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4.1 Elements and Symbols
1
Elements
• are pure substances
from which all other
things are built
• cannot be broken down
into simpler substances
• are listed on the inside
front cover of this text
Learning Goal Given the name of an element, write its correct
symbol; from the symbol, write the correct name.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Some Elements and Their Names
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zUDDiWtFtEM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LcUNYGdNKlo
2
Element names come from planets, mythological figures,
minerals, colors, geographic locations, and famous people.
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Chemical Symbols
3
Chemical symbols
• represent names of elements
• consist of one to two letters
and start with capital
One-Letter Symbols
C carbon
N nitrogen
F fluorine
O oxygen
Two-Letter Symbols
Co cobalt
Ca calcium
Al aluminum
Mg magnesium
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Names and Symbols: Common Elements
4
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Chemical Symbols from Latin Names
5
Ag (argentum)
silver, from argentum
Au (aurum)
gold, from aurum
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Study Check
6
Write the correct chemical symbols for each of the
following elements:
A. iodine
B. iron
C. magnesium
D. zinc
E. nitrogen
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Solution
7
Write the correct chemical symbols for each of the
following elements:
A. iodine
= I
B. iron
= Fe
C. magnesium
= Mg
D. zinc
= Zn
E. nitrogen
= N
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Study Check
8
Give the names of the elements with the following symbols:
A. P
B. Al
C. Mn
D. H
E. K
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Solution
9
Give the names of the elements with the following symbols:
A. P = phosphorus
B. Al = aluminum
C. Mn = manganese
D. H = hydrogen
E. K = potassium
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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4.2 The Periodic Table
The periodic table
organizes 118 elements
into groups with similar
properties and places
them in order of
increasing atomic mass.
Learning Goal Use the
periodic table to identify
the group and the period
of an element; identify
the element as a metal, a
nonmetal, or a metalloid.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Groups and Periods
On the periodic table,
• elements are arranged according to similar properties
• groups contain elements with similar properties in
vertical columns
• periods are horizontal rows of elements, counted from
top to bottom of the table as Periods 1−7
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Periodic Table of Elements
Groups
Periods
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Group Numbers
Group numbers are written at the top of each vertical column
and they
• use the letter A for representative elements
(Groups 1A–8A)
• use the letter B for transition elements
(Groups 3B–12B)
An alternative system
• assigns numbers of 1–18 to all of the groups from left to right
across the periodic table
Because both systems are currently in use, they are both
shown on the periodic table in this text and are included in our
discussions of elements and group numbers.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Groups and Periods
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Names of Groups
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Alkali Metals
Group 1A, the alkali
metals, includes lithium
(Li), sodium (Na),
potassium (K), rubidium
(Rb), and cesium (Cs).
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Halogens
17
Group 7A, the
halogens, includes
chlorine (Cl), bromine
(Br), and iodine (I).
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Study Check
Identify the element described by each of the following:
1. Group 7A, Period 4
A. Br
B. Cl
C. Mn
2. Group 2A, Period 3
A. beryllium
B. boron
C. magnesium
3. Group 5A, Period 2
A. phosphorus
B. arsenic
C. nitrogen
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Solution
Identify the element described by each of the following:
1. Group 7A, Period 4
A. Br
2. Group 2A, Period 3
C. magnesium
3. Group 5A, Period 2
C. nitrogen
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Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
The heavy zigzag line separates metals and nonmetals.
• Metals are located to the left.
• Nonmetals are located to the right.
• Metalloids are located along the heavy zigzag line
between the metals and nonmetals.
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Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids
and the Periodic Table
Classification by type:
Insert figure 4.6 page 102
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Characteristics of Metals, Nonmetals,
and Metalloids
Metals
• are shiny and ductile
• are good conductors of heat and electricity
Nonmetals
• are dull, brittle, and poor conductors
• are good insulators
Metalloids
• are better conductors than nonmetals but not as good
as metals
• are used as semiconductors and insulators
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Comparing a Metal, Nonmetal,
and Metalloid
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Study Check
Identify each of the following elements as a metal, nonmetal,
or metalloid.
A. sodium
B. chlorine
C. silicon
D. iron
E. carbon
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Solution
Identify each of the following elements as a metal, nonmetal,
or metalloid.
A. sodium
metal
B. chlorine
nonmetal
C. silicon
metalloid
D. iron
metal
E. carbon
nonmetal
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Study Check
Select all of the elements that match each description.
A. Metals in Group 4A
Sn, Pb, C, Si, Ge
B. Nonmetals in Group 5A
As, Sb, Bi, N, P
C. Metalloids in Group 4A
C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Solution
Select all of the elements that match each description.
A. Metals in Group 4A
Sn, Pb
B. Nonmetals in Group 5A
N, P
C. Metalloids in Group 4A
Si, Ge
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Chemistry Link to Health
Insert picture of periodic table with elements
highlighted bottom of page 103
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4.3 The Atom
An atom is the
smallest particle of
an element that
retains the
characteristics of
that element.
Learning Goal Describe the electrical charge and location in
an atom for a proton, a neutron, and an electron.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
In Dalton’s atomic theory, atoms
• are tiny particles of matter
• of an element are similar to each other and different from
those of other elements
• of two or more different elements combine to form
compounds
• are rearranged to form new combinations in a chemical
reaction
Atoms are never created or destroyed during a chemical
reaction.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Electrical Charges in an Atom
Atoms contain subatomic particles.
• Protons have a positive (+)
charge.
• Electrons have a negative (–)
charge.
• Neutrons are neutral.
Like charges repel and unlike
charges attract.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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J. J. Thomson’s Cathode Ray
Experiment
Thomson realized that
• these cathode rays contained negatively charged particles
• particles (now called electrons) had a much smaller mass
than the atom
Thomson proposed a “plum-pudding” model of the atom in
which protons and electrons were randomly distributed in a
positively charged cloud like plums in a pudding.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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J. J. Thomson’s Cathode Ray
Experiment
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
In Rutherford’s gold foil experiment, positively charged
particles
• were aimed at atoms of gold
• mostly went straight through the atoms
• were deflected only occasionally
Conclusion:
There must be a small, dense, positively charged nucleus in the
atom that deflects positive particles that come close.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Structure of the Atom
An atom consists of
• a nucleus that contains protons and neutrons
• electrons in a large, empty space around the nucleus
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Mass of the Atom
Atomic Mass Unit
• One atomic mass unit (amu) has a mass equal to one-twelfth
of the mass of the carbon-12 atom.
• A proton has a mass of about 1 (1.007) amu.
• A neutron has a mass of about 1 (1.008) amu.
• An electron has a very small mass, 0.000 549 amu.
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Subatomic Particles in the Atom
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Study Check
Which of the following subatomic particles fits each of the
descriptions below?
proton, neutron, electron
A. found outside the nucleus
B. has a positive charge
C. has mass but no charge
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Solution
Which of the following subatomic particles fits each of the
descriptions below?
proton, neutron, electron
A. found outside the nucleus
B. has a positive charge
C. has mass but no charge
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
electron
proton
neutron
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4.4 Atomic Number and Mass Number
All atoms of
an element
have the
same number
of protons
and the same
atomic
number.
Learning Goal Given the atomic number and the mass
number of an atom, state the number of protons, neutrons, and
electrons.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Atomic Number
The atomic number
• is a whole number specific for each element
• is the same for all atoms of an element
• is equal to the number of protons in an atom
• appears above the symbol of an element in the periodic table
Atomic number
Symbol
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11
Na
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Atomic Number = Protons in an Atom
The atomic number represents the number of protons.
For example,
• the atomic number of H is 1; every H atom has one proton
• the atomic number of C is 6; every C atom has six protons
• the atomic number of Cu is 29; every Cu atom has 29 protons
Core Chemistry Skill Counting Protons and Neutrons
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Atomic Number = Protons in an Atom
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Atoms Are Neutral
For neutral atoms, the net charge is zero.
number of protons = number of electrons
Aluminum has 13 protons and 13 electrons. The net (overall)
charge is zero.
13 protons (13+) + 13 electrons (13–) = 0
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Study Check
Use the periodic table to fill in the atomic number, number
of protons, and number of electrons for each of the following
elements:
Element Atomic
Number
Protons
Electrons
N
Zn
S
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Solution
Use the periodic table to fill in the atomic number, number
of protons, and number of electrons for each of the following
elements:
Element Atomic
Number
Protons
Electrons
N
7
7
7
Zn
30
30
30
S
16
16
16
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Mass Number
The mass number
• represents the number of particles in the nucleus
• is equal to the number of protons + the number of neutrons
• is always a whole number
• does not appear in the periodic table
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Composition of Some Atoms of
Different Elements
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Study Tips: Protons and Neutrons
Number of protons = atomic number
Number of protons + number of neutrons = mass number
Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
Note: Mass numbers are given for specific isotopes only.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Study Check
An atom of lead (Pb) has a mass number of 207.
A. How many protons are in the nucleus?
B. How many neutrons are in the nucleus?
C. How many electrons are in the atom?
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Solution
An atom of lead (Pb) has a mass number of 207.
A. How many protons are in the nucleus?
atomic number = 82; number protons = 82
B. How many neutrons are in the nucleus?
mass number – number protons = number neutrons
207 – 82 = 125 neutrons
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Solution
An atom of lead (Pb) has a mass number of 207.
C. How many electrons are in the atom?
An atom is neutral, which means that the number of
electrons is equal to the number of protons. An atom of
Pb has 82 protons and82 electrons.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Electromagnetic Radiation
We experience electromagnetic radiation in different forms,
such as light, the colors of a rainbow, or when we have an
X-ray taken.
Electromagnetic radiation consists of energy particles that
move as waves of energy.
• The distance between the peaks of waves is called the
wavelength.
• High-energy radiation has shorter wavelengths.
• Low-energy radiation has longer wavelengths.
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Atomic Spectrum
When light from a heated element passes through a prism, it
separates into distinct lines of color separated by dark areas
called an atomic spectrum.
Each element has its own unique atomic spectrum.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Electron Energy Levels
The lines in an atomic spectrum are associated with the changes
in energies of the electrons.
In an atom, each electron is assigned a specific energy level.
Energy levels
• are assigned principal quantum numbers:
(n) = (n = 1, n = 2, …..)
• increase in energy as the value of n increases and they are
farther away from the nucleus
The energy of an electron is quantized—it can have only
specific energy values.
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum shows the arrangement of
wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, with the visible
range from 700 to 400 nm.
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Electrons and Energy Levels
Electrons with the
same energy are
grouped in the same
energy level.
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Changes in Electron Energy Level
• Electrons move to a higher
energy level when they absorb
energy.
• When electrons fall back to a
lower energy level, light is
emitted.
• The energy emitted or absorbed
is equal to the differences
between the two energy levels.
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Electron Arrangements in Period 1
Period 1
Energy Level
1st
1H
1
2He
2
Core Chemistry Skill Writing Electron Arrangements
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Electron Arrangements in Period 2
Period 2
Energy Level
3Li
4Be
5B
6C
7N
8O
9F
10Ne
1st
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
2nd
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Electron Arrangements in Period 3
Period 3
Energy Level
11Na
12Mg
13Al
14Si
15P
16S
17Cl
18Ar
1st
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2nd
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
3rd
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Electron Arrangements in Period 4
Period 4
Energy Level
19K
20Ca
1st
2
2
2nd
8
8
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
3rd
8
8
4th
1
2
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Electron Arrangements Beyond 20
Energy Level 1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
Number of
Electrons
8
18
32
32
18
8
2
Electron arrangements are written as follows:
O = 2,6
P = 2,8,5
Ca = 2,8,8,2
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Study Check
Write the electron arrangements for the following elements:
C
Si
O
N
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Solution
Write the electron arrangements for the following elements:
C
atomic number = 6 = 2,4
Si
atomic number = 14 = 2,8,4
O
atomic number = 8 = 2,6
N
atomic number = 7 = 2,5
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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4.7 Trends in Periodic Properties
Electron arrangements
are an important factor in
the properties of
elements, such as atomic
size, ionization energy,
and metallic character.
Learning Goal Use the electron arrangement of elements to
explain the trends in periodic properties.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Group Number and Valence Electrons
• For representative elements in Groups 1A (1)–8A (18),
chemical properties are due to the number of valence
electrons.
• Valence electrons are the number of electrons in the
outermost energy level.
• The group number gives the number of valence electrons
for the representative elements.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Group Number and Valence Electrons
Group Number
1A (1)
2A (2)
3A (13)
4A (14)
5A (15)
6A (16)
7A (17)
8A (18)
Number of Valence Electrons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Electron-Dot Symbols
Electron-dot symbols
• are also known as Lewis structures
• represent the valence electrons as dots placed on the
sides of a symbol
For example, Al = 2,8,3
Three valence electrons are represented as dots.
Core Chemistry Skill Drawing Electron-Dot Symbols
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Electron-Dot Symbol for Mg
Possible electron-dot symbols for magnesium, with the
electron arrangement of 2,8,2,
• include two valence electrons, represented as dots
• can be drawn in more than one way
Electron-dot symbols for magnesium
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Electron-Dot Symbol for Mg
Magnesium (Mg) has
two valence electrons,
which give it an
electron-dot symbol
with two dots.
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Electron-Dot Symbols for Selected
Elements
Insert table 4.11 page 121
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Study Check
Write the electron-dot symbol for each of the following
elements: Cl, C, N.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Solution
Write the electron-dot symbol for each of the following elements:
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Atomic Size
Atomic size
• is determined by the atom’s atomic radius, the distance
between nucleus and outermost electrons
• increases for representative elements from top to bottom
of the periodic table
• decreases within a period as a result of the increased
number of protons in the nucleus
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Atomic Size
For representative
elements, the atomic
size increases going
down a group but
decreases going from
left to right across
a period.
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Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the required energy to remove one of the
outermost electrons.
Na(g) + energy (ionization)  Na+(g) + e−
As the distance from the
nucleus to the valence
electrons increases, the
ionization energy
decreases.
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Ionization Energy
Ionization energy
decreases down a
group and increases
across a period from
left to right.
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Metallic Character
An element with metallic character is one that loses
electrons easily.
Metallic character
• is more prevalent in metals on the left side of the
periodic table
• is less for nonmetals on the right side of the periodic
table, which do not lose electrons easily
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Metallic Character
Metallic character
of the representative
elements increases
going down a group
and decreases going
from left to right
across a period.
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Summary of Trends in the
Periodic Table
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Study Check
Given the following elements, answer the questions:
C
N
Cl
Which is the largest atom?
Which has the highest ionization energy?
Which belongs to Group 5A?
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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Solution
Given the following elements, answer the questions:
C
N
Cl
Which is the largest atom?
Which has the highest ionization energy?
Which belongs to Group 5A?
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
C
Cl
N
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Concept Map
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
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