Download 154 In this last chapter, we shall pay very brief attention to the

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13. THE PHENOMENON OF LIFE
In this last chapter, we shall pay very brief attention to the phenomenon of life
from a physical viewpoint. On the Earth it manifests itself in nearly uncountable forms,
from relatively simple organisms to highly structured creatures, including Man. We may
speculate, and cannot entirely rule out, that life may also exist somewhere else in the
Universe.
A. Evolutional concepts and natural selection
According to the presently prevailing views in the biological sciences, life is
considered merely a certain peculiar aspect of our material world, originally arising in a
spontaneous manner in a number of physico-chemical random processes from some
prebiotic inorganic chemical substances. In these and the subsequent processes, it would
gradually evolve, after prolonged periods of time comprising billions of years, from
single cells into all observable living forms, through mutations and natural selection.
These views stem from two obvious facts: (a)an observation that all the living
forms are certain particular aggregations of matter (consisting basically of atoms and
molecules) and, (b)paleontological data. The latter show evidence that at some earlier
epoch, about four billion years ago, there was no life on Earth. It appeared, as the earliest
discovered microfossils indicate, about three and half billion years ago. The
paleontological data further reveal that there was a trend toward a greater complexity of
species with time ―from the first isolated and primitive forms of unicellular organisms,
such as various kinds of bacteria and algae, to more complex multicellular forms that
appeared later. This evolutionary trend, customarily depicted by the "evolutionary tree of
life," culminated with the appearance of our own species, Man.
The evolutionary concept of life through natural selection, is mainly due to the
English naturalist, Charles Darwin, which he formulated in the "The Origin of Species"
(1859). While he was chiefly concerned with the biological aspects of evolution, modern
evolutionary theory tries to extend the concept of evolution to explain the very origins of
life, which, as we have already stated, are believed to be chemical and biochemical in
nature.
To lend support to the latter views, various laboratory experiments were
conducted. The best known are those conducted by the American chemists Stanley Miller
and Harold Urey in 1953. They tried to create organic substances present in living
organisms from simple inorganic chemical components, within a simulation of
conditions supposedly prevailing in the atmosphere and oceans of the primordial Earth.
Applying electric discharges to a mixture of certain gases (composed typically of
methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water vapour), simulating the primitive Earth′s
atmosphere, a number of organic substances contained in living forms were thus
synthesized. Among them were various amino acids commonly found in proteins, certain
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simple fatty acids, urea and other organic compounds. Although not all the organic
compounds required for life could be thus synthesized, the experiments, nevertheless,
indicate that at least some of the building blocks of life might have arisen on the
primordial Earth in spontaneous processes. That it could have been of entirely
spontaneous origin is, however, impossible. This is ruled out on physical grounds, as we
shall briefly discuss in the following passages.
B. Non-spontaneous origins of life
In Chapter 1 (A), we have stated that inexhaustible manifestations of various
living forms cannot be described physically, even in probability terms. This is because
their (extrinsic) behaviour possesses an arbitrary character being physically
indeterminate. How, then, could life arise in purely natural processes, if (to an observer)
it manifests itself in basically aphysical ways?
It is this conflict between indefiniteness of various possible ways in which life may
manifest itself phenomenologically and definiteness of natural processes (the
uncertainty principle being of no relevance in this connection) which raises serious
doubts as to the possibility of its entirely spontaneous origin. Nevertheless, there are
further arguments, both theoretical and empirical, which likewise point out that life
could not have evolved solely spontaneously.
We obviously miss an important additional principle, without which the
(relatively sudden) rise of life on Earth ―and, possibly, somewhere else in the
Universe― cannot be adequately explained. We find ourselves in a situation resembling
earlier attempts trying to explain the rise of our Universe. Prior to the appearance of an
advanced form of the Big Bang Theory, there was no adequate concept in this regard
and, according to some proposals, it was even assumed that the Universe would exist
more or less unchanged eternally, having no origin. Regarding the phenomenon of life, a
hypothesis also appeared that it could spread spontaneously throughout the Universe
(the panspermia hypothesis), which similarly evaded an explanation of its origin.
As according to our theory, our Universe cannot have an eternal existence and
originated in a Big Bang, life also must have its origin; and, being an aphysical
phenomenon, it should analogously as the Big Bang event (PI and the intrinsic theorem
of Gauss), have an extra-universal (extra-cosmic) cause. With this, we shall associate the
above missing new principle that would explain the origin of life. Let us call it creative
principle, giving more explanation to it in another passage later (Section D, below).
However, let us now expound further arguments showing that life cannot develop
in solely spontaneous processes. From a physical point of view, because all living forms
are composed of atoms and molecules, we could (in principle), express their particular
wave fields in terms of the previously derived wave equations of a 2U-space field. Wave
equations of the particle field would apply to this case ―and would involve their
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necessary combinations relevant for a respective living form. We know from the
preceding chapters that all wave equations, these special ones not excepted, could
(theoretically) only be solved for certain discrete equilibrium energy states.
As we may definitely assume, (quasi-)equilibrium physical conditions form and
exist in stars that lead to the production of heavier elements, while hydrogen, helium,
and possibly some other light elements were produced during the earliest 2U-phases of
the expansion of the Universe, when equilibrium conditions might also have existed for
some very brief periods of time. Molecules are formed in ionic and covalent bindings and
fairly intricate molecules may thus result ―particularly in association with the from the
point of view of energy advantageous carbon bonds, which enable the formation of very
complex organic molecules.
Like atoms, molecules, too, can exist in only certain discrete energy states,
reverting likewise to a lower energy state when excited. This means that the formation
and continuing existence of their wave fields also requires quasi-stable equilibrium
conditions. There are thousands of various bonds in the most complex organic molecules
carrying a genetic code and taking part in metabolic processes ―as in DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA (ribonucleic acid), proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. It is
then difficult to imagine how a confinement field with a relatively low energy level, which
of necessity must be present in the respective interactions, could arise and remain stable
for sufficiently long intervals of time to lead to their spontaneous development.
This is impossible in existing conditions. Nevertheless, physical, not very
dissimilar conditions could have prevailed in this respect on the primordial Earth. The
necessary containment fields could also not have arisen in primeval oceans or lakes
―the supposed cradles of life― where only highly limiting conditions might have existed
in this regard. In connection with the above-mentioned laboratory experiments,
eventually, only a few basic organic compounds were formed. Also, exposing a more
complex organic molecule, such as a protein, DNA, and eventually a whole cell, to
naturally occurring electrical discharges (induced by lightning), if they were not lethal,
would, most probably, damage them irreparably. Applying other sources of energy, such
as ultraviolet radiation, particle beams, or heat, would most probably lead to similar
effects.
Subsequent random processes in seas or lakes (as is anticipated in the abovementioned modern concept of the evolution theory), which build the necessary, most
complex organic molecules from available, more primitive organic components (arising
through the mechanisms mentioned), also do not seem to be possible, and may be
excluded. There would not be enough time for the formation of even the most primitive
cells, which are the basic units of life; and, as is known from the fossil record, unicellular
as well as multicellular living forms appear in an astonishing abundance relatively soon
after the appearance of the first occurring living forms. Let us consider, for instance, the
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organic macromolecule DNA, which carries genetic information. This alone (not even
taking into account its arrangement in the system of chromosomes and genes) is
incomparably more complicated than any of the most complicated molecular forms of
inorganic matter. In Man this is composed of billions of atoms. This leads to
prohibitively small probabilities of its random occurrence, and yet the evolution of Man
as a distinct species has occupied, as anthropological finds indicate, only a few million
years.
Concerning these probabilities, some information may be gained from the assessment of
probabilities of random chaining of some elements that form living systems. It shows up that already
comparatively short chains encompassing merely several hundreds of elements (treated as independent
events in random trials) indicate exceedingly minute probabilities of their random formation (see
Appendix XI, as well as the comment there) and not a single favourable case of the particular chains should
materialize in our Universe. In this assessment it was, moreover, assumed that the formation process
would proceed during its whole age (of 15 milliard years) and with independent trials performed at Planck’s
time intervals (10−43 s) on all particles in the Universe (~1080, Chapter 12, B).
The extremely unrealistic conditions anticipated for the formation processes disprove the oftenadvanced arguments that given the enormous lengths of time available for life’s evolution, along with the
immense extension of our Universe and innumerable planets in it, this should spontaneously develop ―on
some planets in the least. It is, however, a deceptive illusion. This is because with long chains of events, the
factors that relate to chain probabilities exceed by many orders those that characterize numbers of possible
events in our Universe. With chains having thousands and millions of elements, which is typical of living
systems, the particular probabilities then become so small that a single favourable outcome of their random
formation might (theoretically) only materialize in a universe that would be thousand and million times
larger than our own Universe or in a number of separate universes (multiverse concepts).
It should be remarked that all the above probabilities are purely theoretical because, for physical
reasons expounded earlier in this chapter, the respective chains would collapse before reaching the
necessary organic complexity. The exceedingly low probabilities derived in our considerations (Appendix
XI) contrast with the abundant life occurring on Earth in many forms and millions of species. This
indicates that life could not have evolved in random spontaneous processes, but only in some very specific,
controlled processes of evolution.4) Such processes can only be those by which life maintains itself. This is
required by the unity of nature, and equally holds for particles and fields.
But a cell is much more complicated than DNA. It is a tiny universe in itself with
many additional functions keeping it working and capable of self-replication. The
information content of a simple cell is estimated to be around 1012 bits, exceeding by
several orders that of a large encyclopaedia, being, regarding its minute size,
unparalleled in capacity when compared to even the most modern man-made carriers of
information. However, not only cells and some isolated living forms are necessary for the
evolution and maintenance of life. These should develop in their totality within a
complete ecological system for their general survival. The very low probability of a
random occurrence of such a system and its integral function totally surpasses our
4)
Admitting a contrary conclusion would correspond to the paradoxical case of a lottery in which, despite a very low chance, (nearly)
everybody wins. Needless to say that it would be an impossible lottery.
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imagination. Moreover, this system should be extended to the global environment of the
Earth.
Furthermore, there is an evident tendency for nature to form uniform structures
of repeated units, rather than complicated ones with non-repetitive patterns. This
concerns both their micro and macro forms, extending from atoms to crystals, which are
large assemblies of regular atomic and molecular patterns. This is because the respective
containment fields tend to be (or to become) homogeneous rather than irregular and
highly structured (PV, PVI). For example, more complex chemical elements with high
atomic numbers are, generally, less stable than those which are simpler and have lower
atomic numbers.
The divide between inorganic and organic matter is thus vast, and anything short
of the required structure would be totally non-functional, a non-living form. If it were
bridged by random processes, arriving at the right configuration of even a single cell
would amount to a miracle. And there are thousands of kinds of cells, although these
diverse kinds can be classified into two types: procaryotic and eucaryotic, according to
whether they lack or contain a membrane-bound nucleus. The procaryotes mostly form
thousands of unicellular organisms, but there is also a large variety of cells of the
multicellular species. These are formed exclusively by eurocaryotes.
We see that even at the cell-level there is already a great diversity of living forms.
With multicellular systems this is considerably more enhanced, comprising a
tremendous number of millions of living forms. This abundance is explained by the
afore-mentioned random mutations and natural selection. These are supposedly the
driving mechanisms of the evolution of the species.
Mutations occur for a variety of reasons. Even if occurring very seldom, errors
may arise in the DNA self-reproduction process, and changes may also occur in the
genetic material through its natural exposure to radioactive and cosmic rays, and to
some chemical substances. The rate at which mutations occur due to natural causes is
low (estimated to be at a rate of one in ten thousand up to one in many millions of
reproductions). As these changes are random, and consequently abnormal, they are most
probably undesirable generally, and deleterious to an organism.
Consequently, a favourable mutation has a very low probability. However, in
order to evolve into a distinct species, a whole chain of favourable mutations is required.
It is understandable that this may more frequently happen with simple living forms.
Actually, as is known, mutations quite frequently occur with viruses, which appear to be
the simplest known living forms. Their mutations, often displaying a new type of
resistance to previously (for them) harmful substances, cause recurrence of varied types
of certain diseases and epidemics. With more complex living forms, the chain of
favourable mutations should, accordingly, be longer, and it would have to be very long
indeed to lead to the development of the most complex creatures.
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Thus, essentially, the same situation arises with the evolution of an individual
species as with the spontaneous chemical and biochemical development of the first
simplest living forms and of the first cells, requiring likewise the occurrence of a long
random process. A unique sequence is again necessary. Now, instead of physicochemical interactions in the spontaneous development of the primordial forms of life, a
unique chain of mutations is required to lead to a certain species.
Its uniqueness is well demonstrated by the existing species. Be it an elephant, a
lion, a bird, a hare, a human, or any of the many other species of which we have
mentioned only a few, they all exhibit a remarkable unity. Humans, for example, though
existing in several races, form a definite, distinct group of creatures having the same
functional features. Naming only the most typical, these include: the same kind of
organs, erect posture, bipedal locomotion, a hairless body of a common basic shape,
language. The mutations controlling the evolution of our species from an earlier protospecies would unavoidably have formed a unique single chain of basic mutations.
Otherwise, homo sapiens could not have arisen.
All this would have to have happened merely by a random combination of
favourable mutations affixed subsequently as permanent by natural selection. However,
the unity of the species necessitates the emergence of either its single exemplar at a
certain time, or of several, and eventually of many of them evolving along the same lines
independently at different times and at different locales. Any of these alternatives, and
the last ones in particular, seem to be extremely unlikely, just as in the case of the
spontaneous emergence of primeval cells, and of life in general.
There is also a question of the proto-species from which another species evolved.
It is said that natural selection chooses the living forms which are best suited to
conditions of life. Such forms, however, are the most primitive ones, having a minimum
of requirements regarding environment, food and reproduction. And indeed, bacteria
and other unicellular organisms are living forms that occupy all sorts of media available
on Earth. What, then, is the natural preference that a new species has over its protospecies? The former, being a product of the preceding evolution, should also be a viable
form well adapted to life; otherwise, we entangle in contradictions.
Let us make some comparisons between our species and a marmot, or a migratory
bird, for instance. Marmots can survive severe conditions of winter in hibernation, while
the migratory birds, which can cover great distances in a comparatively short time,
spend the winter in places situated in more favourable climatic zones; and birds,
possessed of a flying capacity, have a general advantage over non-flying species
(including Man), because they are capable of escaping danger more easily. And yet, life
did not evolve only along these lines, but also took "riskier routes," developing into an
astonishing number of living forms.
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From what we have said, "natural selection" appears to be a very subjective and
vague concept. It cannot be the principal driving mechanism of evolution. But it
obviously plays an important role in maintaining a sufficient (and healthy) population of
any particular species, and thus of life in general.
The most compelling reason that life could not have originated and developed in
random processes is again physical. We have found (Chapter 12) that entropy in our
Universe steadily increases and that in its last stage, when it collapses into cosmic black
holes, there will, likewise, be no exception. Dissipating its remaining energy in Hawking
radiation, the Universe, eventually, will cease to exist.
Thus, apart from local fluctuations of short duration, in (ideally) closed systems,
there are no natural physical processes in the Universe that could reverse the growth of
entropy for significant intervals of time, and an ordered system gets gradually more and
more disordered. However, the characteristic duration of highly organized living forms
usually comprises relatively long intervals of time before these degrade and die. They
may even ―when in a stage of general growth when developing into an individual
creature from a fertilized egg, for example― radically increase the complexity of their
form, decreasing the entropy of the system for considerable intervals of time.
Evidently, such a decrease in entropy always happens at the expense of its even
larger increase in its surroundings and, in fact, in the whole Universe. Living systems are
not closed, but open. Although they radiate some energy (mostly thermal) into their
environments, they receive more energy from the outside than they radiate, increasing or
maintaining their complexity by building new organic molecules and cells. As any intake
of external energy by a living system ―while maintaining or decreasing its entropy― is
accompanied by an even larger increase of entropy of the external system, this is clearly
an asymmetric system. Living systems ―as they do not minimize their external
interaction― violate our postulate V; and not being symmetric, also violate the postulate
VI, as well as the second law of thermodynamics. Such systems, consequently, cannot
arise in spontaneous physical interactions and must be aphysical in origin.
C. Life´s struggle for stability and Nb-parities between physical
and living systems
That life strives for stability in its processes, rather than supporting mutations, is
evident from the choices made of the most essential chemical elements to build a living
organism. Altogether there are 19 elements which happen to be present in organic
systems; however, only six of them ―carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorus
and sulphur― form the basic elements which participate in the structure of large organic
molecules such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. The basic six
elements all have their atomic numbers Z < 20 (sulphur has the highest of Z = 16) and
thus belong to the group of the 20 most stable elements (see also Chapter 11, C, d).
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A significant property refers to the number of amino acids used in the living
structures. Although more than 100 amino acids occur naturally, only 20 identical amino
acids are used in the two most vital organic components ―DNA, and proteins― of
virtually all living creatures from protozoa to plants and animals. (In humans, the body is
unable to synthesize some of these amino acids, and we must acquire them in our diet.)
No obvious biochemical reason is known for nature′s selection of only these 20 amino
acids.
Furthermore, the genetic code (see Table 6 below), likewise appearing as common
to all organisms from bacteria to Man, exhibits a structure, the formal basis of which is
analogous to the scheme of elementary wave equations (18) of a 2U-space field. A
conspicuous coincidence occurs here between the four nucleotide bases characteristic for
the code, and the four variables x, y, z and t of (18), alternating in a like manner in
columns and lines of the two schemes.
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TABLE 6
Genetic code in mRNA language
SECOND LETTER
FIRST
LETTER
U
C
A
G
THIRD
LETTER
U
C
A
G
Phenylalanine
Serine
Tyrosine
Cysteine
U
Phenylalanine
Serine
Tyrosine
Cysteine
Leucine
Serine
(End Chain)
(End Chain)
Leucine
Serine
(End Chain)
Tryptophan
Leucine
Proline
Histidine
Arginine
Leucine
Proline
Histidine
Arginine
Leucine
Proline
Glutamine
Arginine
Leucine
Proline
Glutamine
Arginine
Isoleucine
Threonine
Asparagine
Serine
Isoleucine
Threonine
Asparagine
Serine
Isoleucine
Threonine
Lysine
Arginine
Methionine
Threonine
Lysine
Arginine
Valine
Alanine
Aspartic Acid
Glycine
Valine
Alanine
Aspartic Acid
Glycine
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
A
G
U
C
Valine
Alanine
Glycine
A
Valine
Alanine
Glycine
G
Glutamic
Acid
Glutamic
Acid
The genetic code consists of three-letter words called triplets. Letters designate four nucleotide bases:
uracil, cytosine, adenine and guanine. Each triplet defines a single amino acid or a single instruction such
as “end chain.” To determine the meaning of a triplet, the table is read across from left to right, then down,
then across from right to left. E.g., the triplet UGG specifies the amino acid tryptophan. In DNA, uracil is
replaced by thymine.
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In RNA the four nucleotide bases are: uracil (in DNA, uracil is replaced by
thymine), cytosine, adenine and guanine. In Table 6 (given for mRNA, i.e. messenger
RNA, which is a disposable copy of one of the strands of DNA, carrying information for
the synthesis of protein) they are represented by their first letters U, C, A and G. The four
letters further correspond to the four quantum numbers of the elements. This augments
possible relationships (stemming from the 16 elementary wave equations in (18)) to a
total of 64. The latter correlation, moreover, also arises with respect to the 16 aromas of
particles. The genetic code thus possesses a definite symmetry with regard to the particle
field.
Three letters of the genetic code illustrated in Table 6 form (words called)
"triplets" (or "codons" in mRNA), which individually identify each of the 20 amino acids.
Some of the 43 = 64 triplets define the same amino acids, and certain triplets are only
instructions for ending the sequence.
Another specific feature appears with the spatial structure of DNA. This organic
macromolecule has a ladder-like structure twisted about its long axis, thus forming a
double helix. It is notable that there are 10 base nucleotides in one complete turn of the
helix. Recalling the Nb-parities which concerned the number of wave equations in
subspaces A, B and C (Chapter 5, A, b), cross-over pion group periodicities in the
elements (Chapter 7, A, c), and periodicities of the elements in a gravity field (Chapter 11,
C, d), we observe further coincidences in Nb-parities with the 10 base nucleotides of
DNA, as well as with the 20 amino acids used in living organisms.
All the stated coincidences are prominent and can scarcely be random. From a
physical point of view and in conformity with our theory, organic compounds and
complex molecules are also some sort of waves of our Riemannian complex 2-space
continuum. We, therefore, may expect that they should also reflect its general properties,
to which, among others, the mentioned Nb-parities also belong.
Owing to the homogeneity of our space-time continuum, and to the general
validity of physical laws in the Universe, the genetic code should likewise have a
universal validity. Globally valid relationships (and periodicities), would also generally
imply homogeneity of the basic organic components in all the living systems, as it is with
particles and the elements.
A more definite and qualified judgement with regard to the indicated coincidences
and correlations would, however, require a special physical (and, eventually, also a
chemical) analysis. Applying the respective wave equations, periodicities possibly arising
with the four nucleotide bases involved in the genetic code, and in the atomic and
molecular structure of DNA organic macromolecule, might be studied, provided, of
course, that the problems are manageable.
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D. The Biological Big Bang
We have stated earlier above (Section B), after having expounded several, chiefly
physical reasons, that living systems cannot arise in spontaneous physical processes and,
therefore, must be aphysical in origin. This means that there must have been an outside
agent transcending the physical reality to give rise to life.
We thus ascertain that there was a second instance of the transcendence of
physical reality. The first related to the origin and evolution of our Universe in a Big
Bang. Similarly, as with the primeval Big Bang giving rise to our Universe, we may then
speak of a "Biological Big Bang," adhering to the same terminology, although the nature
of the latter event was very much different. Both, however, refer to the same cause that
we named "creative principle."
It gave rise to life through an inevitable sequence of biochemical events beginning
billions of years ago, when the first signs of life appeared. These two cosmic events,
crucial to the appearance of our Universe and our own existence, thus represent two
singular stages, both of which must have had an extra-universal cause. Of this we are,
however, unable to say anything more definite. Here, the realm of physics ends, and that
of metaphysics begins.
The latter conclusion of a singular origin of life, although supported by our earlier
physical arguments, may perhaps be a little amazing, for it is contrary to the views of
contemporary evolutional biologists who ascribe life′s origin to spontaneous natural
causes. Actually, it is no more amazing than a singular origin of our Universe ―an idea
that at first also seemed to be very unnatural.
There are still some other aspects that we have not discussed that will
complement an overall picture of the phenomenon of life and its singular origin. These
we shall now mention. The renowned French scientist and physician, Louis Pasteur,
demonstrated in 1862 that primitive organisms cannot arise spontaneously in a sterile
solution, unless this is contaminated by some micro-organisms ―and this has been
confirmed by more refined experiments. These results are expressed by the well-known
aphorism: "Omne vivum ex vivo" (All life from life).
Of course, such experiments provided only very limited evidence. They disproved
a spontaneous origin of primitive living forms in only one sterile, very simple
homogeneous environment, and within a short span of time: and an exhaustive proof is
impossible in principle, because we cannot simulate and perhaps cannot know all the
possibly existing physico-chemical conditions on Earth. Nonetheless, it is now a
generally adopted view (also accepted by those evolutionary biologists who believe in the
spontaneous origin of life), that life cannot evolve a second time and that there cannot be
a continual process of its generation. This is because in the present oxygen-based
atmosphere, the eventually arising primitive organic compounds would be rapidly
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oxidized and broken down. And, actually, there is nothing observed that would indicate a
possible spontaneous generation of life at the present epoch.
We observe, on the contrary, that many of the living species on Earth are becoming extinct at an
alarming rate, evidently caused by the adversely changed conditions for life in the Earth´s natural
environment: pollution by the activities of "homo sapiens," and extermination of certain species by
humans´ excessive economic exploitation and hunting. Furthermore, numerous plant species are
disappearing, and have already become extinct, due to rapidly changing and unfavourable environmental
conditions. Forests, the main suppliers of oxygen, are largely being destroyed, especially in the tropics, but
in many other places as well. (In 1977, the author witnessed intentional burning of forests in Western
Nepal, aimed at an extension of farming land and obviously needed for the growing population.
Comparatively large afforested areas had already been destroyed in Nepal, and although the government
took measures to prevent such primitive and wasteful forest destruction, their campaign was not
substantially successful. The devastation of forests in that country, aside from leading to increased erosion
of soil and other unfavourable effects, may, in the long run, decimate sustainable resources of wood.)
Paradoxically, the being with the highest intelligence becomes, through its uncontrolled activities,
the greatest hazard to all life on this planet, including itself. This demonstrates how narrow and brittle the
ecological conditions are for the existence of life generally; and if we do not take vigorous timely measures
to counter continuing unfavourable trends, a critical and irreversible situation threatening life´s very
foundations may soon arise. It may then be that only huge littered places will remain where the largest
cities of (our) "great human civilization" once were. The oceans will stink, and only remnants will survive of
a once flourishing and abundant life on the fairy-like planet Earth.
Consequently, "omne vivum ex vivo" would apparently hold for at least some of
the later part of the history of life′s evolution ―which would be soon after plants
appeared on Earth, producing oxygen in photosynthesis, creating an oxygen atmosphere
and the layer of ozone, preventing the ultraviolet rays harmful to life from reaching the
Earth. The theory of a spontaneous biochemical origin of life similarly anticipates only a
single period for its generation in the history of the evolution of the Earth. In our
concept, it would begin with the Biological Big Bang, when all the essential conditions for
its evolution would have been pre-set ―evolving spontaneously further on, like our
Universe, from the simplest forms to the more complex.
Considering that the respective evolutionary processes would be controlled by
coded instructions derived from the genetic information characteristic of the particular
living forms, the essential conditions for life′s evolution might have been preprogrammed biologically, proceeding as a series of gradual transformations. As in the
theory of mutations, these transformations would represent certain distinct stages in the
development of individual living forms. Even presently, similar transformations may be
observed, e. g., in the reproduction processes of butterflies and some other insects; or in
stages transforming fertilized eggs into individual living forms (species). Individual
evolutionary stages could then represent "subprogrammes" in the "superprogramme" of
the biological evolution.
While the Big Bang singular state in the evolution of our Universe is likened to an
explosive phase of the primordial fireball, the Biological Big Bang may be thought of as
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the phase of an aphysical manipulation of matter at atomic and molecular levels
designed to generate various primordial forms of life ("creative principle"). Such a
creative phenomenon is generally characteristic of living forms in producing things that
cannot normally be found in the inorganic world.
On Earth this is most typical with the activities of Man, but also with other living
forms (bees, ants, spiders, etc.), which make conspicuous structures of artificial
character easily recognizable as not being inorganic in nature. A honeycomb, an anthill, a
spider′s web, a picture, a musical symphony, a book, but even such simple things as a
straight-cut sheet of wood, or a brick, cannot be found anywhere in the Universe where
there are no bees, ants, spiders, or people (or similar intelligent beings). Likewise, for
example, a house of simple rectangular design, ―another typical object produced by
humans― can never be found anywhere where there were, or are, no people, even if all
the necessary building materials were available for its construction, irrespective of
whether there were an unlimited number of sites and an unlimited amount of time.
Instead, all these materials would most certainly decay, in a relatively short and definite
interval of time, before even a small piece of a straight and vertical wall appeared.
To extend this reasoning: there are much more sophisticated objects, such as the
radio, the car, artificial materials, an artificial satellite, etc., that could, undoubtedly,
never arise spontaneously, if they had not been designed and produced by a living being
with a very highly developed intelligence (sometimes classified as a species as "homo
sapiens sapiens").
What an "INTELLIGENCE" it must have been, to have performed the aphysical,
almost infinitely complex, manipulations required in the Biological Big Bang which thus
created life, we are unable to conceive.5) Life ―just like a rectangular house― otherwise,
would never have appeared on Earth or anywhere else in the Universe, irrespective of
whether all of its basic organic constituents had been available through spontaneous
processes. The Universe which emerged from non-existence would then have been
entirely lifeless; and after having spent all of its energy in only a kind of extremely long
and vain "firework show" on a scene void of spectators, would again have submerged into
nothingness.
Only life may resist entropy and create things, transgressing physical laws; and
there are no physical laws that could govern such behaviour. Re-phrasing the previous
aphorism "omne vivum ex vivo," we may generalize it into the statement: "All aphysical
5) An extensive comment on this philosophico-religious (from the point of view of epistemology, ultimate) aspect of science is given by
Isaac Newton in the closing section SCHOLIUM GENERALE of his fundamental work PHILOSOPHIAE NATURALIS PRINCIPIA MATHEMATICA.
Here, we shall quote only the following few lines: «A caeca necessitate metaphysica, qua utique eadem est semper & ubique, nulla
oritur rerum variatio. Tota rerum conditarum pro locis ac temporibus diversitas, ab ideis & voluntate entis necessario existentis
solummodo oriri potuit. »
Loosely translated, the meaning is: ‛A (merely) blind metaphysical necessity, being always and everywhere the same, cannot in itself
be a cause of the variability of things; and all their variability —manifesting itself with respect to both place and time— may only have
its origin in the will and wisdom of a (Supreme) BEING possessing necessary existence.’
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things derive from living things (systems)." There are, then, two sorts of aphysical
objects (structures): (a)organic, and living, and (b)inorganic or organic, but non-living.
Special aphysical properties of the behaviour of living systems have found vivid
expression in the science of cybernetics ―the study of systems which are open to the
input of energy, are, however, closed to the input of external information and control.
We notice that cybernetic systems have the essential characteristics of an asymmetrical
living system (represented by a cell, for example), of which we spoke earlier. This
similarity is expressed by an alternative definition of this science: a study of the parallel
behaviour of living forms and artificial (man-made) systems.
Pre-design of a living structure present in the singular Biological Big Bang stage
also obviates as meaningless questions of the development of the capacities to fly, see,
etc., possessed by certain living forms, and which are so difficult (virtually impossible) to
explain satisfactorily with a random spontaneous process of evolution. The necessity of
the existence of a pre-design of a particular species may nowadays be well-demonstrated
by genetic manipulations performed by modern biochemists. In such manipulations,
some new varieties of certain living forms, not existing naturally before, have already
been developed, and possibilities appear for genetically manipulated exact reproduction
of individuals within species. (Some experiments of this kind have recently been
reported as having been successfully accomplished). An open question (leaving aside the
serious ethical problems arising in the case of the genetic manipulation of Man) is
whether these manipulations of living forms will prove to be beneficial, neutral or
harmful to the forms themselves, and/or to other existing forms of life.
Examples of extremely subtle manipulations of inorganic matter provide most
modern techniques of nanotechnology creating unbelievably minute, sophisticated
products for a range of special applications. All this, nevertheless, illustrates that a predesign, and thus a purpose, is the basis of every creative activity.
Even relatively very subjective aspects, such as beauty and its lack (or ugliness)
apparently adhere in nature to this principle of a creative pre-design. It is manifested in
an immense variety and beauty of plants and animals difficult to comprehend otherwise,
because the environment and corresponding natural conditions (in the oceans
especially) do not vary to such an extent.
What spontaneous evolutionary processes could produce the astonishingly
splendid plumage of a peacock, for example? Or the equally marvellous colours and
patterns found with some other birds, butterflies, fishes, flowers? And, who could
appreciate their startling beauty ―they themselves?
Natural beauty, being imitated and expressed in all kinds of human arts, indicates
harmony, symmetry and natural vitality ―while its lack and ugliness indicate either
indifference, or a sort of disharmony, destruction, and an eventual decay. Aspects of
beauty in living forms are generally more favoured than other, seemingly more
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important external features, such as a protective colour, protective form and behaviour
(i.e., mimicry), warning appearance, or some form of aggressive behaviour.
In conclusion, we shall try to formulate a definition of life. What actually is life?
The question may seem quite simple, but it is very difficult, in reality. There is no
generally accepted definition of life, although several definitions exist. That is because
none of them appears to be sufficiently exhaustive and general, but concise at the same
time. Existing biological definitions highlight, as a rule, only some of life′s distinguishing
traits, those that are physiological, metabolic, genetic, et cetera. One form of a genetic
definition of life characterizes it "as a system which has a capacity to evolve by natural
selection." We shall offer another definition in line with our concept: "an atomic and
molecular system with an aphysical cyclic behaviour coupled with the exchange of a
coded information." With the biological living systems, this information is encoded in
the DNA.
* * *
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to express his appreciation to Ms. Sally Stein, English as Foreign
Language teacher and trainer, as well as Mr. John MCKeown, B.A., for their careful
proofreading of the draft of his English version of the text. Ms. Sally Stein also composed
the verses on p. xi, basing these on an improvised version of mine, which I had given her
for inspiration.
* * *
REFERENCES
[1] Albert Einstein, The Meaning of Relativity, Reprint of the 6th ed. (Methuen & Co
Ltd) 1967, Frome and London.
[2] George Cuncliffe McVittie, General Relativity and Cosmology, 2nd ed. (Chapman
and Hall Ltd) 1965, London.
[3] C. Møller, The Theory of Relativity, 2nd ed. (Clarendon Press) 1972, Oxford.
[4] Martin Rees, Remo Ruffini and John Archibald Wheeler, Black Holes, Gravitational
Waves and Cosmology. Topics in Astrophysics and Space Physics, Vol. 10 ―Edited
by A. G. W. Cameron and G. B. Field (Gordon and Breach Science Publishers) 1974,
New York.
[5] D. W. Sciama, Modern Cosmology (Cambridge University Press) 1971.
[6] Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose, The Nature of Space and Time (Princeton
University Press) 1996.
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