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DIFFERENTIAL EDUCATIONAL
ACHIEVEMENT
ETHNICITY
Name:
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Date:
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Tutor:
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Introduction
Tony Lawson and Joan Garrod (2000) define ethnic groups as
‘people who share common history, customs and identify, as
well as, in most cases, language and religion, and see who
see themselves as a distinct unit’.
In exploring patterns of achievement across ethnicities, it is
important to first note that not all ethnic minorities tend to
underachieve. Many groups do extremely well; in particular
Indian children outperform in exams their white counterparts,
as do those of Chinese heritage.
Some ethnicities, however, have tended towards underachievement, and sociologists have focused on students of
Pakistani, Bangladeshi and black Caribbean ethnicities. Each
group does or ‘has done’ significantly worse in its
examinations compared to their white peers and each is
under-represented at university.
Furthermore, black Caribbean students, in particular, are
more likely to be involved in the discipline and punishment
regimes of school – and are consequently nearly three times
as likely to be excluded.
Table 1: Ethnicity and Exam Success –
Percentage of children achieving five good GCSE’s, 2000.
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
African Carr
W hite
Pakistani
Bangladeshi
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Indian
Other Asian
including Chinese
Q1. In 2000, which ethnic group gained the highest
proportion of 5 good GCSE’s, which ethnic group achieved
the lowest?
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Q2. What problems might there be for recording people’s
educational achievements in term of their ethnicity?
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One difficulty in studying ethnicity and education is the
problem of deciding whom to include in an ethnic group. For
example, should all ‘Asians’ be classified together – when this
would include people of many different nationalities, religions
and languages?
It is a mistake to think of ethnic groups as always being
defined by physical features such as skin colour. Although
many ethnic minority groups in Britain are non-white, this is
not true of all groups, for example Polish groups. However, it
happens that the largest minority groups in Britain are nonwhite: mainly of African, Caribbean or South Asian origin.
There are, however, many other minority groups. According
to David Crystal (1997), well over 100 languages are in
routine use in the UK. Today, children from ethnic minority
backgrounds make up over 21% of the pupils in English
schools.
It should be noted that class and ethnicity can combine to
produce very specific patterns of underachievement. In this
respect it has been noted, that white working-class boys
have a higher rate of underachievement than their blackCaribbean counterparts.
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Methods Link: Using Official Statistics
Governments collect a vast amount of statistical data on the educational
achievements of different ethnic groups. Given that there are millions of
pupils in schools, sociologists would not be able to collect all this data
themselves, so official statistics save them time and money. This data
allows sociologists to identify the patterns of differences in achievement
between ethnic groups.
However, simply knowing the patterns of ethnic differences in achievement
does not in itself explain them. A further problem is that the government’s
definition of ethnicity may be different from that of the sociologist and so
the way the official data is categorised may not be useful to the
researcher.
Note down some advantages and disadvantages of using
official statistics to study ethnic differences in educational
achievement.
Advantages
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Disadvantages
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HOME AND WIDER SOCIETY (EXTERNAL) FACTORS
Many sociologists argue that ethnic differences in
achievement can best be explained by looking at factors
outside the school – in the home, family and culture of the
child and the impact of wider society.
The main explanations of this kind are:



Cultural Deprivation
Material Deprivation and Social class
Racism in Wider society
Cultural Deprivation
Intellectual and Linguistic Skills
Cultural deprivation theorists see the lack of intellectual and
linguistic skills as a major cause of under-achievement for
many minority children. They argue that many children from
low-income black families lack intellectual stimulation and
enriching experiences. This leaves them ill-equipped for
school because they have not been able to develop
rea_____________ and prob______ sol___________ skills.
Gordon Bowker (1968) identifies low-income black American
children’s lack of standard English as a major barrier to
progress in education and integration into wider society.
Q3.How does a lack of these skills disadvantage this group of
children at school?
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______________________________________________
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Attitudes and Values
Cultural deprivation theorists see lack of motivation as a
major cause of the failure of many black children. Most other
children are s__________________ into mainstream
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cul___________, which instils ambition, competitiveness and
willingness to make the sacrifices necessary to achieve longterm goals. This equips them for su_____________ in
education. By contrast cultural deprivation theorists argue,
some black children are socialised into a s____c____________ that instils a fatalistic , ‘live for today’
attitude that does not value education and leaves them illequipped for success.
Q4. What term might sociologists use to describe a ‘live for
today’ attitude?
______________________________________________
Family Structure
Cultural deprivation theorists argue that the failure to
socialise children adequately is the result of a dysfunctional
family structure.

Lone Mothers/Lack of Male Role Models
For example Daniel Moynihan (1965) argues that the fact
that many black families are headed by a lone mother means
that children are deprived of adequate care because she has
to struggle financially in the absence of a male breadwinner.
The absence of a father means that boys lack an adequate
role model of male achievement. Moynihan sees cultural
deprivation as a ‘cycle’ where inadequately socialised children
from unstable families go on to fail at school and become
inadequate parents themselves.
The New Right put forward similar explanations. For
example, Charles Murray (1984) argues that a high rate of
lone parenthood and a lack of positive male role models lead
to the under-achievement of some minorities.
Similarly Andrew Flew (1984) believes that ethnic
differences in education stem from cultural differences
outside the education system, not discrimination within it.
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Q. What cultural differences might there be between
different ethnic groups in society?
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Roger Scruton (1986) sees the low achievement levels of
some ethnic minorities as resulting from failure to embrace
mainstream British culture.

Colonialism
Ken Pryce (1979) also sees family structure as contributing
to the under-achievement of black Caribbean pupils in
Britain. From a comparison of black and Asian pupils, he
claims that Asians are higher achievers because their culture
is more resistant to racism and gives them a greater sense of
self-worth. By contrast, he argues, black Caribbean culture
is less cohesive and less resistant to racism. As a result,
many black pupils have low self-esteem and under-achieve.
Pryce argues that the difference is the result of the differing
impact of colonialism on the two groups. He argues that
Asian family structures, languages and religions were not
destroyed by colonial rule, where the experience of slavery
was culturally devastating for blacks. Being transported and
sold into slavery meant that they lost their language, religion
and entire family system.
Q5. What does the New Right see as the ideal family
structure and why?
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Q6. Explain how the effects of Colonialism may account for
differences between Asian pupils and Black Caribbean pupils
in their educational achievement.
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Criticism of Cultural Deprivation Theory
Geoffrey Driver (1977) criticises cultural deprivation
theory for ignoring the positive effects of ethnicity on
achievement. He shows that the black Caribbean family, far
from being dysfunctional, provides girls with positive role
models of strong independent women. Driver argues that
this is why black girls tend to be more successful in education
than black boys.
Errol Lawrence (1982) challenges Pryce’s view that black
pupils fail because their culture is weak and that they lack
self-esteem. He argues that black pupils under-achieve not
because of low self esteem but because of racism.
Keddie sees culture deprivation as victim blaming. She
argues that ethnic minority children are culturally different,
not culturally deprived.
Q7. What does Keddie mean by victim blaming?
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HOME AND WIDER SOCIETY (EXTERNAL) FACTORS
Material Deprivation and Social Class
Material Deprivation means a lack of those physical
necessities that are seen as essential or normal for life in
today’s society. In general, working-class people are more
likely to face poverty and material deprivation and many
ethnic minorities are more likely to be ‘working-class’.
Material deprivation explanations see educational failure as
resulting from factors such as substandard housing and low
income. Ethnic minorities are more likely to face these
problems. For example, according to Howard (2001):
 Pakistanis and Bangladeshis are three times more likely
than whites to be in the poorest fifth of the population.
 Male unemployment is three times higher for ethnic
minorities than for whites.
Similarly, according to Flaherty (2004):
 15% of ethnic minority households live in overcrowded
conditions, compared with only 2% of white households.
 Pakistanis are nearly twice as likely to be in unskilled or
semi-skilled jobs compared to whites. Ethnic minority
workers are more likely to be engaged in shift work.
 Bangladeshi and Pakistani women are more likely to be
engaged in low-paid home working, sometimes for as
little as £1.50 per hour.
Q8. How might parents working shifts and parents engaged
in low paid home working affect their children’s education?
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Such inequalities reflect differences in the proportion of
children from different ethnic groups who are eligible for free
school meals, as table 1 below shows:
Table 1: Children entitled to free school meals, by ethnic group,
2006
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
British
White
Indian
Black
Caribbean
Pakistani
Black
African
Bangladeshi
Q9. What are free school meals seen as an indicator of?
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These ineq___________ parallel those seen in educational
achievement. For example, on average Indians, Chinese,
and whites have a higher s___________ c_______ position
than Bangladeshis and Pakistanis, who often face high levels
of p_________.
The mat_______ dep____________
explanations argues that such class differences explain why
Bangladeshi and Pakistani pupils tend to do worse than
Indian, Chinese and white pupils.
Evidence from this comes from the Swann Report (1985),
which estimated that social class accounts for at least 50% of
the difference in achievement between ethnic groups.
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3.
Racism in Wider Society
While material deprivation has an impact on the educational
achievement of some ethnic minority children, some
sociologists argue that deprivation is itself the product of
another factor - namely, racism.
As Mason puts it,
‘discrimination is a continuing and persistent feature of the
experience of Britain’s citizens of minority ethnic origin’.
John Rex (1986) show how racial discrimination leads to
social exclusion and how this worsens the material
deprivation faced by ethnic minorities.
In housing, for
instance, discrimination means that minorities are more likely
to be forced into substandard accommodation than white
people of the same class.
In employment, too, there is evidence of direct and
deliberate discrimination. For example, Mike Noon (1993)
sent matched letters of enquiry about future employment
opportunities to the top 100 UK companies, signed by
fictitious applicants called ‘Evans’ and ‘Patel’ with the same
qualifications and experience. In terms of both the number
and helpfulness of replies, the companies were more
encouraging to the ‘white’ candidate.
This helps to explain why members of ethnic minorities are
more likely to face unemployment and low pay, and this in
turn has a negative effect on their children’s educational
prospects.
Q10. Explain how racism in wider society can affect the
achievement of some children.
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WHAT TAKES PLACE IN SCHOOL
(INTERNAL FACTORS)
AND ETHNIC DIFFERENCES IN ACHIEVEMENT
While external factors may play an important part in creating
differences in achievement between ethnic groups, factors
internal to the education system itself are also important. It
should also be noted that there are links with
These school factors include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Labelling and Teacher Racism
Pupil Responses and Sub-Cultures
The Ethnocentric Curriculum
Institutional Racism
Selection and Segregation
Labelling and Teacher Racism
To label someone is to attach a mea______ or def_______
to them. For example, teachers may label a pupil as a
trouble maker or cooperative, bright or thick.
When looking at ethnic differences in achievement,
interactionists focus on the different labels teachers give to
children from different ethnic backgrounds. Their studies
show that teachers often see black and Asian pupils as being
far from the ‘ideal pupil’. For example, black pupils are often
seen as disruptive and Asians as passive. Neg_________
labels may lead teachers to treat ethnic minority pupils
dif___________. This disadvantages them and may result in
their fai___________.

Black Pupils
David Gilborn (1990) found that teachers were quick to
discipline black students because they saw them as a threat
to their authority and safety. Teachers often misinterpreted
their behaviour as threatening when no threat was intended.
When teachers acted on this misperception, the pupils
responded negatively and further conflict resulted.
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Gilborn concluded that much of the conflict between white
teachers and black pupils stems from the racial stereotypes
teachers hold rather than the pupil’s actual behaviour.
Teachers were less likely to see pupils from other ethnic
backgrounds as a threat or to punish them, even if they
behaved in the same way as the black pupils.
This may explain the higher level of exclusions from school of
black boys. As Jenny Bourne (1994) found, schools tend
to see black boys as a threat and to label them negatively,
leading eventually to exclusion.
Similarly, Peter Foster (1990) found that teachers’
stereotypes of black pupils as badly behaved could result in
them being placed in lower sets other than pupils of similar
ability. Both exclusions and allocation to lower sets are likely
to lead to lower levels of achievement.
Q. How can negative stereotyping lead to a self-fulfilling
prophecy?
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
Asian Pupils
Cecile Wright’s (1992) study of a multi-ethnic primary
school shows that Asian pupils can also be the victims of
teachers’ labelling.
She found that despite the school’s
apparent commitment to equal opportunities, teachers held
ethnocentric views: that is, they took for granted that British
culture and standard English were superior. This affected
how they related to Asian pupils. For example teachers
assumed they would have a poor grasp of English and left
them out of class discussions or used simplistic, childish
language when speaking to them.
Asian pupils also felt isolated when teachers expressed
disapproval of their customs or failed to pronounce their
names properly. In general, teachers saw them not as a
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threat (unlike black pupils), but as a problem they could
ignore. The effect was that Asian pupils, especially the girls,
were marginalised (pushed to the edges) and prevented from
participating fully.
Methods Link: Observation
Wright observed the classroom interactions of over 1,000
pupils and teachers. This enabled her to see how teachers
actually behaved towards their pupils – rather than how they
claimed they behaved. As a result, she witnessed how
teachers sometimes labelled Asian pupils negatively.
Q11. What are the advantages and disadvantages of doing
this kind of research in the classroom?
Advantages
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Disadvantages
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Pupil Responses and Subcultures
Studies show there is evidence of teacher racism. However,
research shows that pupils can respond in a variety of ways.
For example, they may respond to negative labelling by
becoming dis__________ or with________. Alternatively
pupils may r_______ to accept the label and even decide to
prove it wrong by working extra hard. Negative labels do not
automatically turn into s_____-f_________ p__________.
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
Mary Fuller (1984) – Rejecting Negative Labelling
A good example of pupils responding by rejecting negative
labels is Fuller’s study of a group of black girls in year 11 of a
London comprehensive school.
The girls were untypical
because they were high achievers in a school where most
black girls were placed in low streams.
Fuller describes how instead of accepting negative
stereotypes of themselves, the girls channelled their anger
about being labelled into the pursuit of educational success.
However, unlike other successful pupils they did not seek the
approval of teachers, many of whom they regarded as racist.
Nor did they limit their choice of friends to other academic
achievers. Instead they were friends with other black girls
from lower streams.
Also, unlike other successful pupils, they conformed only as
far as the schoolwork itself was concerned. The girls worked
conscientiously but gave the appearance of not doing so, and
they showed a deliberate lack of concern about school
routines. They had a positive attitude to academic success
but rather than seeking the approval of teachers, they
preferred to rely on their own efforts.
This study highlights two main points: Success and Nonconformity; and negative labelling does not always lead to
failure.
Q12. In what ways did the girls refuse to conform and how
were they able to achieve success?
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Q13. How does the study show that negative labelling does
not always lead to failure?
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Mairtin Mac an Ghaill’s (1992) study of black and Asian ‘A’
level students at a sixth form college reached similar
conclusions to those of Fuller.
Students who believed
teachers had labelled them negatively did not necessarily
accept the label. How they responded depended on factors
such as their ethnic group and gender and the nature of their
former schools. For example, some girls felt that their
experience of having attended an all-girls school gave them a
greater academic commitment that helped them to overcome
negative labels at college.
As with Fuller’s study, this
research shows that a label does not inevitably produce a
s____ f___________ p__________.
 Heidi Safia Mirza (1992) – failed strategies for
avoiding racism
Like Fuller, Mirza studied ambitious black girls who faced
teacher racism. However, the girls in Mirza’s study failed to
achieve their ambitions because the strategies they used to
cope restricted their opportunities and resulted in underachievement.
Mirza found that racist teachers
from being ambitious through the
them about careers and option
teachers discouraged them from
careers.
discouraged black pupils
kind of advice they gave
choices.
For example,
aspiring to professional
Much of the girls’ time at school was spent trying to avoid the
effects of teacher’s negative attitudes.
These strategies
included being selective about which teachers to ask for help;
getting on with their own work in lessons without taking part
and not taking certain option choices to avoid teachers with
racist attitudes.
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Q14. How might these strategies put the girls at a
disadvantage which may lead to failure?
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The Ethnocentric Curriculum
The term ‘ethnocentric’ describes an attitude or policy that
gives priority to the culture and viewpoint of one particular
ethnic group while disregarding others.
Troyna and Williams (1986) describe the curriculum in
British schools as ethnocentric because it gives priority to
white culture and the English language.
Similarly, Miriam David (1993) describes the National
Curriculum as a ‘specifically British’ curriculum that teaches
the culture of the ‘host community’, while largely ignoring
non-European languages, literature and music.
Equally, Stephen Ball (1994) criticises the National
Curriculum for ignoring cultural and ethnic diversity and for
promoting an attitude of ‘little Englandism’. For example, the
history curriculum tries to recreate a ‘mythical age of empire
and past glories’, while ignoring the history of black and
Asian people.
Q. What are your experiences of this when you were at
school?
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Bernard Coard (1971) explains how the
ethnocentric curriculum may produce
under-achievement.
For example, in
history the British are presented as
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bringing civilisation to the ‘primitive’ peoples they colonised.
Q15. How might the way British are presented in history
affect black children’s self-esteem?
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Q16. Can you think of any criticisms of the ethnocentric
curriculum and how it may produce under-achievement?
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Institutional Racism
Troyna and Williams argue that explanations of ethnic
differences in achievement need to go beyond an
understanding of the effects of individual teacher racism and
look at how schools and colleges routinely discriminate
against ethnic minorities. They therefore make a distinction
between:
Individual Racism: ________________________________
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Institutional Racism: ______________________________
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From this point of view, the ethnocentric curriculum is a
prime example of institutional racism.
Troyna and
Williams see the lack of provision for teaching Asian
languages as institutional racism because it is an example of
racial bias being built into schools and colleges.
Richard Hatcher (1996) found that school governing
bodies gave low priority to race issues and failed to deal with
pupils’ racist behaviour. He also found that there was a lack
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of communication between school governors and ethnic
minority parents.
Q17. What problems might this lack of communication have
for ethnic minority parents and their children?
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Selection and Segregation
David Gillborn (1997) argues that marketisation has given
schools greater scope to select pupils and this has put some
ethnic minority pupils at a disadvantage.
Q. what is meant by ‘marketisation’ of education?
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Gillborn’s view is supported by Donald Moore and Susan
Davenport (1990) whose American study focused on how
selection procedures lead to ethnic segregation. They found
that the schools in the study discriminated against ‘problem’
pupils. For example, they used primary school reports to
screen out pupils with language or learning difficulties, while
the application process was difficult for less educated or nonEnglish speaking parents to understand.
These procedures favoured white middle-class pupils and put
those from low-income and ethnic minority backgrounds at a
disadvantage.
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The commission for Racial Equality (1993) (now called the
Equality and Human Rights Commission) found similar biases
in British Education. The report found that ethnic minority
children were more likely to end up in unpopular schools for
the following reasons:
 Reports from primary schools that stereotype minority
pupils.
 Racist bias in interviews for school places
 Lack of information and application forms in minority
languages
 Ethnic minority parents are often unaware of how the
waiting list system works and important of deadlines.
Q18. School selection policies are not the only cause of
segregation. How might parental choice influence
segregation in the education system?
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Activity: Complete the following table
Key word/concept
Ethnicity
Definition
Cultural Deprivation
Socialisation
Fatalism
Victim blaming
Material deprivation
Labelling
Ethnocentric
curriculum
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Institutional racism
Marketisation
Summary Questions
Q19. List the following groups in order of achievement at
GCSE, highest first: Whites, Black Carribean, Bangladeshis,
Chinese, Indians.
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Q20. State one criticism of cultural deprivation theory as an
explanation of ethnic differences in achievement.
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Q21. Name three sociologists who have studied the labelling
of ethnic minority pupils.
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Q22. List three ways in which pupils may respond to negative
labelling.
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Q23. What is meant by the ethnocentric curriculum?
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Q24. Suggest two reasons why marketisation might result in
increased ethnic segregation in education.
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