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REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES Mustafa ARSLAN * Nuriye BAHÇE ** Esra BULUT Abstract Isauria region starts from northern slopes of Taurus Mountains where Konya Plateau lays above. The boundary of region goes around from Mount Geyik in the south through Seydişehir, Lake Suğla in the west and Hadim-Göksu River in the east. The geography of the region provides an ultimate protection for Isaurians and it gave great difficulties for the powers who wanted to conquest the land. Isauria was free during the Persian period and Alexander the Great did not make difficulties for the local people there until Balakros was killed by Isaurians who was appointed by Alexander the Great. Thus, Perdikkas marched on Isauria to punish the public after the death of Balacros. In the period of Rome, the name of Isauria was frequently mentioned with riots, as well. The General, Servilius Vatia who fought with the pirates in the eastern Mediterranean made a campaign against Isauria. In the years ahead, the general of Mithridates, Eumakhos marched into there region and Galatian Deiotaros responded this action. All the seturm oils show us how the touchy and important theare awas. On the other hand, the other examples such as the death of Amyntas on the way to build a city in this region and Cicero’s efforts and demanding in Isauria areal son oticeable. The chaos and the external interference went on in the following periods. It can be stated that there appeared a peace when Turks finaly arrived the region. There are many ancient writers who cited about Isaurian revolts of Isaurians such as: Strabo, Diodorus, Appianus, Plutarkhos, Tacitus, Cicero etc. They explained the revolts and made comments on the reasons and results of them. In this study, we aimed to focus the disordinance in Isauria in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods based on ancient sources. • Keywords Isauria, Revolt, Hellenistic Period, Roman Period, Piracy * ** Asst. Prof. Dr. Selcuk University Beyşehir Ali Akkanat Faculty of Tourism [email protected] Lecturer, Selcuk University School of Foreign Languages. Doctoral Student, Selcuk University Graduate School of Social Sciences. 50 REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES INTRODUCTION The Location of Isauria The information about the geographical location of Isauria may be gained rom the ancient writers. Strabo states that Isauria is in the north of Taurus Mountain1 and between Lykaonia and Cilicia. In the region, there are two rivers called Göksu and Çarşamba. Isauria region has two villages with the same name, “Isauria Palaia-Old Isauria and Isauria Nova-New Isauria” and they were well-protected. With the other villages, these ones were robber settlements2. However, there are nothern ancient writers except Strabo who used both two names of Isauria. Thus, he started dissidence on this subject. The city that Diodoros3 and Ammianus4 mentioned about must be Isauria Palaia. However, Sallust5 mentioned only one city, “İsauria Nova”. This uncertainty in the Ancient Ages is available among our modern-day scholars. The consensus related to the names and locations of these two cities has not built yet6. The People of Isauria The people of Isauria caused a great deal of trouble to Romans in the period of Rome; especially in the time of Servilius. In the ancient sources, different terms and titles are used for the local people. However, it is possible to see that these terms find common ground. Certain parts of ancient writers describe them as “robbers and pirates”7, the others characterize them as “marauder, bandit and raider”8. There is a group of writers who 1 Strabo, XIV. 5.1. Strabo, XII. 6.2. 3 Diodorus, XVIII, 22. 4 Ammianus, XIV, 2.12; 8.2. 5 Sallust. Hist. II, 69. 6 City, Isaura Palaia, Hamilton, 1842:412; İsauria Nova, Ramsay, 1912: 220; Isauria Vetus and Isauria Nova, Sterret, 1888: 149 et al.; Isauria Nova, Cramer, 1972: 73-74; Isauria Vetus, Isauria Nova Bahar, 1996: 5556. 7 Strabo X11. 6.2; Livy, Perioch.-93; Festus. XII.3. 8 Appian, XII 14; Festus, XII.3; Livy, Perioch 93. 2 ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUM: GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE BOZKIR REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES prefer more innocent terms in their works. For instance, these rebels may be called as “Isaurian Warriors”9 and “enemies”10. Hellenistic Period Isaurian Revolts In the Hellenistic period that started with the dominance of Alexander the Great over Greece (330-146 BC), Macedonian army entered into Anatolia after defeating Persians and in a short time they captured Cilicia Region 11. In this period, one can see that the Greek launched expeditions against the Greece chieftains and rebels as a punishment. It seems that the aims of the Greek were not to dominate over Isauria but to take revenge on Isaurians. As Diodoros stated, Isaurian warriors who killed Balacros, the Cilicia satrap of Alexander the Great, were attacked by Perdiccas in 322 BC; faced a savage resistance and finally were forced to commit mass suicide. Rather than surrender, the warriors set their houses on fire and chose to burn to death with all the family members12. From this date to the Rome Period, there has been no clear data related to the Isaurian revolts. As far as we learn from the current sources, owing to the imperial conflict after the death of Alexander the Great, there was a domestic unrest in the region, the severe resistance of Isaurians was going on and the Greek could not get any victories after the last success. Even though the Isaurian region was an enduring arena of dissidence, it might be stated that the Isurians provided benefit to the Greek in severe wars in the sense that they were a neutral zone and the constant presence of armed captives. Thus, the resistance of Isaurians was accepted with tolerance. In 280-260 BC, this perception did not change and any Hellen states could not entirely provide the control of the region 13. 9 Diodorus, XVIII. 22. Sallust, Hist. II, 69. 11 Arrianus. Anabasis, I 11-26. 12 Diodorus. XVIII. 22. 13 Bevan, I, 1902: 100; Shaw, 1990: 218. 10 ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUM: GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE BOZKIR 51 52 REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES After the Greek, the effects of Seleucids and Ptolemies were seen in the region. Rome that began to dominate over the region increased its hegemony in order to prevent the current problem, piracy. Yet, Rome had to seriously deal with the Isaurian revolts. Roman Period Isaurian Revolts In 188 BC, after Apemeia Treaty, Pergamon became the strongest province of Anatolia and a buffer state between Rome and the Seleucids. It also entirely came under the Roman domination. Seleucids had to leave nearly all the fleets to Rome and thus the navigation regressed or passed to just Anatolian coastal cities and this led to the priracy on those cites. The fastest area that the piracy spread was the South Anatolian coastline. Especially the coastal cities of Cilicia Trachea were preferred as suitable places for piracy activities14. The fact that this territory is not sufficient for agricultural product may have led the local people to find alternative means of living. Thus, some were in the activities of piracy, the others joined the Roman military service15. At first, Rome not only overlooked the piracy but also utilised them by making them employ as slaves. However, against the increased piracy power in the last quarter of the 1st century B.C, Rome had to change its tactics and finally started to struggle with the pirates that were active along the coastline of Pamphylia, East Lycia and Cilicia Trachea16. As Strabo mentions, the Province of Asia suffered from the domestic disturbance. The pirates here gradually gained strength by affecting the people with bad status among the public and they started to engage in the refugee17 trade activities18. Marcus Antonius charged with stopping the pirates that were giving harm to Provincia Asia19 but he could not get a victory against the pirates in 102 B. C. and the 14 Kurt, 2009:117-118. About the emergence of piracy and its activities in Pamphylia and Cilicia see Appian, The Mithridatic Wars XII. 14 (92); Cassius Dio, XXXVI 20-23; Strabo, XIV 3,2. 15 Kurt, 2009: 118-119. For the information about the suitable conditions for piracy activities of Cilicia Trachea, see Mitford and Andrews 1980, 1237. 16 Arslan, 2003: 94; Kurt, 2009:119. 17 Cilicia, first became as a Roman province in 92 B.C. It was founded to control the pirates and the first proconsul of the province was Sulla. Sulla was known as a dictator Kaya, 2005b: 17; Kurt, 2009:119. 18 Strabo, XIV 5.2. 19 Tacitus XII 62 ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUM: GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE BOZKIR REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES piracy gradually continued to increase20. Due to the Civil Wars in Rome21 and the 1st Mithridatic War in 90 B.C, Rome had to give up the struggle with the pirates. The people who ran away from the tyranny of Dolabella and Verres during 80 B.C took refuge in pirates and muggers and so this situation resulted in the pirates favor. The pirates whose force went up on the southern coasts became a political power before long. They started to build up ships on the coastal shipyards22 and forced coastal cities to pay money. Moreover, a pirate who declared himself a king called Zeniketes captured Korykos, Phaselis and a large deal of Pamphylia23. Because of the increased danger in the region, the senate charged Publius Servilius Vatia as a Cilicia governor in 74-78 B.C. The governor who was sent to Isauria Vetus in order to stop the piracy and hijacking in the Southern Anatolia surrendered the city after a long siege that covered Çarşamba River. There is extensive information in the ancient sources about this uprising. Strabo described both the location of Isauria Region and its two important villages and claimed that Isaurians were “robbers and pirates” and that Romans had a great deal of trouble because of these revolts. He also stated that especially Servilius dealt with these revolts and he also included the cities in Rome and destroyed most of the castles of these pirates (including the dominance of Zenicetes). Based on Strabo’s explanations, one can understand that he knew Servilius and Servilius had a nickname, “İsauricus”24. Ammianus pointed out that he surpassed in the naval warfares with the piratesand dismissed them from the coasts of Cilicia25. For the same revolt, Livy called Isaurians “pirates” and stated that Servilius captured them and some of their cities26. Julius Frontinus mentioned about this revolt as follows: “Publius Servilius diverted the stream from which the inhabitants of Isauria drew their water, and thus forced them to surrender in consequence of thirst”27. Festus used the terms “bandit war” for this revolt, “pirates and sea going marauders” for Isaurians, and claimed that they 20 Kurt, 2009: 120. For the battles see Diodorus, XXXVII, I, 6-11; Plutarch, Sulla, VI, 1-2. 22 For the importance of the coasts for pirates, see Strabo. XIV 5, 6. 23 Arslan, 2003: 101; Kurt, 2009: 121-122. 24 Strabo, XII 6.2. 25 Ammianus, XIV 8, 4. 26 Livius, Perioch. 93. 27 Frontinus, Strat. III.7.1. 21 ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUM: GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE BOZKIR 53 54 REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES were the first people who constructed the road through the Mount Taurus and Servilius received the nickname "Isauricus" after the victory over the Cilicians and Isaurians28. Related to this victory and nickname, Eutropius gives more detailed information: “Publius Servilius, an energetic man, was sent, after his consulate, into Cilicia and Pamphilia. He reduced Cilicia, besieged and took the most eminent cities of Lycia, amongst them Phaselis, Olympus, and Corycus. The Isauri he also attacked, and compelled to surrender, and, within three years, put an end to the war. He was the first of the Romans that marched over Mount Taurus. On his return, he was granted a triumph, and acquired the surname of Isauricus”29. According to Sallust, at the beginning of the revolt in 75 B.C, that Romans did not deliberately respond with either weapons or shouting was misinterpreted by Isaurians and they thought that Romans abandoned their fortifications. However, it was not the case as Isaurians hoped. Romans made use of their weapons from their more favourable positions and prevented them to reach the target zone. After a short while, nearly half of the ditches were filled by dead Isaurians, but the rest escaped safely. Sallust explained the reason for this as follows: “because it was difficult for Romans to pursue them by night and they were afraid of ambushes.” At the end of the revolt, we can see that they were forced to surrender owing to the lack of water. Their town was destroyed by fire and their people were made slaves. Since they were afraid of sharing the same destiny representatives from Isaura Nova came for peace30. Pompey the Great and Eumachus, the general of Mithridates, were in charge of the other revolt in 73 B.C. As Strabo points out that after Servilius, Pompey the Great – Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus set more than 300 ships of Isaurians on fire and destroyed their houses. The ones who survived were brought down to Soli, which he named Pompeiopolis and the others to Dyme, where there was a dearth of population31. For this revolt, Appian gives more detailed information. As he stated that the uprising of pirates was first thought to be difficult to quash, but it was repressed in a few days by Pompey the Great, who went to Cilicia Trachea. “He took 71 ships by capture and 306 by surrender from the pirates, 28 Festus, Breviarium XII.3; Strabo XII. 6.2. Eutropius, VI. 3. 30 Sall: Hist. II. 69. 31 Strabo, XIV 3.3. 29 ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUM: GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE BOZKIR REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES and 120 of their towns, castles, and other places of rendezvous. About 10,000 of the pirates were slain in battles32”. In 67 B.C with the increased uprisings Pompey with a broad authority33 was in charged of punishing the pirates in Cilicia. Plutarchos clearly stated that Pompey mostly drove the pirates away in the west regions of Rome hegemony and stopped the activities of pirates in the eastern regions. He broke in Cilicia with a fleet of good ships34. Appian indicated that Pompey hastened to Cilicia with his forces of various kinds and many engines.The terror of his name and the greatness of his preparations had produced a panic among “the robbers” and surrendered without any resistance. First those who held Cragus and Anticragus, their largest citadels, surrendered themselves, and then the mountaineers of Cilicia, finally, all, one after another. It was such surrender that they gave up a great quantity of arms, their ships, also brass and iron collected for building them, and sailcloth, rope, and various kinds of materials; and finally the captives either held for ransom or chained to their tasks. Pompey burned the materials, carried away the ships, and sent the captives back to their respective countries. As Appian asserted that Romans perceived the end of the revolt as a victory since it was so swiftly and unexpectedly gained and Pompey was extolled by the Romans beyond measure35. Having looked at his preparations and expectations, Pompey was likely to have been afraid of this revolt. Likewise, the power, authority and exaggrated praise the Romans gave him considered; one can understand that Isaurian revolts created a fear in the period of Rome. Ancient writers indicated that Pompey placed a majority of pirates in Soli and gave the city its own name, Pompeiopolis36. 32 Appian, The Mithridatic Wars XIV. 96. For the which was the source of this power, see Plutarch, Pompeius, XXV 2; XXVI 1-4; Cassius Dio, XXXVI 23, 4. 34 Plutarch, Pompey, XXVIII, XXIX. 35 While he was still in Cilician ote they chose him the commander of the war against Mithridates, giving him the same unlimited powers as before, to make war and peace as he liked, and to proclaimnations friends or enemies according to his own judgment. They gave him command of all the forces beyond the borders of Italy. All these powers had never been given to any one general before. Appian, Mithridatic Wars XIV. 96. 36 Strabo, XIV 3, 3; Cassius Dio, XXXVI 37, 6. 33 ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUM: GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE BOZKIR 55 56 REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES In 64 B.C. the fact that the Isaurians made a trouble in the region can be understood by the explanations of Cicero. In one of the letters he wrote in the battlefield to the authorities and senate, he informed about the occupation of Syrian city by Parths and explained his own goals. He stated that he was first in Lycaonia, Isauria and Cappadocia and the Roman army was also in Cappadocia in order to protect the region37. Cicero also indicates that he was going to hasten the Taurus with a gang lord for the battle, Moeragenes, who ran away as a slave from Atticus38. Up to this period, one can see that Roman government could not apply a severe and certain solution in relation to Isaurian revolts. It preferred to find temporary solutions not a permanent hegemony in Cilicia and the authorities seem not to have been so interested in the region. Strabo explained this policy related to the structure of the region as follows: “The region was naturally well adapted to the business of piracy both by land and by sea—by land, because of the height of the mountains and the large tribes that live beyond them, tribes which have plains and farm-lands that are large and easily overrun, and by sea, because of the good supply, not only of shipbuilding timber, but also of harbors and fortresses and secret recesses—with all this in view, I say, the Romans thought that it was better for the region to be ruled by kings than to be under the Roman prefects sent to administer justice, who were not likely always to be present or to have armed forces with them”39. In 44 B.C, after the assassination of Julius Caesar by the Republicans M. Brutus, G. Cassius and their friends, a civil war broke out in Rome. In 39 B.C Antonius was sent to Anatolia with a great deal of power in order to restore the east as Octavianus had in the west. He had good relationships with Cleopatra the VII. the queen of Ptolemaios, about the safety of Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean40. According to the ancient sources, most of Cilicia was given to Cleopatra41 to supply timber for her navy. After the War of Actium (31 B.C.) Octavianus (Augustus) governed the region by means of Antonius’ vassal administration. As Strabo stated, Octavianus resigned the region to the King of 37 Cicero, Fam. 15.2.1. Cicero, Att. 5.15.3. 39 Strabo, XIV 5.6. 40 Kurt, 2009: 127; Cassius Dio, XLVII I 24. 41 Strabo XIV 5.3; Plutarch. The Life of Antony. 36.2. 38 ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUM: GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE BOZKIR REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES Galatia42, Amyntas. Strabo points out that Derbe, Laranda and two Isaurian cities were among the places that Amyntas governed. Amyntas, who killed the tyrant Derbetes, took Isauria from the Romans. He destroyed Isauria Vetus, and rebuilt it for himself and royal family. However, he was fallen into an ambush when Homonadeis attacked his country and killed by Cilicians. Thus, he could not live to see completed Isauria Nova43. In 25 B.C., after the death of Amnytas the control of Isauria passed to Archelaus. Strabo claimed that this area was the place where piracy was organized44. The people here had right reasons to protect the region both by land and sea. The tribes that had plains and farms here could live thanks to the height of the mountains so they always tried to protect the region by land. The reasons to preserve by sea were to supply the goods such as timber that were necessary for navigation, and the fear of losing the ports, fortresses and secret shelters45. Pliny explained the power that Isaurians had and stated that the authorities involved Pamphylia to Cilicia without disturbing Isaurian public. He also claimed that Isauria region had three cities named Isaura, Clibanus and Lalasis, Homonadeis overlooked by the authorities were in the border of Isauria and they had 44 fortresses between the rocky valleys46.Tacitus indicated that the hegemony of the region was in a brave and divinised consul general of Agustus, Quirinus’ power. As Tacitus asserted that his increasing power made Cilicia people felt uncomfortable47. In 6 A.D. Isaurians started to reattack and made a fierce battle but Romans succeeded in controlling the region again48. Cietae tribe bounded to Capadocia was displeased with the heavy taxes of Archelaus I and thus in 36 A.D. they defied against the current order. These people immigrated to the Mount Taurus but when they returned, they had to pay tax to Rome in order to use their goods. Having the advantages of their geography, they made variety of arrangements in the region against the forces of emperor. 42 Within the borders of Provincia Galatia, which was the first empire state of Rome in Anatolia, here were Pisidia, Lykaonia, Cilicia Trakheia and Attaleia and Side (Pamphilia) as well as Galatia. However, the borders of Galatia were expanded by adding the new regions, Kaya, 2005a: 159. 43 Strabo, XII 6.3. 44 Strabo, XII 1.4; XIV 5.6. 45 Strabo, XIV 5.6. 46 Pliny.V: XXIII. 47 Tacitus, Annales. III. 48. 48 Cassius Dio, LV 28.3. ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUM: GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE BOZKIR 57 58 REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES Tacitus stated that on the two hills, Cadra and Davara named by these “barbarians”, 4000 legioners sent by Vitelliusas a subsidiary powers set a line along the hills and killed off some rebels and forced the others to surrender due to thirst49. In 51 A.D in the leadership of Troxoborus a new uprising was arranged. Ciatae people that had an extremely wild structure set camps on the cliffs under the Troxoborus directorship. They attacked the coasts, the cities, the merchants and the ship captains. They surrounded Anemuirum city and the proconsul Curtius Severus sent a horseman troop however, the rough country did not let the warriors to fight. Finally, Antiokhos gently fought the rebel troops off, executed the chief Troxoborus and some rioters, the others were quelled in a tolerant way50. At the end of 270s A.D within the Probus era, it was stated that a group of bandits led by an Isaurian called Lydius caused chaos. Lydius and his rebellian companions were engaged in banditry in especially Pamphylia and Lycia but in a short while they faced the intervention of Roman soldiers. In the rebelliance told by Zosimus in detail, Lydius took shelter in a place situated in a steep field called Kremna as he thought he couldn’t fight against such a big number of Roman soldiers. Lydius saw Romans were quite decisive but exhausted for the blockage stayed at their houses and started to grow grains in order to meet their own men’s needs. However, as the number of them was high, this solution was not enough to meet their needs and Lydius killed both men and women who had no mission in the gang and then made his men to build a tunnel in the town to meet the food needs. However, when all the supplies ran out of, he slaughtered all the people in the town. Zozimus claimed that Lydius behaved like this as a kind of defence method. Then he trained a man to use a gun but he did not shoot one of the enemies so Lydius took his clothes off and whipped him. Since he got rid of stabs and was always under threat, he ran away from the town and fell in the hands of the Roman soldiers. Finally, this man who attacked Lydius with the help of Roman soldiers caused a fatal wound with a spear, nonetheless Lydiusdied fighting because he had an oath not to leave his own place51. 49 Tacitus, Annales. VI 41. Tacitus, Annales. XII 55. 51 Zosimus, I. 50 ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUM: GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE BOZKIR REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES According to the data gathered from the sources, between 260-343 A.D, there were four separate Isaurian revolts52. In 353-354 A.D. upon the execution of some Isaurians in the amphitheatre of Iconium the Isuarians started to revolt again. During the revolt, Isaurians seized the grains carried by boatsin the river and a considerable amount of decrease in the supplies of Roman soldiers occured. This situation spread everywhere and also to Gallus Caesar. The emperor collected extremely strong soldiers from various regions and prepared to attack to protect the city strategically important, against this defense, “marauders” scattered into the mountains53. According to data given by Ammianus between 353 and 368 A.D. there were three big revolts. The first one happened in 359 A.D, as Ammiaunus stated that “Isaurian marauders” attacked the northern and southern cities in the Taurus and surrounded the Isaurian regions in Seleucia. This siege was as follows: “During this term, after the processes we mentioned before, Isaurians stayed calm for a while and attempted to take Seleucia city like snakes go out of their holes in the spring time and freshen up gradually, they went down the cliffs and forests having no way; took shape in the troops; tired therneighbours out by savage raids. Asit was easy to move by the bushes on the cliffs, all the attempts of the soldierswere to capture the mountaineers”. There upon, Constantius gave Lauricius a title of count and sent him to the region as a proconsul in order to control the rioters not only in a fair way but also with presure. Lauricius directed the region for a while behaving the citizens reasonably and thus, the chaos was prevented before it went too far54. The last one of these revolts happened in 367 A.D. During the Asia governorship of Musonius who was the master of or a tory formerly in Athens, Isaurians attacked the neighbour Cilicia and Pamphilia. Musonius heard that looting and evil spread everywhere and then took his soldiers with him that lost their fighting abilities and he moved from Sardes to Isauria. However, he was trapped while passing through a narrow and rough gate and all his troops were killed. The rebels who gained a great deal of advantages 52 Lensky, 1999:422. Ammianus, XIV 2.1-20. 54 Ammianus, XIX 13.1. 53 ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUM: GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE BOZKIR 59 60 REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES wandered in the town for a while and then killed the people, and until any interference rocks and mountains were their shelters. However, after a while, with the attack of Rome, rebels demanded ceasefire and stayed silent for a long time after they handed in their refugees55. In 375 A.D, in a large number of letters written by Basil to Iconium bishop, Amphilochius, it was mentioned that there was enough intervention of the empire to the revolt and looting of Isaurians. At this time, the negative effects of Isaurians spread to the north and in one of his letters, Basil stated that the road of Rome between Constantinople and Caesarea was completely unsurpassable and full of enemies yet the season was suitable for the sea voyage and he sent his best wishes to Gregory during the journey. Morever, Basil claimed that too many men, after their barbarian attacks, swore in a heathen way, were engaged in illegal activities in witchcraft temples and thus they cut off the ties with God. They denied their misdeeds after they were tortured. Basil indicated this event like this: “I feel tha tif great disasters had not happened, the God would not have given us to the barbarians due to our sins”56. By 395 A.D, there was not a severe chaos in the region. However, there has not been any clear data on whichthe problems were totally solved. Emperor Dioclatian separated Isauria state from Cilicia Campestris, he permanently placed three military posts in Seleukia. Even though the rebels surrounded the military posts for three days and nights, they could not succeed in the siege as the bad conditions in the land of fortress. In addition to failure, hunger, despair and rage also arouse and they marched on Seleucia in order to destroy it. During the march, reliable couts warrned the troops in the post and the soldiers were given counter signs and taken out of the post for the war. However, they were not allowed to fight. As for Ammianus, it was because the army of Rome was afraid of the rebel groups. At last, the group of rebels attacked the army yet three legions in the region defended Castricius, which was the metropolis of the region. In 395 A.D, in the 55 56 Ammianus, XXVII 9.6-7. Basil Epp. 215. ULUSLARARASI SEMPOZYUM: GEÇMİŞTEN GÜNÜMÜZE BOZKIR REVOLTS IN ISAURIA DURING THE HELLENISTIC AND ROMAN PERIODS IN THE LIGHT OF ANCIENT SOURCES east when Notitia Dignitatum57 emerged, two of the military posts, Isauria I ve III survived58. CONCLUSION There had been 16 revolts in region of Isauria from Hellenistic through the end of Roman period. In Hellenistic period, there appeared an only revolt. There has been noother information about any revolts in this period according to ancient sources. Due to Balakros death, the general of Alexander, Perdikkas marched on the region, so the people of Isauria decided to commit mass suicide ather than surrender. Inthe Roman Period, due to the geographical conditions of Isaura, most of the inhabitants were either pirate or soldiers of the Roman Army. Because there were limited lands suitable for farming. In Roman period, there were two big revolts in Isauira (73 and 67 A.D). Pompeius was appointed to deal with the region and he gained extraordinary power by suppressing there volts. We learn so much about the region by ancient writers such as: Cicero, Strabo, Appian, Diodorus, Ammianus, Sallust, Cassius Dio etc. According to Strabo: Octavianus resigned this region to Amyntas, however Amyntas took Isauria from Roman control and destroyed Isauria Vetus (Old Isauria) but he did not live long enough to destroy Isauria Nova (Zengibar Castle). According to ancient sources, from 51 A.D to 3rd century A.D it was a relatively peace era in Isaura. 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