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International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied
Science (IJAETMAS)
ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 04 - Issue 02 || February-2017 || PP. 54-62
HORMONES…..A Short Review
B.Mounika, P.Praveen kumar(Patentee).
II/IV Biotech ,Department of Biotechnology& GITAM institute of Technology
Visakhapatnam.
Hormones: The body's chemical messengers. Human body secretes and circulates some
50 different hormones. A wide variety of these chemical substances are produced by
endocrine cells, most of which are in glands. Hormones then enter the blood system to
circulate throughout the body and activate target cells.
Introduction:
Hormones are special chemical messengers in the body that are created in the endocrine
glands. These messengers control most major bodily functions, from simple basic needs like
hunger to complex systems like reproduction, and even the emotions and mood.
Understanding the major hormone functions will help patients to take control of their health1.
1. Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological
regulation and behavioural activities, such as digestion metabolism, respiration, tissue
function, sensory pereception sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and
development movement, reproduction, and mood. Hormones affect distant cells by
binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell
function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal
transduction pathway. This may lead to cell type-specific responses that include rapid
non-genomic effects or slower genomic responses where the hormones acting through
their receptors activate gene transcription resulting in increased expression of target
proteins. Amino acid–based hormones (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are
water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; steroid
hormones, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells
(both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei.
Regulation:
The rate of hormone biosynthesis and secretion is often regulated by a homeostatic negative
feedback control mechanism. Such a mechanism depends on factors that influence
the metabolism and excretion of hormones. Thus, higher hormone concentration alone cannot
trigger the negative feedback mechanism. Negative feedback must be triggered by
overproduction of an "effect" of the hormone. Hormone secretion can be stimulated and
inhibited by:




Other hormones (stimulating- or releasing -hormones)
Plasma concentrations of ions or nutrients, as well as binding globulins
Neurons and mental activity
Environmental changes, e.g., of light or temperature2
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International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied
Science (IJAETMAS)
ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 04 - Issue 02 || February-2017 || PP. 54-62
One special group of hormones is the tropic hormones that stimulate the hormone production
of other endocrine glands. For example, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) causes growth
and increased activity of another endocrine gland, the thyroid, which increases output
of thyroid hormones.
To release active hormones quickly into the circulation, hormone biosynthetic cells may
produce and store biologically inactive hormones in the form of pre- or prohormones. These
can then be quickly converted into their active hormone form in response to a particular
stimulus.
Eicosanoids are considered to act as local hormones. They are considered to be "local"
because they possess specific effects on target cells close to their site of formation. They also
have a rapid degradation cycle, making sure they do not reach distal sites within the body.3
`Mechanism of hormonal action
Role of hormones
Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation
and behavioural activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory
perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement,
reproduction, and mood.
Endocrine glands, which are also called ductless glans, deposites the hormones into the blood
stream. The blood, on its turn, carries the hormones to every part of the body.
The sex hormones are estrogen and testosterone. Like all hormones, they are chemical
messengers, substances produced in one part of the body that go on to tell other parts what to
do. Both women and men produce both estrogen and testosterone, though in different
quantities, and both sexes produce less as they age.4They act:
centrally - by
determining the amount of change in arousal produced by a given stimulus; peripherally by determining the amount of receptor response to a stimulus.
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International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied
Science (IJAETMAS)
ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 04 - Issue 02 || February-2017 || PP. 54-62
In most animal species the brain controls and regulates sexual behaviour primarily by means
of hormones. However, hormones seems to affect arousability by altering the threshold for
erotic stimulation, regardless of weather the threshold is one of peripheral tissue sensitivity.5
Endocrine System
Hormones are created by glands, which are part of the endocrine system. The main hormoneproducing glands are:
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is responsible for body temperature, hunger, moods and
the release of hormones from other glands; and also controls thirst, sleep and sex drive.
Parathyroid: This gland controls the amount of calcium in the body.
Thymus: This gland plays a role in the function of the adaptive immune system and the
maturity of the thymus, and produces T-cells.
Pancreas: This gland produces the insulin that helps control blood sugar levels.
Thyroid: The thyroid produces hormones associated with calorie burning and heart rate.
Adrenal: Adrenal glands produce the hormones that control sex drive and cortisol, the stress
hormone.
Pituitary: Considered the "master control gland," the pituitary gland controls other glands
and makes the hormones that trigger growth.
Pineal: Also called the thalamus, this gland produces serotonin derivatives of melatonin,
which affects sleep.
Ovaries: Only in women, the ovaries secrete estrogen, testosterone and progesterone, the
female sex hormones.
Testes: Only in men, the testes produce the male sex hormone, testosterone, and produce
sperm.
These glands work together to create and manage the body's major hormones.6
Effects

Hormones have the following effects on the body:

stimulation or inhibition of growth

wake-sleep cycle and other circadian rhythms

mood swings

induction or suppression of apoptosis (programmed cell death)

activation or inhibition of the immune system

regulation of metabolism

preparation of the body for mating, fighting, fleeing, and other activity.

preparation of the body for a new phase of life, such as puberty, parenting,
and menopause
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International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied
Science (IJAETMAS)
ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 04 - Issue 02 || February-2017 || PP. 54-62

control of the reproductive cycle

hunger cravings

sexual arousal7

Hormone may also regulate the production and release of other hormones.
Hormone signals control the internal environment of the body through homeostasis.
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Hormonal signaling involves the following steps:

Biosynthesis of a particular hormone in a particular tissue

Storage and secretion of the hormone

Transport of the hormone to the target cell(s)

Recognition of the
hormone by an associated cell membrane or
intracellular receptor protein8
Relay and amplification of the received hormonal signal via a signal
transduction process: This then leads to a cellular response. The reaction of the target
cells may then be recognized by the original hormone-producing cells, leading to
a down-regulation in
hormone production. This
is
an
example of
a homeostatic negative feedback loop.

Breakdown of the hormone.9
Classification of Hormones
Traditional Classification
Hormones are classified traditionally into three types:
Classical hormones - These hormones are secreted from the endocrine cells into the
interstitial fluid. These hormones diffuse into the bloodstream and are distributed to all body
parts by the circulatory system10.
Neurohormones - These hormones are synthesized by the neuro endocrine cells and are
secreted at the nerve terminals.11 They are transported around the body through the blood
vessels, into which they were diffused.
Local hormones - These hormones are secreted into the interstitial fluid and they act locally
in two ways.12 Some hormones act on the neighboring cells and are known as paracrine
hormones and some hormones act on the cells from which they were secreted, they are
autocrine hormones.13
Structural Classification
Hormones are structurally classified into four groups steroids, peptides, amino acids and fatty
acids.14
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International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied
Science (IJAETMAS)
ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 04 - Issue 02 || February-2017 || PP. 54-62
Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol and are soluble in lipids. The steroid
hormones include the sex hormones and the hormones produced by the adrenal gland.15 The
sex hormone include androgens, estrogens and progesterone.The adrenal hormones are
mineralcorticosteroids and glucocorticosteroids. Steroids hormones are important as they take
part in important functions including water balance, sexual development and stress
response.16
Amino acid derivative hormones - These hormones are derived from amino acids like
tyrosine and tyroptophan. Two types of tyrosine derived hormones, they are thyroid hormone
and catecholamines.17
Thyroid hormone is the most important as it regulates the develpment of organs and
metabolism. 18
Catecholamines - Norepoinephrine and epinephrine are catecholamines. They are stress
hormones and are neurotransmiiters.19,
Tryptophan amino acid is the precursor of hormones like serotonin and melatonin.20
Serotonin regulates the movement of the intestines and is also associated with mood and low
levels of this hormones often result in depression.
Peptide hormones - These hormones are derived from peptides. Prohormones are the
precursors for peptide hormones. The prohormones are synthesized by the endoplasmic
reticulum. Proper structural configuration is necessary for their functioning.21 The peptide
hormones are stored in the cell vesicle until there is stimuli signals for their release into the
blood stream. Examples of peptide hormones are TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone),insulin,
prolactin, vassopressin.
Fatty acids derived hormones - Hormones derived from the fatty acids are called
eicosanoids, they are derived from arachidonic acid. These hormones are produced by every
cell in the body. They have important roles in the body including inflammation, blood
pressure and blood clotting.22
On the Basis of Mode of Action
Based on the mode of action hormones are classified into quick acting hormones and short
acting hormones.23
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International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied
Science (IJAETMAS)
ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 04 - Issue 02 || February-2017 || PP. 54-62
Quick acting hormones - These hormones initiate immediate response from their target
cells. These hormones have outer plasma membrane receptors on the target cell 24, they are
large sized. Example: Protein and amine hormones.
Short acting hormones - These hormones initiate a delayed response. These hormones are
small in size and they bind to the protein receptors present in the cytosol. Example: steroid
hormones of reproductive organs and adrenal cortex.25
General characteristics of hormones are as follows:

Hormones are secreted by endocrine cells.

Hormones are chemical messengers.

The are chemical signals that circulate in the body fluids.

The hormones regulate the behaviour of the target cells. 26
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Hormones, unlike enzymes do not catalyze any reaction.

They are secreted only when needed, they are not stored prior to
requirement.26
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Hormones may be proteinaceous or non-proteinaceous in nature (amino-acids
or steroids).

The secretion of hormones is regulated by the nervous system through the feed
back effect.

Hormones usually cause long term effects like change in behaviour, growth,
etc.

The hormones function is to stimulate or inhibit the target
organs.27
Different types of Hormones and their effects and Functions
SNo
Name
Abbreviat Tissue
Effect
ion
1.
Epinephrine
EPI
adrenal gland
Bloodpressure,glycogenolysis ,lipolysis
2.
Melatonin
MT
Pineal gland
Circadian rhythm.
3.
Triiodothyronine
T3
Peripheral tissue Increased Metabolism.
of thyroid gland
4.
Thyroxine
T4
thyroid gland
Similar effect as T3 but much weaker.
5.
Prostaglandins
PG
Seminal vesicVasodilation.
le
6.
Leukotrienes
LT
Increase vascular permeability.
7.
Prostacyclin
PGI2
Endothelium
8.
Amylin(or
Islet IAPP
Pancreas
Inhibition of digestive secretion,and reducing
Amyloid Polypeptide.
food intake.
9.
Anti-Mullerian
AMH
testes
Inhibit release of prolactin and TRH from
hormone
anterior pituitary.
10.
Adiponectin
ACRP30
Adipose tissue
11.
Adrenocorticotropic
ACTH
Anterior
Synthesis of corticosteroids (glucorticoids and
hormone
pituitary
androgens)in adreno cortical cells.
12.
Angiotensinogen
AGT
liver
Vasoconstriction release of aldosterone from
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International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied
Science (IJAETMAS)
ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 04 - Issue 02 || February-2017 || PP. 54-62
13.
Antidiuretic hormone
14.
Anti-natriuretic
ANP
peptide
Brain
natriuretic BNP
peptide.
15.
ADH
Posterior
pituitary
heart
heart
16.17.
Calcitonin
Cholecystokinin
CT
CCK
Thyroid gland
duodenum
18.
Corticotropinreleasing hormone
Cortistatin
Enkephalin
Endothelin
CRH
Hypothalam-us
CORT
Erythropoietin
Follicle-stimulating
hormone
Galanin
EPO
FSH
Cerebral cortex
kidney
Vascular
endothelium
kidney
Anterior
pituitary
Central nervous
system
and
gastrointestin-al
tract.
Mucosa of the
duodenum and
the jejunum.
Stomach,
duodenum
stomach
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
GAL
25.
Gastric
inhibitory GIP
polypeptide
26.
Gastrin
27.
Ghrelin
28.
29.
34.
Glucagon
Gonadotropin
releasing hormone
Growth
hormonereleasing hormone
Hepcidin
Human
chorionic
gonadotropin
Human
placental
lactogen
Growth hormone
35.
Inhibin
30.
31.
32.
33.
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GAS
GCG
GnRH
pancreas
hypothalamus
GHRH
hypothalamus
HAMP
hCG
liver
placenta
HPL
placenta
GH
Anterior
pituitary
Testes,
ovary,fetus
adrenal cortex.
Retention of water in kidneys release ACTH
in anterior pituitary.
Reducing
systemic
vascular
resistence,reducing blood water,sodium and
fats
Construct bone,reduce blood ca2+
Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas.
Release of bile from gallbladder Hunger
suppressant.
Release ACTH from anterior pituitary.
Depression of neuronal activity.
Regulate pain.
Smooth muscle contraction of medium sized
vessels
Stimulate erythrocyte production.
In female stimulates maturation of Graafian
follicles in ovary.
Modulation and inhibition of action potentials
in neurons.
Induces insulin secretion
Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells.
Stimulate appetite, secretion of growth
hormone from anterior pituitary gland.
Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver.
Release of FSH and LH from anterior
pituitary
Release GH from anterior pituitary
Inhibits iron export from cells.
Promote maintenance of corpus luteum during
beginning of prefnancy.
Increase insulin resistance and carbohydrate
intolerance28
Stimulates growth and cell reproduction.
Inhibit production of FSH.
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International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied
Science (IJAETMAS)
ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 04 - Issue 02 || February-2017 || PP. 54-62
36.
Insulin
INS
pancreas
Intake of glucose, glycogenesis, and
glycolysis in liver and muscle from blood.
37.
Leptin
LEP
Adipose tissue
38.
Lipotropin
LPH
39.
Luteinizing hormone.
LH
40.
Oxytocin
OXT
41.
Prolactin
PRL
42.
43.
Secretin
Somatostatin
SCT
SRIF
44.
Guanylin
GN
Anterior
pituitary
Anterior
pituitary
Posterior
pituitary
Anterior
pituitary,uterus
duodenum
Islets
of
langerhans,hypo
thalamus,
Gastrointestin-al
system
gut
Decrease of appetite and increase of
metabolism.
Stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin.29
45.
Thyroid
hormone
releasing TRH
hypothalamus
In female: ovulation
In male: stimulates Leydig cell
Release breast milk
Milk production in mammary glands.
Secretion of bicarbonate from liver.
Inhibit release of GH and TRH from anterior
pituitary…
Regulates electrolyte and water transport in
renal epithelia.30
Release thyroid stimulating hormone,
Stimulate prolactin release.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION:
The given data reveals the role of hormones and their functions in Human body and gives a
detail information about the effect of hormones on different organs.
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International Journal Of Advancement In Engineering Technology, Management and Applied
Science (IJAETMAS)
ISSN: 2349-3224 || www.ijaetmas.com || Volume 04 - Issue 02 || February-2017 || PP. 54-62
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