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Chapter 1Januar y 25, 2016
Histor y, Theor y, and
Research Strategies
LEARNING OUTCOMES THEORIES
•
•
•
•
(See page 22. Table 1.4)
Describe the lifespan perspective on development
(continuous, discontinuous, plasticity, stability and
resilience)
Describe the three domains.
Theories that influenced human development research in
the mid-twentieth century.
• Psychoanalytical, psychosocial, behaviorism, social
learning theory, cognitive-development theory
Recent theoretical perspectives on human development.
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
• Ecological Systems Theory
2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
COMMON RESEARCH METHODS
•Describe methods commonly used in research
on human development. (pp. 21–25)
•Distinguish between correlational and
experimental research designs, noting the
strengths and limitations of each. (pp. 25–28)
•Describe designs for studying development,
noting the strengths and limitations of each. (pp.
28–31)
•What special ethical concerns arise in research
on human development? (pp. 31–32)
3
Developmental Science
The study of constancy and change
throughout the lifespan
© Blend Images/Shutterstock
The Field of
Developmental Science
 Scientific
 Applied
 Interdisciplinary
© Irina Magrelo/Shutterstock
DEFINITIONS
• Growth: An increase in physical size
• Development: The acquisition of skills
and function
• Maturation: Total process in which
skills and potential emerge regardless
of practice or training
Hypothesis vs. Theory
Theory – provide frameworks, verified by
research, and can predict the sequences
in the future and can be replicated many
times.
Hypothesis- proposed explanation, that
needs to be tested. It starts the scientific
inquiry process.
© bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock
Basic Issues
in Development
 Continuous or discontinuous?
 Continuous –gradual augmenting the
same types of skills
 Discontinuous – happens in stages
(like climbing a stair case, one step at
a time, sudden changes could occur
from one step to the next).
Contexts of Development
Unique combinations
of personal and
environmental
circumstances can
result in different
paths of change
© xanirakx/Shutterstock
Basic Issues
Nature vs. Nurture
Nature
 Hereditary
information
 Received from
parents at
conception
Nurture
 Physical and
social forces
 Influences
biological and
psychological
development
Stability and Plasticity
Stability
Plasticity
 Persistence of
 Development is
individual
open to lifelong
differences
change
 Lifelong patterns  Change occurs
established by
based on influential
early experiences
experiences
Resilience
 Ability to adapt effectively
in the face of threats to
development
 Factors in resilience:




personal characteristics
warm parental relationship
social support outside family
community resources and
opportunities
© iofoto/Shutterstock
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
• Do you think development is simply nature
vs nurture?
• That there is plasticity in life?
• Can someone be more resilient than
others?
• Can you give one example?
13
Development as a
Dynamic System
 Ongoing process from conception
to death
 Molded by network of influences:
 biological
 psychological
 social
Lifespan Perspective
Development is
 lifelong
 multidimensional and
multidirectional
 highly plastic
 influenced by multiple,
interacting forces
© Intellistudies/Shutterstock
Periods of Development
Prenatal
Conception to birth
Infancy and toddlerhood
Birth–2 years
Early childhood
2–6 years
Middle childhood
6–11 years
Adolescence
11–18 years
Early adulthood
18–40 years
Middle adulthood
40–65 years
Late adulthood
65 years–death
MAJOR DOMAINS
OF DEVELOPMENT
Figure 1.2
LIFESPAN VIEW OF
DEVELOPMENT
Figure 1.3
CATEGORY OF DEVELOPMENT
• Take three index cards or pieces of paper
• I am going to name a category you will raise up a card
• Write
– P for Physical
– S/E for Social/Emotional
– C for cognitive
• FYI, language usually has its own category but it
falls under cognitive
19
Influences on Development
Multiple, interacting forces:
 Age-graded
 History-graded- baby boomers, Generation
X, Millennial Generations
 Nonnormative- not a pattern
© auremar/Shutterstock
21
Scientific Beginnings
Darwin
Hall, Gesell
Binet
Theory of
evolution
Normative
approach- large
numbers of people
to create trends
Mental testing
movement- testing
for educational
placement
Early Scientific Theories
 Theory of evolution
 Natural selection
 Survival of the fittest
 Normative approach
 Child study movement
 Development as a maturational process
 Mental testing movement
 First successful intelligence test
 In forefront of nature–nurture controversy
PERSONALITY
• Consists of the behavior patterns that
distinguish one person from another (look at
page 33 book that compares the two theories)
• Frameworks
– Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytical theory
– Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory
SIGMUND FREUD
Father of psychoanalysis
1856-1939
Theory of the
unconscious. The mind
is like an iceberg.
What have you heard
about Sigmund Freud?
Freud’s Three Parts
of the Personality
Id
Ego
 Largest portion of the mind
 Source of biological needs/desires
 Conscious, rational part of personality
 Emerges in early infancy
 Redirects id impulses in acceptable
ways
 The conscience, the “do-gooder”
Superego  Develops from ages 3 to 6 through
interactions with caregivers
PERSONIFICATION OF EGO,
ID AND SUPEREGO
• Stories often personify these
characters.
• Get in groups of three to personify
each type. What cartoon character
would you give?
• Who would mediate between the
external world and conscience?
FREUD’S DEFENSE
MECHANISMS
• Defense mechanisms are techniques used
at all stages of the life cycle to help
individuals cope with the threat of anxiety.
• They are used to protect the ego.
• On a short-term basis, they may be helpful.
• Overuse or maladaptive use prevents the
individual from achieving personal growth and
satisfaction.
Erikson’s
Psychosocial Stages
Basic trust vs. mistrust
Birth–1 year
Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
1–3 years
Initiative vs. guilt
3–6 years
Industry vs. inferiority
6–11 years
Identity vs. role confusion
Adolescence
Intimacy vs. isolation
Early adulthood
Generativity vs. stagnation
Middle adulthood
Integrity vs. despair
Late adulthood
ERIKSON THEORY
• Using eight index cards, write out each
stage “Basic trust vs. mistrust”
• As I call out the age range, you will raise up
the card/piece of paper.
Behaviorism and
Social Learning Theory
Classical
conditioning
Stimulus–response
Operant
conditioning
Reinforcers and
punishments (Skinner)
Social learning
theory
Social-cognitive
approach (Bandura)
JEAN
PIAGET
Cognitive development
theory
• Children "construct" their
understanding of the world through
their active involvement and
interactions.
• Studied his 3 children to focus not on
what they knew but how they knew it.
• Described children's understanding as
their "schemas” and how they use:
– assimilation
– accommodation.
Piaget’s CognitiveDevelopmental Theory
 Children actively construct knowledge
by manipulating and exploring their
world.
 Mental structures adapt to better fit
with environment.
 Development moves through four
broad stages.
Piaget’s Stages





© Odua Images/Shutterstock
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational
See page 15 in text
book.
PIAGET COGNITIVE
INTERVIEWS
Example of observational video
•https://youtu.be/hyhK9beGuQU
•Older video using Piaget’s experiments
•https://youtu.be/KC_APvsqF_w
Developmental Cognitive
Neuroscience
 Relationship of brain changes to
cognitive processing and behavior
patterns
 Brings together researchers from




psychology
biology
neuroscience
medicine
 Practical applications
 Check out National Science
Vygotsky’s
Sociocultural Theory
 Transmission to the next
generation of a culture’s




values
beliefs
customs
skills
 Cooperative dialogues
between children and more
expert members of society
 Mention the Preschool
Study by Tobin et al.
© Andresr/Shutterstock
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
Figure 1.5
Ecological Systems Theory
Page 19
 Layers of the
environment:




© Zurijeta/Shutterstock
microsystem
mesosystem
exosystem
macrosystem
 Chronosystem:
temporal dimension
ADDRESSING NEEDS
• How can a health professional address
needs?
• Why is it important to understand where
someone is at in the levels?
• Is this information applicable in life? Yes or
No. Discuss
CHECKING LEARNING OUTCOMES THEORIES
•
•
•
•
(See page 22. Table 1.4)
Describe the lifespan perspective on development
(continuous, discontinuous, plasticity, stability and
resilience)
Describe the three domains.
Theories that influenced human development research in
the mid-twentieth century.
• Psychoanalytical, psychosocial, behaviorism, social
learning theory, cognitive-development theory
Recent theoretical perspectives on human development.
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
• Ecological Systems Theory
45
LEARNING OUTCOMES
COMMON RESEARCH METHODS
•Describe methods commonly used in research on
human development. (pp. 21–25)
•Distinguish between correlational and
experimental research designs, noting the
strengths and limitations of each. (pp. 25–28)
•Describe designs for studying development,
noting the strengths and limitations of each. (pp.
28–31)
•What special ethical concerns arise in research on
human development? (pp. 31–32)
46
RESEARCH DESIGNS
(SEE PAGE 28)
General Design
• Correlation (don’t alter experience and look at
relationship between variables)
• Experimental (random assignment, look at cause
and effect)
Developmental Design
• Longitudinal
• Cross-sectional
• Sequential
47
Experimental Design
Independent
Variable
Dependent
Variable
 Manipulated by
experimenter
 Expected to cause
changes in another
variable
 Measured, but not
manipulated, by
experimenter
 Expected to be
influenced by
independent variable
Random Assignment
 Unbiased procedure used to assign
participants to treatment conditions
 Increases chances that characteristics will be
equally distributed across conditions
© iofoto/Shutterstock
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
• Independent variable impact on dependent
variable
– Example: Take xyz pill (independent) on a reducing a disease (dependent).
• Randomly Assigned (Experimental Design)
– Control Group (example: doesn’t get the pill, gets a sugar pill)
– Treatment Group (example: gets xyz pill)
• Quasi-experimental (not able to do a full control
group or random assignment)
• Statistical Significance (p value less or greater to
.05)
50
General Research Designs
Correlation Design and Coefficient
 Correlation Coefficent (Strength of relationship)
 Correlation do not show causation but measures
influence
 (positive or negative number (0-1)
 Closer to 1 the stronger the relationship
 1.00 is strong, .52 is moderate, and .18 is low
 Direction of relationship
 Positive means move in the same direction
 Negative means they move in the opposite
direction
QUICK ASSESSMENT
RAISE UP A -1 OR +1
• The more I eat, the more I weigh.
• The more time I spend at the mall, the less money I have.
• The more I brush my teeth, the fewer cavities I have.
• The less I study, the poorer my grades.
Let’s look at page 27 and read the studies.
52
Systematic Observation
Naturalistic
Observation
Structured
Observation
Observation of
behavior in natural
contexts
Reflects participants’
everyday lives
 Observation of
behavior in laboratory
 Gives all participants
opportunity to display
behavior
Self-Reports
Semi-structured
Interview
Structured
Interview
Conversational style
Probes for
participant’s
viewpoint
Provides large amount
of information in brief
period
 All participants are
asked the same
questions in the
same way
 Permits comparisons
and efficient data
collection
Modified Experiments
Field Experiment
Conducted in
natural settings
Capitalizes on
existing
opportunities
for random
assignment
Natural/QuasiExperiment
 Compares existing
differences in
treatment
 Participant groups
matched as much
as possible
Developmental
Research Designs
see page 30
Longitudinal
Same group studied
at different times
Cross-sectional
Different groups studied
at the same time
Sequential
Compares similar
cross-sectional or longitudinal
studies (sequences)
Problems in Conducting
Longitudinal Research
 Participant dropout
 Practice effects
 Cohort effects
© bikeriderlondon/Shutterstock
PUZZLE
58
LET’S TRY THIS OUT
• http://media.pearsoncmg.com/ab/ab_berk_media/simulation/drag_and
_drop_activity.html
59
INSTUTIONAL REVIEW
BOARD
• http://www.fresnostate.edu/academics/humansubjects/irb/
60
Rights of Research
Participants






Protection from harm
Informed consent
Privacy
Knowledge of results
Beneficial treatments
Page 31
© Goodluz/Shutterstock
LEARNING OUTCOMES
COMMON RESEARCH METHODS
•Describe methods commonly used in research on
human development. (pp. 21–25)
•Distinguish between correlational and
experimental research designs, noting the
strengths and limitations of each. (pp. 25–28)
•Describe designs for studying development,
noting the strengths and limitations of each. (pp.
28–31)
•What special ethical concerns arise in research
on human development? (pp. 31–32)
62
LET’S TRY THE CHAPTER
REVIEW
• Try to take the Chapter Review
• You can print out results
• Note: I will be curving Chapter Reviews Up at
least one grade if not two grades. In other words,
I want these to be practice opportunities. The
grade is only to give you an idea of how well you
know the material.
63
CHAPTER 1 – CLASS
ATTEMPT
• Start Chapter 1 as a class to see how we do.
• 15 seconds per question – going to move fast
64