save storage is 12 high sugar content sap (for sugar green chop
%
industry)
hay
standing hay
Silage - Forage sorghums
It should be harvested at the mid dough stage for ensiling.
Hay - Sudangrass and sorghum-sudangrass hybrids
It should be harvested at the 70-80 cm high.
Green chop - Sudangrass and sorghum-sudangrass hybrids
Green chopped forage can be made over the summer. First cutting should be taken by heading stage. Later it is
chopped after the plant is 45-50 cm tall. The elevated levels of prussic acid may cause problems.
Pasture - Sudangrass or sudangrass hybrids
It can be grazed any time after the plant has reached a height of 45 cm. The pasture grows rapidly depending on
the available water and nutrients. Regrowth could be high in prussic acid.
14. Questions related to the integrated production of
other fodder crops (sorghums)
1. What is the difference in uses of sorghums?
2. Explain the climatic conditions of the sorghum production!
3. What amount of nutrients need the sorghums?
4. What harvesting methods can be used in case of sudangrass?
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13. fejezet - Week 15. INTEGRATED
PRODUCTION OF RED CLOVER
1. Origin of red clover
Red clover is originated in central Asia, and ranges far into Siberia, native in most of Europe. It was cultivated
in Netherland in the XVIIth century. It was carried to England in 1645.
2. Uses and significance of red clover
• high protein content fodder crop
• hay (the quality of the hay is similar to that of alfalfa)
• silage
• pasture
• greenchop
• seed
• green manure
3. Taxonomical classification of red clover
Kingdom: Plantae - Plants
Subkingdom: Tracheobionta - Vascular plants
Superdivision: Spermatophyta - Seed plants
Division: Magnoliophyta - Flowering plants
Class: Magnoliopsida – Dicotyledons
Family:
Fabaceae
Genus: Trifolium
Pea family
true clovers (about 250 species)
Trifolium pratense L.
red clover (short-lived perennial)
Trifolium repens L.
white clover
Trifolium incarnatum L.
crimson clover
Trifolium alexandrinum L. Egyptian clover (Berseem)
Trifolium resupitanum L.
Persian clover
4. Nutrient content of red clover hay
Protein:
15-29 %
Fat:
2.6-3.6 %
Minerals:
5.5-18.0 %
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Crude fiber:
20-33 %
NDF:
21-56 %
ADF:
15-42 %
Red clover also contains phytoestrogens.
NDF: neutral detergent fiber
ADF: acid detergent fiber
5. Morphology of red clover
Roots:
Red clover has a well-developed branched taproot, it penetrates 1-2 m deep into the soil. The main root mass
can be found in the upper 60 – 70 cm deep layer in the soil. There are root nodules on the roots (Rhizobium
trifolii).
Stem:
The plant is short lived perennial. It has bushy appearance and is 40-100 cm high. The stem is branching, hollow
and erect. A thick crown develops from which 3-10 shoots emerge. The stems are light or deep green in colour.
Leaves:
First leaf is unifoliolate, later trifoliolate leaves (3 leaflets) develop. The leaflets bear pale “V” spot in their
center. Leaves give up to 40-50 % of the above ground plant mass. The leaves are pubescent.
Inflorescence
The inflorescence is a capitulum consisting of 50-100 flowers. The inflorescences develop at the tips of the
branches. The single flowers are papillionaceous they have five petals. The colour can be pink, red or purple.
Red clover is mainly cross pollinated (self sterile).
Fruit:
The fruit is a short, small pod. There is one seed in the pod. The colour of the seeds is yellow or purple.
13.1. ábra - Figure 66. Red clover seeds
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6. Development stages of red clover
Germination
Emergence
Cotyledon
Unifoliate (first true leaf)
First trifoliate
Third trifoliate
Contractile growth
Bud development
Flowering
Pod development
Ripening
7. Soil conditions
Red clover makes its best on fertile, well drained soils. Even so it tolerates better the poor soil conditions than
alfalfa, for example lower soil pH or poor drainage. The best yield can be expected on medium textured soils
with pH 6.2-6.8, usually.
Good soils:
• pH: 6.2-7.8, with adequate Ca- content
• chernozem
• good quality brown forest soils
• alluvial soils
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Unsuitable soils:
• very heavy alluvial and meadow soils
• poorly drained soils
• eroded and thin layer soils
• very acid soils
• sodic soils
8. Climatic conditions of red clover
Although red clover can tolerate extreme conditions also high or low temperatures, it prefers when the summer
temperature is moderately cool. It is hardy to -20 °C.
It has high water demand (600 mm), but also has good drought tolerance. It requires adequate available soil
moisture content throughout the growing season to high yields. Transpiration coefficient is 600-700 l/kg.
Red clover can withstand shading. This feature and the rapid early development result in that it is more
competitive to grasses than other legumes including also alfalfa. Warm, dry weather is essential to seed
production.
9. Crop rotation
Good forecrops:
cereals (winter wheat, winter barley, spring barley, triticale)
hemp, rapeseed, sweetcorn, tobacco, poppyseed, potato, linseed
Medium forecrops:
maize for silage, maize
Bad forecrops:
alfalfa, vetches, pea, bean, soybean, sunflower, sorghums, sudangrass
10. Nutrient supply
Red clover has high nitrogen demand, but nitrogen is supplied by nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium trifolii)
living in root nodules. Nitrogen fertilizer is required only for the first four-five weeks period, while the crop
establishes and the nodules develop. Soil test should be made to determining required amounts of fertilizer.
Potassium and phosphorous fertilizers should be distributed before the primary tillage.
Red clover plant removes the following quantities of nutrients from the soil profile for production of 100 kg
hay:
Specific demand:
N:
2.3 – 2.5 (kg/100 kg)
P2O5 : 0.5 – 0.7 (kg/100 kg)
K2O:
2.0 – 2.3 (kg/100 kg)
Recommended fertilizer doses:
N:
40 – 50 (kg/ha)
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P2O5 : 50 – 70 (kg/ha)
K2O:
80 – 100 (kg/ha)
11. Soil preparation
Conventional seedbed preparation methods can be used before red clover sowing. Moisture saving soil
preparation is much more important before late-summer sowing. Red clover requires well-prepared, good
quality, fine seedbed, due to its small seed and weak seedlings. Weed-free seedbed is essential to good
establishment and high yield with good quality.
12. Sowing of red clover
Spring sowing:
Red clover can be sown early in spring, when the weather conditions allow preparing fine seedbed. The sowing
depth is only 1-2 cm, similarly to that of alfalfa. They have similar size seeds.
There are hard seeds in red clover seeds, which have thick seed-coat not permeable to water. Hard seeds
percentage varies depending on the conditions of seed production. It may be 10-30 %. Higher than 10 %
proportion of hard seed should be compensated in sowing rate. Seeds can be scarified to increase the
germination
Inoculation of the seeds by adequate strain of Rhizobium bacteria is beneficial when sowing on those areas
where red clover was not grown in the last few years.
13.1. táblázat - Table 27. Spring sowing data of red clover
Sowing time:
1 March - 15 April
Row spacing (cm):
12-15.4
Depth (cm):
1-2
Sowing rate (million/ha):
8-11
1000 seed mass (g):
1.5-2.3 (diploid)
2.5-3.0 (tetraploid)
13.2. táblázat - Table 28. Late summer sowing data of red clover
Sowing time:
1 - 20 August
Row spacing (cm):
12-15.4
Depth (cm):
1-2
Sowing rate (million/ha):
8
1000 seed mass (g):
1.5-2.3 (diploid)
2.5-3.0 (tetraploid)
Late summer sowing:
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The available moisture content in the upper layer of the soil determines the success of late summer sowing.
Sowing into a dry seedbed will not be successful. The sowing time is August, but also the adequate soil
moisture should be taken into consideration. The row spacing and depth are the same as in spring sowing time.
Red clover can be sown with companion crop, in this case the seed rate is three-fourth of the above. The
companion crops may be small grain cereals (oat, spring barley, triticale, winter barley) or grasses).
13. Diseases of red clover
Virus diseases
Alfalfa mosaic virus, (AMV): There are yellow mosaic patterns on the leaves. Affected leaves often become
distorted. It is transmitted by aphids.
Bean yellow mosaic virus (BYMV): The main symptom is appearing yellow mosaics on the leaves especially
on young ones.
Red clover vein mosaic virus (RCVMV): Symptoms are mainly veinal but interveinal mosaics, streaking and
stunting of infected plants.
Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV): It causes stunting of the plants and yellow mosaics can be seen on the leaves.
Bacterial diseases
Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas syringae): Bacterial leaf spot is a less serious bacterial disease of red clover.
Angular brown-black blotches appear on the leaflets, stems or flower buds of the infected plants. It favors wet
and cool conditions.
Fungal diseases
Pseudopeziza leaf spot (Pseudopeziza trifolii): Small, dark (from brown to black) spots appear on the leaves. In
severe infections the affected leaves turn to yellow and dry down. It can cause serious damage.
Sclerotinia crown and root rot (Sclerotinia trifoliorum): There are brown lesions on the infected roots and
crown. The shoots wilt suddenly. Later the entire crown rots and dies. Often whitish fluffy mycelium growth
can be seen on the surface of the affected parts of the plant. Its characteristic is appearing black, hard sclerotia of
the fungus in the dead tissue.
Black stem and leaf spot (Phoma trifolii): Black spots appear on the leaves and stems. The most conspicuous
symptom is the blackening of the stem. It attacks the spring first growth, generally.
Black patch (Rhizoctonia leguminicola): Symptom is appearing brown spots with concentric rings on the leaves
and stems. It can affect the entire aerial part of red clover. The infestation occurs in patches on red clover fields
under cool and wet weather conditions.
Infected red clover causes the slobbering disease of cattle, sheep, goats and horses. The responsible compound is
the slaframine, (indolizidine alkaloid) produced by the fungus R. leguminicola.
Violet root rot (Rhizoctonia crocorum): This is a dangerous disease of red clover, because it causes plants to
die. The fungus attacks the roots and kills them. The disease is named after the violet colour of the mycelium of
fungus that covers the affected parts of the plant mainly at the ground line.
Sooty blotch (Cymadothea trifolii): It is a widely distributed disease of red clover. There are blackish-brown
spots on the underside of the leaves. It often causes stunting, premature yellowing and leaf drops.
Rust (Uromyces trifolii-repentis): The disease can be characterized by the brick-red pustules on the underside of
leaves and on the petioles. The assimilation area is reduced but usually it does not cause significant damage.
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum trifolii, Kabatiella caulivora): It is one of the most important clover diseases.
Brown spots and blotches appear on the leaves and stems. Infected flower heads droop in a typical “shepherd’s
crook” form. Severely attacked shoots wilt and die. It can cause severe damage.
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Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum): This is a soil-borne disease. It attacks the vascular system of the plant,
causing wilting and dying of the plant. The vascular system shows brownish discolouration.
Control:
• crop rotation
• plow under crop residues
• plant pathogen-free seed
• fungicide seed treatment
• foliar fungicide
• resistant varieties
14. Pests of red clover
Clover stem nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci): It is a widespread soil-borne pest. At least one biological race
attacks red clover. It is a microscopic endoparasite of stem, leaf and buds of red clover. Affected plants become
weak and cannot survive winter.
Longhorned weevils (Sitona spp.): Adults feed on the foliage of red clover. They chew lacy-patterns on the
leaflets. Larvae feed on the root nodules in the soil.
Clover root borer (Hylastinus obscurus): Larvae and adults (beetles) feed on the taproot and larger roots of red
clover. The boring activity weakens the plant and often causes vascular disorders. The injuries enter the
pathogen organisms into the inner tissues.
Wireworms and white grubs (Elateridae, Melolontha sp.): They are soil inhabitant pests. They feed on the
roots of red clover (and of other plants). Attacked plants become weak and stunted, the growth rate is decreased.
The degree of yield loss depends on the number of the pests in the soil.
13.2. ábra - Figure 67. Wireworms
Clover seed weevil (Apion trifolii): This is a dangerous pest in red clover seed production. Adults feed on the
leaves chewing small holes on them. Later they feed also on the developing buds. Larvae feed on the
inflorescence, causing significant damage. The yield (seed) loss can be 60-70 %.
Clover chalcis fly (Bruchophagus gibbus): It is tiny black wasp. The larvae feed within the developing seeds of
red clover. The proportion of infected seeds can be up to 40 %. It causes damage in seed production only.
Weevils (Tanymecus spp., Psalidium spp.): The adults feed on the young plants and soft spring shoots. They can
cause severe damage in young seedlings.
Aphids (Aphis spp.): Aphids suck the sap of the plant. They form large colonies in favourable conditions. In
severe infestation the attacked leaves and shoots become distorted. They also transmit virus diseases.
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Cutworms (Heliothis spp.): Cutworms are the larvae of Heliothis moths. The caterpillars can cause severe
damage especially in young seedlings. They feed on the soft, young plants, cutting them at the base usually.
Spider mites (Tetranychus urticae): They suck the plant sap. In severe infestation the leaves become pale or
show silvery discolouration. They can cause serious stress to the plants.
Pest control:
• proper crop rotation
• ploughing crop residues
• pest-free seed
• soil insecticide-nematicide use
• pesticide seed treatment
• foliar pesticide use
• biological control
15. Weeds and weed control of red clover
Most dangerous weeds:
Dodder species (Cuscuta spp) (parasitic plants)
Foxtail species (Setaria spp.)
Wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis)
Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia)
Field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis)
White goosefoot (Chenopodium album)
Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus)
Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli)
Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense)
Common reed (Phragmites communis)
Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense)
Cockleburs (Xanthium spp.)
Chemical weed control
pre-sowing: Effective to kill winter annual grasses and some broadleaf weeds. It needs incorporating 5-8 cm
deep into the soil.
pre-emergent: Effective at controlling many small seeded grasses and broadleaf weeds. In dry period the preemergent treatments has weak effect.
post-emergent spraying: post-emergent herbicides can be applied when seedling red clover is in 1-2 trifoliate
leaves stage. Proper weed identification is important for adequate chemical use. Do not graze or cut for hay for
120 days after treatment.
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16. Harvesting of red clover
Harvesting possibilities:
• Hay
• Silage
• Haylage
• Grazing
• Pasture
Hay:
Cut and cured red clover, usually baled. Red clover does not dry as rapidly as alfalfa after cut. First cutting of
the season gives the highest yield.
Desiccant treatment: K or Na carbonate is sprayed on the forage when cut to disturb the waxy cuticle and speed
drying.
Red clover is cut by swather cut machine or disk mower. Three cuttings in one season are typical. Harvesting
begins at the 20 % bloom stage. There are 35 to 40 days between the cuttings. Red clover should be cut
minimum 5 cm high to preserve crown.
The cut swaths aeration is important. The risk of quality loss caused by a rain is higher when the hay is cured
long time. The dried hay is tedded into windrows then baled by baler machine.
Silage:
Cut, chopped and ensilaged red clover.
Haylage:
Red clover is cut and after prewilting is ensilaged.
Grazing:
Animals graze the pure red clover crop or mixture.
Pasture:
Red clover does not tolerate continuous grazing therefore it should be grazed rotationally. The risk of bloating is
high especially in wet crop. Grazing red clover-grass mixture significantly decreases the bloating risk.
17. Questions related to integrated production of red
clover
1. Where does the red clover origin from?
2. Explain the morphology of the red clover plant!
3. What plant family does the red clover belong to?
4. What are the data of red clover sowing?
5. What are the main diseases of red clover?
18. References
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George Acquaah (2001): Principles of Crop Production. Theory, Techniques, and Technology. Pearson Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. ISBN 0-13-114556-8
John H. Martin – Richard P. Waldren – David L. Stamp (2006): Principles of Field Crop Production. Pearson
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio. ISBN 0-13-025967-5
John L. Havlin – Samuel L. Tisdale – James D. Beaton – Werner L. Nelson (2005): Soil Fertility and Fertilizers.
Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. ISBN 0-13-027824-6
J.M. McPartland, R.C. Clark, D.P. Watson (2000): Hemp Diseases and Pests, Management and Biological
Control, CABI Publishing
Engelbrecht, C. J., Harrington, T. C., and Alfenas, A. (2007: Ceratocystis wilt of cacao—A disease of increasing
importance. Phytopathology 97: 1648-1649.
Lisa Al-Amoodi (ed.) (2011): Alfalfa Management Guide, American Society of Agronomy, Inc. Crop Science
Society of America, Inc. Soil Science Society of America, Inc. Madison, USA, ISBN: 978-0-89118-179-8
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