Download astronomy ch 2 edit 1 - Fort Thomas Independent Schools

CHAPTER 2:
Gravitation
and the
Waltz of the
Planets
Historical Background
Ancient Greeks
 Ptolemy
 Copernicus
 Galileo
 Brahe
 Kepler
 Newton
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Two Views of the Universe
Geocentric model (earth-centered)
 Heliocentric model (sun-centered)
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Ancient Greeks
Geocentric Model of the
Universe
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Stationary Earth
All other objects circle the Earth.
Universe consisted of stars, six planets
(none beyond Saturn), the Sun and
Moon.
Stars were fixed onto a crystal sphere
that surrounded the Earth.
Since the sphere rotated around the
Earth, so did the stars.
Geocentric Model of the
Universe
Planets shift slowly eastward relative
to the fixed stars.
 Planets were also observed to
occasionally move “backwards” (east
to west or westward with respect to
the background stars)
 This was called retrograde motion.
 This was a problem to explain.
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Looking
South
As the Earth rotates during the
night (diurnal motion) the planet
appears to move from east to
west.
The ancient Greeks knew that
the planets slowly shifted
relative to the fixed stars in the
constellations.
Looking
South
From night to night, the
planets appear to move
from west to east relative
to the background stars
(direct motion).
Looking
South
But sometimes, the planet would slow
down, stop and reverse its motion from
east to west relative to the background
stars (retrograde motion).
Geocentric Model
Early models of the universe attempted to explain the
motion of the five visible planets against the
background of “fixed” stars. The main problem was
that the planets do not move uniformly against the
background of stars, but instead appear to stop, move
backward, then move forward again. This backward
motion is referred to as retrograde motion.
Ptolemy’s Role in the
Geocentric Model
st
1
Century
Geocentric Model of the
Universe
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Hipparcus was first to use epicycles to
address the problem of retrograde motion
of the planets.
Ptolemy expanded upon this.
Ptolemy determined that retrograde
motion of planets could be described by
using deferents (orbital path around
Earth) and epicycles (planet’s orbital path
around the deferent).
All orbits, deferents and epicycles were in
perfect circles.
Epicycles and Deferents
Ptolemy explained this motion using a geocentric (Earthcentered) model of the solar system in which the planets
orbited the Earth indirectly, by moving on epicycles
which in turn orbited the Earth.
Ptolemy expanded upon Hipparcus’s work
Occam’s Razor: the best explanation is the simplest
Epicycles and Deferents
Stop the madness!
Copernicus and the
Heliocentric Model
1500’s
Copernicus’s Heliocentric
Model
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Sun placed at the center of the solar
system.
Planets placed in proper order away from
the Sun.
Synodic and sidereal periods for each
planet’s orbit were measured.
Copernicus still assumed perfect circular
orbits for planets.
This was a problem.
Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century
developed the first heliocentric (sun-centered)
model of the solar system. In this model, the
retrograde motion of Mars is seen when the
Earth passes Mars in its orbit around the Sun.
Lack of an explanation for this motion was a
significant failing of Copernicus’ model.
FYI:
Aristarchus in
6th century B.C. first
suggested that the Sun
was fixed and the Earth
moved around the Sun in
a circle.
Heliocentric vs. Geocentric
Model
heliocentric
geocentric
Ptolemy’s geocentric model failed to
reproduce observed planetary
motions.
Tycho Brahe and
Kepler—True
Planetary Motion
Late 1500’s to 1600
Tycho Brahe’s observations
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Set up an observatory called Uraniborg in
1576 (later, he built another observatory
called Stjerneborg).
He accurately measured the position and
angle of stars and planets without a
telescope (it had not been invented).
Huge collection of data.
Brahe invited Johannes Kepler to join him
in at Uraniborg in 1600.
After Tycho Brahe’s death,
Johannes Kepler (pictured
here with Tycho in the
background) used Tycho’s
observations to deduce the
three laws of planetary
motion.
Kepler’s Breakthrough
Brahe asked Johannes Kepler to join
him in Denmark in 1600.
 Kepler used Brahe’s data to make
highly precise calculations of
planetary orbits.
 Accuracy of orbits matched only if
orbits were considered less than
perfect circles (an ellipse).
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Kepler’s Breakthrough
Kepler developed three laws that
could be used to describe planetary
motion.
 Laws are based upon the
understanding of the ellipse.
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LAW #1. The orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse
with the Sun at one focus.
Semi-major axis is half
the major axis
LAW #2: A line joining the planet and the Sun sweeps out
equal areas in equal intervals of time.
Planet moves
faster in its orbit
when closer to the
Sun.
Planet moves
slower in its orbit
when farther away
from the Sun.
LAW #3: The square of a planet’s sidereal period around the Sun
is directly proportional to the cube of its semi-major axis.
This law relates the amount of time for the planet to complete one orbit around the
Sun to the planet’s average distance from the Sun.
If we measure the orbital periods (P) in years and distances (a) in astronomical
units, then the law mathematically can be written as P2 = a3.
The amount of elongation in a planet’s orbit is defined as
its orbital eccentricity. An orbital eccentricity of 0 is a
perfect circle while an eccentricity close to 1.0 is nearly a
straight line.
In an elliptical orbit, the distance from a planet to the
Sun varies. The point in a planet’s orbit closest to the
Sun is called perihelion, and the point farthest from the
Sun is called aphelion.
Galileo and the
Telescope
1609 -1610
Galileo was the first to use a telescope to
examine celestial objects. His
discoveries supported a heliocentric
model of the solar system.
1. Galileo discovered that Venus, like the
Moon, undergoes a series of phases as
seen from Earth. In the Ptolemaic
(geocentric) model, Venus would be seen
in only new or crescent phases. However,
as Galileo observed, Venus is seen in all
phases, which agrees with the Copernican
model as shown.
Phases of
Venus
2. Galileo also discovered moons
in orbit around the planet
Jupiter. He concluded that they
are orbiting Jupiter because they
move across from one side of the
planet to the other This was further
evidence that the Earth was not
the center of the universe.
Moons of Jupiter
Galileo’s Contributions
3. Imperfections on the Moon’s
surface: The Moon’s surface was
irregular and crater-filled
 4.
Dark spots on the Sun: The Sun
was observed to have dark spots
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Galileo’s Contributions
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Galileo’s observations began to erode
the notion of celestial perfection and
provided support for the heliocentric
view of the universe.
Isaac Newton formulated three laws to
describe the fundamental properties of
physical reality.
NEWTON’S THREE LAWS OF MOTION
LAW #1: A body remains at rest or moves
in a straight line at constant speed unless
acted upon by a net outside force.
LAW #2: The acceleration of an object is
proportional to the force acting on it.
LAW #3: Whenever one body exerts a
force on a second body, the second body
exerts an equal and opposite force on the
first body.
Newton also discovered that gravity, the force that
causes objects to fall to the ground on Earth, is the
same force that keeps the Moon in its orbit around
the Earth.
NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
Two objects attract each other with a force that is
directly proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
With his laws, Newton
was able to derive
Kepler’s three laws, as
well as predict other
possible orbits.
Newton’s laws were applied to other objects in our
solar system.
Using Newton’s methods, Edmund Halley
worked out the details of a comet’s orbit
and predicted its return.
Deviations from
Newton’s Laws in the
orbit of the planet
Uranus led to the
discovery of the eighth
planet, Neptune.
We define special positions of the planets in their orbits depending
where they appear in our sky. For example, while at a conjunction, a
planet will appear in the same part of the sky as the Sun, while at
opposition, a planet will appear opposite the Sun in our sky.
However, the cycle of these positions (a synodic
period) is different from the actual orbital period of the
planet around the Sun (a sidereal period) because both
the Earth and the planet orbit around the Sun.
Measuring Distances
Parallax view
 http://www-astronomy-mps.ohiostate.edu/~pogge/Ast162/Movies/pa
rallax.html
 http://instruct1.cit.cornell.edu/cours
es/astro101/java/parallax/parallax.h
tml
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When a new “star” appeared in the sky during the 16th century, a Danish
astronomer named Tycho Brahe reasoned that the distance of the object
may be determined by measuring the amount of parallax.
The apparent
change in the
location of an
object due to the
difference in
location of the
observer is called
parallax.
Because the parallax of the “star” was too small to measure,
Tycho knew that it had to be among the other stars, thus
disproving the ancient belief that the “heavens” were fixed
and unchangeable.
Heliocentric Model
Who is responsible?
 Evidence?
 Lacking evidence?
 What did Galileo discover?
 What are planetary configurations?
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WHAT DID YOU THINK?
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What makes a theory scientific?
If it makes predictions that can be
objectively tested and potentially
disproved.
What is the shape of the Earth’s orbit
around the Sun?
Elliptical
Do the planets orbit the Sun at constant
speeds?
The closer a planet is to the Sun in its
orbit, the faster it is moving. It moves
fastest at perihelion and slowest at
aphelion.
WHAT DID YOU THINK?
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Do all the planets orbit the Sun at the same
speed?
No. A planet’s speed depends on its average
distance from the Sun.
How much force does it take to keep an object
moving in a straight line at a constant speed?
Unless an object is subject to an outside force, it
takes no force at all to keep it moving in a
straight line at a constant speed.
How does an object’s mass differ when measured
on the Earth and on the Moon?
Its mass remains constant.
Key Terms
acceleration
angular momentum
aphelion
astronomical unit
configuration (of a planet)
conjunction
conservation of angular
momentum
cosmology
ellipse
elongation
focus (of an ellipse)
force
Galilean moons
(satellites)
gravity
heliocentric cosmology
hyperbola
inferior conjunction
Kepler’s laws
kinetic energy
law of equal areas
law of inertia
light-year
mass
model
momentum
Newton’s laws of
motion
Occam’s razor
opposition
parabola
parallax
parsec
perihelion
physics
potential energy
retrograde motion
scientific method
scientific theory
semimajor axis (of an
ellipse)
sidereal period
superior conjunction
synodic period
universal constant of
gravitation
universal law of
gravitation
velocity
weight
work
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
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What is the shape of the Earth’s orbit
around the Sun?
Do the planets orbit the Sun at constant
speeds?
Do all the planets orbit the Sun at the
same speed?
How much force does it take to keep an
object moving in a straight line at a
constant speed?
How does an object’s mass differ when
measured on the Earth and on the Moon?
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.Compare and contrast the Ptolemaic and
Copernican cosmologies by explaining a
variety of naked-eye observations, using
both models.
2. State Kepler’s three laws of planetary
motion; describe the geometric content
and observational consequences of each.
3. List Galileo’s telescopic observations
and explain the success or failure of
Ptolemaic and Copernican models in
accounting for them.
4. State and identify examples of
Newton’s three laws of motion.
 5. State Newton’s law of universal
gravitation; identify the
characteristics of this law that
explain Kepler’s laws in terms of
Newton’s laws.
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1.
How do we interpret the history of the
geocentric and heliocentric views of the
universe?
2.
How do Kepler’s laws describe
planetary motion?
3.
How are Newton’s laws of motion,
Newton’s law of gravitation and Kepler’s
laws related?
How do the planets move with respect to
the Earth and the Sun
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is the shape of the Earth’s orbit
around the Sun?
Do planets orbit the Sun at constant
speeds?
Do planets orbit the Sun at the same
speed?
How much force does it take to keep an
object moving in a straight line at a
constant speed?
What is the difference between
heliocentric and geocentric cosmology?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What are the contributions to astronomy
made by the following individuals:
Ancient greeks, Ptolemy, Copernicus,
Galileo, Brahe, Newton, Kepler?
How do Kepler’s laws describe planetary
motion?
What is an ellipse?
Does Venus show phases just like the
Moon?
How to the planets orbit the Sun?
You will discover…
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clues suggesting that Earth is not the center
of the universe
the scientific revolution that dethroned
Earth from its location at the center of the
universe
Copernicus’s argument that the planets orbit
the Sun
why the direction of motion of the planets
on the celestial sphere sometimes appears
to change
that Kepler’s determination of the shapes of
planetary orbits depended on the careful
observations of his mentor, Tycho Brahe
how Isaac Newton formulated an equation
to describe the force of gravity
how Isaac Newton explained why the
planets and moons remain in orbit