Download revolts in isauria during the hellenistic and roman periods in the light

REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND
ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES
Mustafa ARSLAN *
Nuriye BAHÇE **
Esra BULUT
Abstract
Isauria region starts from northern slopes of Taurus Mountains where Konya Plateau lays above.
The boundary of region goes around from Mount Geyik in the south through Seydişehir, Lake Suğla in
the west and Hadim-Göksu River in the east. The geography of the region provides an ultimate
protection for Isaurians and it gave great difficulties for the powers who wanted to conquest the land.
Isauria was free during the Persian period and Alexander the Great did not make difficulties for the
local people there until Balakros was killed by Isaurians who was appointed by Alexander the Great.
Thus, Perdikkas marched on Isauria to punish the public after the death of Balacros. In the period of
Rome, the name of Isauria was frequently mentioned with riots, as well. The General, Servilius Vatia
who fought with the pirates in the eastern Mediterranean made a campaign against Isauria. In the years
ahead, the general of Mithridates, Eumakhos marched into there region and Galatian Deiotaros
responded this action. All the seturm oils show us how the touchy and important theare awas. On the
other hand, the other examples such as the death of Amyntas on the way to build a city in this region
and Cicero’s efforts and demanding in Isauria areal son oticeable. The chaos and the external
interference went on in the following periods. It can be stated that there appeared a peace when Turks
finaly arrived the region. There are many ancient writers who cited about Isaurian revolts of Isaurians
such as: Strabo, Diodorus, Appianus, Plutarkhos, Tacitus, Cicero etc. They explained the revolts and
made comments on the reasons and results of them.
In this study, we aimed to focus the disordinance in Isauria in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods
based on ancient sources.
•
Keywords
Isauria, Revolt, Hellenistic Period, Roman Period, Piracy
*
**

Asst. Prof. Dr. Selcuk University Beyşehir Ali Akkanat Faculty of Tourism [email protected]
Lecturer, Selcuk University School of Foreign Languages.
Doctoral Student, Selcuk University Graduate School of Social Sciences.
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
INTRODUCTION
The Location of Isauria
The information about the geographical location of Isauria may be gained rom the
ancient writers. Strabo states that Isauria is in the north of Taurus Mountain1 and between
Lykaonia and Cilicia. In the region, there are two rivers called Göksu and Çarşamba.
Isauria region has two villages with the same name, “Isauria Palaia-Old Isauria and
Isauria Nova-New Isauria” and they were well-protected. With the other villages, these
ones were robber settlements2. However, there are nothern ancient writers except Strabo
who used both two names of Isauria. Thus, he started dissidence on this subject. The city
that Diodoros3 and Ammianus4 mentioned about must be Isauria Palaia. However,
Sallust5 mentioned only one city, “İsauria Nova”. This uncertainty in the Ancient Ages
is available among our modern-day scholars. The consensus related to the names and
locations of these two cities has not built yet6.
The People of Isauria
The people of Isauria caused a great deal of trouble to Romans in the period of
Rome; especially in the time of Servilius. In the ancient sources, different terms and titles
are used for the local people. However, it is possible to see that these terms find common
ground. Certain parts of ancient writers describe them as “robbers and pirates”7, the others
characterize them as “marauder, bandit and raider”8. There is a group of writers who
1
Strabo, XIV. 5.1.
Strabo, XII. 6.2.
3
Diodorus, XVIII, 22.
4
Ammianus, XIV, 2.12; 8.2.
5
Sallust. Hist. II, 69.
6
City, Isaura Palaia, Hamilton, 1842:412; İsauria Nova, Ramsay, 1912: 220; Isauria Vetus and Isauria Nova,
Sterret, 1888: 149 et al.; Isauria Nova, Cramer, 1972: 73-74; Isauria Vetus, Isauria Nova Bahar, 1996: 5556.
7
Strabo X11. 6.2; Livy, Perioch.-93; Festus. XII.3.
8
Appian, XII 14; Festus, XII.3; Livy, Perioch 93.
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prefer more innocent terms in their works. For instance, these rebels may be called as
“Isaurian Warriors”9 and “enemies”10.
Hellenistic Period Isaurian Revolts
In the Hellenistic period that started with the dominance of Alexander the Great
over Greece (330-146 BC), Macedonian army entered into Anatolia after defeating
Persians and in a short time they captured Cilicia Region 11. In this period, one can see
that the Greek launched expeditions against the Greece chieftains and rebels as a
punishment. It seems that the aims of the Greek were not to dominate over Isauria but to
take revenge on Isaurians. As Diodoros stated, Isaurian warriors who killed Balacros, the
Cilicia satrap of Alexander the Great, were attacked by Perdiccas in 322 BC; faced a
savage resistance and finally were forced to commit mass suicide. Rather than surrender,
the warriors set their houses on fire and chose to burn to death with all the family
members12.
From this date to the Rome Period, there has been no clear data related to the
Isaurian revolts. As far as we learn from the current sources, owing to the imperial conflict
after the death of Alexander the Great, there was a domestic unrest in the region, the
severe resistance of Isaurians was going on and the Greek could not get any victories after
the last success. Even though the Isaurian region was an enduring arena of dissidence, it
might be stated that the Isurians provided benefit to the Greek in severe wars in the sense
that they were a neutral zone and the constant presence of armed captives. Thus, the
resistance of Isaurians was accepted with tolerance. In 280-260 BC, this perception did
not change and any Hellen states could not entirely provide the control of the region 13.
9
Diodorus, XVIII. 22.
Sallust, Hist. II, 69.
11
Arrianus. Anabasis, I 11-26.
12
Diodorus. XVIII. 22.
13
Bevan, I, 1902: 100; Shaw, 1990: 218.
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After the Greek, the effects of Seleucids and Ptolemies were seen in the region.
Rome that began to dominate over the region increased its hegemony in order to prevent
the current problem, piracy. Yet, Rome had to seriously deal with the Isaurian revolts.
Roman Period Isaurian Revolts
In 188 BC, after Apemeia Treaty, Pergamon became the strongest province of
Anatolia and a buffer state between Rome and the Seleucids. It also entirely came under
the Roman domination. Seleucids had to leave nearly all the fleets to Rome and thus the
navigation regressed or passed to just Anatolian coastal cities and this led to the priracy
on those cites. The fastest area that the piracy spread was the South Anatolian coastline.
Especially the coastal cities of Cilicia Trachea were preferred as suitable places for piracy
activities14.
The fact that this territory is not sufficient for agricultural product may have led
the local people to find alternative means of living. Thus, some were in the activities of
piracy, the others joined the Roman military service15. At first, Rome not only overlooked
the piracy but also utilised them by making them employ as slaves. However, against the
increased piracy power in the last quarter of the 1st century B.C, Rome had to change its
tactics and finally started to struggle with the pirates that were active along the coastline
of Pamphylia, East Lycia and Cilicia Trachea16.
As Strabo mentions, the Province of Asia suffered from the domestic disturbance.
The pirates here gradually gained strength by affecting the people with bad status among
the public and they started to engage in the refugee17 trade activities18.
Marcus Antonius charged with stopping the pirates that were giving harm to
Provincia Asia19 but he could not get a victory against the pirates in 102 B. C. and the
14
Kurt, 2009:117-118. About the emergence of piracy and its activities in Pamphylia and Cilicia see
Appian, The Mithridatic Wars XII. 14 (92); Cassius Dio, XXXVI 20-23; Strabo, XIV 3,2.
15
Kurt, 2009: 118-119. For the information about the suitable conditions for piracy activities of Cilicia
Trachea, see Mitford and Andrews 1980, 1237.
16
Arslan, 2003: 94; Kurt, 2009:119.
17
Cilicia, first became as a Roman province in 92 B.C. It was founded to control the pirates and the first
proconsul of the province was Sulla. Sulla was known as a dictator Kaya, 2005b: 17; Kurt, 2009:119.
18
Strabo, XIV 5.2.
19
Tacitus XII 62
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piracy gradually continued to increase20. Due to the Civil Wars in Rome21 and the 1st
Mithridatic War in 90 B.C, Rome had to give up the struggle with the pirates. The people
who ran away from the tyranny of Dolabella and Verres during 80 B.C took refuge in
pirates and muggers and so this situation resulted in the pirates favor. The pirates whose
force went up on the southern coasts became a political power before long. They started
to build up ships on the coastal shipyards22 and forced coastal cities to pay money.
Moreover, a pirate who declared himself a king called Zeniketes captured Korykos,
Phaselis and a large deal of Pamphylia23.
Because of the increased danger in the region, the senate charged Publius Servilius
Vatia as a Cilicia governor in 74-78 B.C. The governor who was sent to Isauria Vetus in
order to stop the piracy and hijacking in the Southern Anatolia surrendered the city after
a long siege that covered Çarşamba River. There is extensive information in the ancient
sources about this uprising. Strabo described both the location of Isauria Region and its
two important villages and claimed that Isaurians were “robbers and pirates” and that
Romans had a great deal of trouble because of these revolts. He also stated that especially
Servilius dealt with these revolts and he also included the cities in Rome and destroyed
most of the castles of these pirates (including the dominance of Zenicetes). Based on
Strabo’s explanations, one can understand that he knew Servilius and Servilius had a
nickname, “İsauricus”24. Ammianus pointed out that he surpassed in the naval warfares
with the piratesand dismissed them from the coasts of Cilicia25. For the same revolt, Livy
called Isaurians “pirates” and stated that Servilius captured them and some of their
cities26. Julius Frontinus mentioned about this revolt as follows: “Publius Servilius
diverted the stream from which the inhabitants of Isauria drew their water, and thus
forced them to surrender in consequence of thirst”27. Festus used the terms “bandit war”
for this revolt, “pirates and sea going marauders” for Isaurians, and claimed that they
20
Kurt, 2009: 120.
For the battles see Diodorus, XXXVII, I, 6-11; Plutarch, Sulla, VI, 1-2.
22
For the importance of the coasts for pirates, see Strabo. XIV 5, 6.
23
Arslan, 2003: 101; Kurt, 2009: 121-122.
24
Strabo, XII 6.2.
25
Ammianus, XIV 8, 4.
26
Livius, Perioch. 93.
27
Frontinus, Strat. III.7.1.
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were the first people who constructed the road through the Mount Taurus and Servilius
received the nickname "Isauricus" after the victory over the Cilicians and Isaurians28.
Related to this victory and nickname, Eutropius gives more detailed information:
“Publius Servilius, an energetic man, was sent, after his consulate, into Cilicia and
Pamphilia. He reduced Cilicia, besieged and took the most eminent cities of Lycia, amongst them
Phaselis, Olympus, and Corycus. The Isauri he also attacked, and compelled to surrender, and,
within three years, put an end to the war. He was the first of the Romans that marched over Mount
Taurus. On his return, he was granted a triumph, and acquired the surname of Isauricus”29.
According to Sallust, at the beginning of the revolt in 75 B.C, that Romans did not
deliberately respond with either weapons or shouting was misinterpreted by Isaurians and
they thought that Romans abandoned their fortifications. However, it was not the case as
Isaurians hoped. Romans made use of their weapons from their more favourable positions
and prevented them to reach the target zone. After a short while, nearly half of the ditches
were filled by dead Isaurians, but the rest escaped safely. Sallust explained the reason for
this as follows: “because it was difficult for Romans to pursue them by night and they
were afraid of ambushes.” At the end of the revolt, we can see that they were forced to
surrender owing to the lack of water. Their town was destroyed by fire and their people
were made slaves. Since they were afraid of sharing the same destiny representatives from
Isaura Nova came for peace30.
Pompey the Great and Eumachus, the general of Mithridates, were in charge of
the other revolt in 73 B.C. As Strabo points out that after Servilius, Pompey the Great –
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus set more than 300 ships of Isaurians on fire and destroyed their
houses. The ones who survived were brought down to Soli, which he named Pompeiopolis
and the others to Dyme, where there was a dearth of population31. For this revolt, Appian
gives more detailed information. As he stated that the uprising of pirates was first thought
to be difficult to quash, but it was repressed in a few days by Pompey the Great, who went
to Cilicia Trachea. “He took 71 ships by capture and 306 by surrender from the pirates,
28
Festus, Breviarium XII.3; Strabo XII. 6.2.
Eutropius, VI. 3.
30
Sall: Hist. II. 69.
31
Strabo, XIV 3.3.
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and 120 of their towns, castles, and other places of rendezvous. About 10,000 of the
pirates were slain in battles32”.
In 67 B.C with the increased uprisings Pompey with a broad authority33 was in
charged of punishing the pirates in Cilicia. Plutarchos clearly stated that Pompey mostly
drove the pirates away in the west regions of Rome hegemony and stopped the activities
of pirates in the eastern regions. He broke in Cilicia with a fleet of good ships34. Appian
indicated that Pompey hastened to Cilicia with his forces of various kinds and many
engines.The terror of his name and the greatness of his preparations had produced a panic
among “the robbers” and surrendered without any resistance. First those who held Cragus
and Anticragus, their largest citadels, surrendered themselves, and then the mountaineers
of Cilicia, finally, all, one after another. It was such surrender that they gave up a great
quantity of arms, their ships, also brass and iron collected for building them, and sailcloth,
rope, and various kinds of materials; and finally the captives either held for ransom or
chained to their tasks. Pompey burned the materials, carried away the ships, and sent the
captives back to their respective countries. As Appian asserted that Romans perceived the
end of the revolt as a victory since it was so swiftly and unexpectedly gained and Pompey
was extolled by the Romans beyond measure35. Having looked at his preparations and
expectations, Pompey was likely to have been afraid of this revolt. Likewise, the power,
authority and exaggrated praise the Romans gave him considered; one can understand
that Isaurian revolts created a fear in the period of Rome. Ancient writers indicated that
Pompey placed a majority of pirates in Soli and gave the city its own name,
Pompeiopolis36.
32
Appian, The Mithridatic Wars XIV. 96.
For the which was the source of this power, see Plutarch, Pompeius, XXV 2; XXVI 1-4; Cassius Dio,
XXXVI 23, 4.
34
Plutarch, Pompey, XXVIII, XXIX.
35
While he was still in Cilician ote they chose him the commander of the war against Mithridates, giving
him the same unlimited powers as before, to make war and peace as he liked, and to proclaimnations friends
or enemies according to his own judgment. They gave him command of all the forces beyond the borders
of Italy. All these powers had never been given to any one general before. Appian, Mithridatic Wars XIV.
96.
36
Strabo, XIV 3, 3; Cassius Dio, XXXVI 37, 6.
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In 64 B.C. the fact that the Isaurians made a trouble in the region can be
understood by the explanations of Cicero. In one of the letters he wrote in the battlefield
to the authorities and senate, he informed about the occupation of Syrian city by Parths
and explained his own goals. He stated that he was first in Lycaonia, Isauria and
Cappadocia and the Roman army was also in Cappadocia in order to protect the region37.
Cicero also indicates that he was going to hasten the Taurus with a gang lord for the battle,
Moeragenes, who ran away as a slave from Atticus38.
Up to this period, one can see that Roman government could not apply a severe
and certain solution in relation to Isaurian revolts. It preferred to find temporary solutions
not a permanent hegemony in Cilicia and the authorities seem not to have been so
interested in the region. Strabo explained this policy related to the structure of the region
as follows:
“The region was naturally well adapted to the business of piracy both by land and by
sea—by land, because of the height of the mountains and the large tribes that live beyond them,
tribes which have plains and farm-lands that are large and easily overrun, and by sea, because
of the good supply, not only of shipbuilding timber, but also of harbors and fortresses and secret
recesses—with all this in view, I say, the Romans thought that it was better for the region to be
ruled by kings than to be under the Roman prefects sent to administer justice, who were not likely
always to be present or to have armed forces with them”39.
In 44 B.C, after the assassination of Julius Caesar by the Republicans M. Brutus,
G. Cassius and their friends, a civil war broke out in Rome. In 39 B.C Antonius was sent
to Anatolia with a great deal of power in order to restore the east as Octavianus had in the
west. He had good relationships with Cleopatra the VII. the queen of Ptolemaios, about
the safety of Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean40. According to the ancient sources,
most of Cilicia was given to Cleopatra41 to supply timber for her navy. After the War of
Actium (31 B.C.) Octavianus (Augustus) governed the region by means of Antonius’
vassal administration. As Strabo stated, Octavianus resigned the region to the King of
37
Cicero, Fam. 15.2.1.
Cicero, Att. 5.15.3.
39
Strabo, XIV 5.6.
40
Kurt, 2009: 127; Cassius Dio, XLVII I 24.
41
Strabo XIV 5.3; Plutarch. The Life of Antony. 36.2.
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Galatia42, Amyntas. Strabo points out that Derbe, Laranda and two Isaurian cities were
among the places that Amyntas governed. Amyntas, who killed the tyrant Derbetes, took
Isauria from the Romans. He destroyed Isauria Vetus, and rebuilt it for himself and royal
family. However, he was fallen into an ambush when Homonadeis attacked his country
and killed by Cilicians. Thus, he could not live to see completed Isauria Nova43.
In 25 B.C., after the death of Amnytas the control of Isauria passed to Archelaus.
Strabo claimed that this area was the place where piracy was organized44. The people here
had right reasons to protect the region both by land and sea. The tribes that had plains and
farms here could live thanks to the height of the mountains so they always tried to protect
the region by land. The reasons to preserve by sea were to supply the goods such as timber
that were necessary for navigation, and the fear of losing the ports, fortresses and secret
shelters45. Pliny explained the power that Isaurians had and stated that the authorities
involved Pamphylia to Cilicia without disturbing Isaurian public. He also claimed that
Isauria region had three cities named Isaura, Clibanus and Lalasis, Homonadeis
overlooked by the authorities were in the border of Isauria and they had 44 fortresses
between the rocky valleys46.Tacitus indicated that the hegemony of the region was in a
brave and divinised consul general of Agustus, Quirinus’ power. As Tacitus asserted that
his increasing power made Cilicia people felt uncomfortable47.
In 6 A.D. Isaurians started to reattack and made a fierce battle but Romans
succeeded in controlling the region again48. Cietae tribe bounded to Capadocia was
displeased with the heavy taxes of Archelaus I and thus in 36 A.D. they defied against the
current order. These people immigrated to the Mount Taurus but when they returned, they
had to pay tax to Rome in order to use their goods. Having the advantages of their
geography, they made variety of arrangements in the region against the forces of emperor.
42
Within the borders of Provincia Galatia, which was the first empire state of Rome in Anatolia, here were
Pisidia, Lykaonia, Cilicia Trakheia and Attaleia and Side (Pamphilia) as well as Galatia. However, the
borders of Galatia were expanded by adding the new regions, Kaya, 2005a: 159.
43
Strabo, XII 6.3.
44
Strabo, XII 1.4; XIV 5.6.
45
Strabo, XIV 5.6.
46
Pliny.V: XXIII.
47
Tacitus, Annales. III. 48.
48
Cassius Dio, LV 28.3.
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Tacitus stated that on the two hills, Cadra and Davara named by these “barbarians”, 4000
legioners sent by Vitelliusas a subsidiary powers set a line along the hills and killed off
some rebels and forced the others to surrender due to thirst49.
In 51 A.D in the leadership of Troxoborus a new uprising was arranged. Ciatae
people that had an extremely wild structure set camps on the cliffs under the Troxoborus
directorship. They attacked the coasts, the cities, the merchants and the ship captains.
They surrounded Anemuirum city and the proconsul Curtius Severus sent a horseman
troop however, the rough country did not let the warriors to fight. Finally, Antiokhos
gently fought the rebel troops off, executed the chief Troxoborus and some rioters, the
others were quelled in a tolerant way50.
At the end of 270s A.D within the Probus era, it was stated that a group of bandits
led by an Isaurian called Lydius caused chaos. Lydius and his rebellian companions were
engaged in banditry in especially Pamphylia and Lycia but in a short while they faced the
intervention of Roman soldiers. In the rebelliance told by Zosimus in detail, Lydius took
shelter in a place situated in a steep field called Kremna as he thought he couldn’t fight
against such a big number of Roman soldiers. Lydius saw Romans were quite decisive
but exhausted for the blockage stayed at their houses and started to grow grains in order
to meet their own men’s needs. However, as the number of them was high, this solution
was not enough to meet their needs and Lydius killed both men and women who had no
mission in the gang and then made his men to build a tunnel in the town to meet the food
needs. However, when all the supplies ran out of, he slaughtered all the people in the
town. Zozimus claimed that Lydius behaved like this as a kind of defence method. Then
he trained a man to use a gun but he did not shoot one of the enemies so Lydius took his
clothes off and whipped him. Since he got rid of stabs and was always under threat, he
ran away from the town and fell in the hands of the Roman soldiers. Finally, this man
who attacked Lydius with the help of Roman soldiers caused a fatal wound with a spear,
nonetheless Lydiusdied fighting because he had an oath not to leave his own place51.
49
Tacitus, Annales. VI 41.
Tacitus, Annales. XII 55.
51
Zosimus, I.
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According to the data gathered from the sources, between 260-343 A.D, there
were four separate Isaurian revolts52. In 353-354 A.D. upon the execution of some
Isaurians in the amphitheatre of Iconium the Isuarians started to revolt again. During the
revolt, Isaurians seized the grains carried by boatsin the river and a considerable amount
of decrease in the supplies of Roman soldiers occured. This situation spread everywhere
and also to Gallus Caesar. The emperor collected extremely strong soldiers from various
regions and prepared to attack to protect the city strategically important, against this
defense, “marauders” scattered into the mountains53.
According to data given by Ammianus between 353 and 368 A.D. there were three
big revolts. The first one happened in 359 A.D, as Ammiaunus stated that “Isaurian
marauders” attacked the northern and southern cities in the Taurus and surrounded the
Isaurian regions in Seleucia. This siege was as follows:
“During this term, after the processes we mentioned before, Isaurians stayed calm
for a while and attempted to take Seleucia city like snakes go out of their holes in the
spring time and freshen up gradually, they went down the cliffs and forests having no
way; took shape in the troops; tired therneighbours out by savage raids. Asit was easy to
move by the bushes on the cliffs, all the attempts of the soldierswere to capture the
mountaineers”. There upon, Constantius gave Lauricius a title of count and sent him to
the region as a proconsul in order to control the rioters not only in a fair way but also
with presure. Lauricius directed the region for a while behaving the citizens reasonably
and thus, the chaos was prevented before it went too far54.
The last one of these revolts happened in 367 A.D. During the Asia governorship
of Musonius who was the master of or a tory formerly in Athens, Isaurians attacked the
neighbour Cilicia and Pamphilia. Musonius heard that looting and evil spread everywhere
and then took his soldiers with him that lost their fighting abilities and he moved from
Sardes to Isauria. However, he was trapped while passing through a narrow and rough
gate and all his troops were killed. The rebels who gained a great deal of advantages
52
Lensky, 1999:422.
Ammianus, XIV 2.1-20.
54
Ammianus, XIX 13.1.
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wandered in the town for a while and then killed the people, and until any interference
rocks and mountains were their shelters. However, after a while, with the attack of Rome,
rebels demanded ceasefire and stayed silent for a long time after they handed in their
refugees55.
In 375 A.D, in a large number of letters written by Basil to Iconium bishop,
Amphilochius, it was mentioned that there was enough intervention of the empire to the
revolt and looting of Isaurians. At this time, the negative effects of Isaurians spread to the
north and in one of his letters, Basil stated that the road of Rome between Constantinople
and Caesarea was completely unsurpassable and full of enemies yet the season was
suitable for the sea voyage and he sent his best wishes to Gregory during the journey.
Morever, Basil claimed that too many men, after their barbarian attacks, swore in a
heathen way, were engaged in illegal activities in witchcraft temples and thus they cut off
the ties with God. They denied their misdeeds after they were tortured. Basil indicated
this event like this: “I feel tha tif great disasters had not happened, the God would not
have given us to the barbarians due to our sins”56.
By 395 A.D, there was not a severe chaos in the region. However, there has not
been any clear data on whichthe problems were totally solved. Emperor Dioclatian
separated Isauria state from Cilicia Campestris, he permanently placed three military
posts in Seleukia. Even though the rebels surrounded the military posts for three days and
nights, they could not succeed in the siege as the bad conditions in the land of fortress. In
addition to failure, hunger, despair and rage also arouse and they marched on Seleucia in
order to destroy it. During the march, reliable couts warrned the troops in the post and the
soldiers were given counter signs and taken out of the post for the war. However, they
were not allowed to fight. As for Ammianus, it was because the army of Rome was afraid
of the rebel groups. At last, the group of rebels attacked the army yet three legions in the
region defended Castricius, which was the metropolis of the region. In 395 A.D, in the
55
56
Ammianus, XXVII 9.6-7.
Basil Epp. 215.
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east when Notitia Dignitatum57 emerged, two of the military posts, Isauria I ve III
survived58.
CONCLUSION
There had been 16 revolts in region of Isauria from Hellenistic through the end of
Roman period. In Hellenistic period, there appeared an only revolt. There has been
noother information about any revolts in this period according to ancient sources. Due to
Balakros death, the general of Alexander, Perdikkas marched on the region, so the people
of Isauria decided to commit mass suicide ather than surrender.
Inthe Roman Period, due to the geographical conditions of Isaura, most of the
inhabitants were either pirate or soldiers of the Roman Army. Because there were limited
lands suitable for farming. In Roman period, there were two big revolts in Isauira (73 and
67 A.D). Pompeius was appointed to deal with the region and he gained extraordinary
power by suppressing there volts.
We learn so much about the region by ancient writers such as: Cicero, Strabo,
Appian, Diodorus, Ammianus, Sallust, Cassius Dio etc. According to Strabo: Octavianus
resigned this region to Amyntas, however Amyntas took Isauria from Roman control and
destroyed Isauria Vetus (Old Isauria) but he did not live long enough to destroy Isauria
Nova (Zengibar Castle).
According to ancient sources, from 51 A.D to 3rd century A.D it was a relatively
peace era in Isaura. Unfortunately, in 270 A.D the turmoil started again and marauders
attacked the big cities such as Seleucia and Anemurium. As a result of their revolts and
attacks, the marauders took over the control of the route between Constantinople and
Caesareia in 375 A.D according to Basil.
In 395 A.D, the situation of Isauria was not clearly documented. It has been
considered that there gion was not completely under control.
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An official listing of all ancient Roman civi and military posts. It survives as a 1551 copy of the nowmissing original and is the major source of information on the administrative organization of the late Roman
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58
Ammianus, XIV 2.14-16
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