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1
1 Hole’s Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology David Shier Jackie Butler Ricki Lewis Created by Dr. Melissa Eisenhauer Head Athletic Trainer/Assistant Professor Trevecca Nazarene University Amended by John Crocker
Chapter 7 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 2 Chapter 7 Skeletal System
Skeletal System 3 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Introduction: A. Bones are the organs of the skeletal system B. They are very active tissues C. Functions include: 1. muscle attachment 2. protection 3. support, 4. blood cell production 5. storage of minerals 4 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bone Structure A. Bones are classified by size and shape 1. Long a) Long longitudinal axes b) Expanded ends (
Expanded ends ( epiphesis
epiphesis ) c) Femur, humerus 2. Short a) Length and width near equal b) Carpals, tarsals 3. Flat a) platelike with broad surfaces b) Ribs, scapulae 5 4. Irregular a) Various shapes b) Vertebrae, nasal concha 5. Sesamoid a) Round b) Usually small c) Embedded within tendons adjacent to joints d) Patella
Patella 6 B. Structure of long bones 1. The diaphysis a) Bone shaft b) Long relative to its diameter c) Wall composed of compact bone d) Contains a hollow medullary cavity 1) lined with endosteum 2) filled with marrow 2. The periosteum a) Tough layer of vascular connective tissue b) Covers the bone c) Continuous with ligaments and tendons
Continuous with ligaments and tendons 7 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
3. Epiphysis a) Expanded ends of long bones b) Form joints with adjacent bones c) Filled with spongy bone to reduce weight d) Covered by articular cartilages (hyaline cartilage) 4. Shape makes function possible
Shape makes function possible a) Bony processes
Bony processes or grooves provide places of attachment for muscles b) Epiphyses allow for ease of movement in joints 8 9
9 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
C. Microscopic Structure 1. Osteocytes (bone cells) a)
a) Located within
Located within lacunae
lacunae b)
b) Pass nutrients and gasses in the matrix through
through canaliculi
canaliculi c) May be organized into osteons 2. Intercellular material consists of: a)
a) Collagen – provides strength and durability b)
b) inorganic salts (CaPO 4 ) – hardness 10 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
3. Osteocytes and intercellular material a)
a) Compact bone is organized into osteons that: 1) Extend longitudinally through bone 2) Lie in concentric circles around central Haversian canals (( osteonic canals
canals ) 3) Are interconnected by transverse
Are interconnected by transverse perforating canals
perforating canals 4) Contain blood vessels and nerve fibers 5) Osteons are cemented together b)
b) Spongy bone is not arranged into osteons 11 12
12 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bone Development and Growth A. Bones form by replacing connective tissues in the fetus. B. Intramembranous bones 1. form within sheetlike layers of connective tissue 2. Osteoblasts a)
a) Deposit bony tissue around themselves b)
b) Once osteoblasts are surrounded by extracellular matrix (lacunae) they are called osteocytes
osteocytes . 3. Cells of membranous connective tissue outside the bone develop the periosteum
periosteum . 4. Include the flat bones of the skull 13 14
14 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
C.
C. Endochondral bones
bones replace masses of cartilage 1. Most skeletal bones 2. First develop as hyaline cartilage models 3. Cartilage is broken down in the diaphysis 4. Periosteum develops on the outside 5. Disintegrating tissue is invaded by blood vessels and osteoblasts 6. Spongy bone is formed at the
Spongy bone is formed at the primary ossification center
center 7. Bone tissue develops outward towards the ends 15 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
8. Osteoblasts from the periosteum lay down compact bone outside the spongy bone.
compact bone outside the spongy bone. 9. Secondary ossification centers
Secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses 10.
10. Epiphyseal plates (( metaphysis
metaphysis ) a)
a) Bands of hyaline cartilage b)
b) Form between the two ossification centers c) Made up of layers of cartilage cells undergoing mitosis d)
d) Responsible for lengthening bones 16 17
17 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
11.
11. Increases in thickness are due to intramembranous ossification underneath the periosteum
periosteum . 12.
12. Osteoclasts break down the calcified matrix 13.
13. Then replaced with bone
Then replaced with bone ­­ building osteoblasts that deposit bone in place of calcified cartilage. 14.
14. A medullary cavity forms in the region of the diaphysis due to the activity of osteoclasts
osteoclasts . 18 19
19 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
E. Homeostasis of Bone Tissue 1. Osteoclasts tear down (
tear down ( resorption
resorption ) 2. Osteoblasts build bone (
build bone ( deposition) 3. Average of 3% to 5% of bone calcium exchanged annually 20 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Bone Function A. Support and Protection 1. Bones give shape to: a) Head b) Thorax c) limbs. 2. Bones such as the pelvis and lower limbs provide support for the body. 3. Bones of the skull protect: a) Brain b) Ears c) Eyes 21 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
B. Body Movement 1. Bones can act as levers 2. A lever has four components: a) a rigid bar (bone) b) a pivot or fulcrum (joint) c) an object that is moved against resistance (bone) d) a force that supplies energy (muscle) 22 23
23 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
C. Blood Cell Formation 1. Blood cells begin to form through hematopoieses in the yolk sac 2. Later manufactured in bone marrow 3. Two kinds of marrow occupy the medullary cavities of bone : a) Yellow marrow 1)
1) occupies the cavities of most bones 2)
2) stores fat 24 b) Red marrow a) Functions in the formation of: 1) red blood cells 2) white blood cells 3) Platelets b) Found in the spongy bone of the: 1) Skull 2) Ribs 3) Sternum 4) Clavicles 5) Vertebrae 6) Pelvis c) Red marrow can replace yellow if more blood is needed
is needed 25 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
D. Storage of Inorganic Salts 1. The inorganic matrix of bone stores inorganic mineral salts a) Calcium phosphate (CaPO 4 ) b) Important in many metabolic processes c) Bone calcium is a reservoir for body calcium d) Calcium is stored in bone under the influence of calcitonin when blood levels of calcium are high e) When blood levels are low, osteoclasts release calcium from bone 26 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
2. Bone also stores
Bone also stores magnesium, sodium, potassium, and carbonate ions
potassium, and carbonate ions . 3. Bones can also accumulate harmful elements, such as lead, radium, and strontium 27 28
28 Skeletal Organization A. The axial skeleton consists of the: 1. Skull 2. Hyoid bone 3. Vertebral column a) Vertebrae b) Intervertebral disks 4. Thorax a) Ribs b) Sternum
Sternum 29 B. The appendicular skeleton consists of the: 1. Pectoral girdle a) scapulae b) clavicles 2. Upper limbs a) Humerus b) Radius c) Ulna d) Carpals e) Metacarpals f) Phalanges
Phalanges 30 3. Pelvic girdle a) coxal bones articulating with b) the sacrum 4. Lower limbs a) Femur b) Tibia c) Fibula d) Patella e) Tarsals f) Metatarsals g) Phalanges
Phalanges 31 32
32 The Skull A. The skull is made up of 22 bones 1. 8 cranial bones 2. 13 facial bones, and 3. the mandible B. Cranium 1. encloses and protects the brain 2. provides attachments for muscles 3. contains air
contains air ­­ filled
filled sinuses
sinuses that reduce its weight. 4. Features of the frontal bone include: a) supraorbital foramina b) frontal sinuses
frontal sinuses 33 34
34 35
35 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 6. Parietal bones a) lie at the sides of the skull b) join at the sagittal suture 7. Features of the occipital bone include the: a) lambdoidal suture b) foramen magnum c) occipital condyles 8. Each temporal bone includes the: a) squamosal suture b) external auditory meatus c) mandibular fossae d) mastoid process e) styloid process f) zygomatic process
process 36 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 9. Features of the winged sphenoid bone include: a)
a) sella turcica b)
b) sphenoidal sinuses 10.
10. Features of the ethmoid bone include the a)
a) cribriform plates b)
b) perpendicular plate c) superior and middle nasal conchae d)
d) ethmoidal sinuses e)
e) the crista galli
galli 37 C. Facial Skeleton 1. The 13 immovable facial bones and mandible a) form the basic face b) provide attachments for muscles of mastication and expression 2. The maxillae form a) upper jaw b) hard palate c) floor of the orbits d) sides of the nasal cavity e) house the upper teeth f) contain large maxillary sinuses
contain large maxillary sinuses 38 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3. Palatine bones a) LL ­­ shaped bones b) located behind the maxillae c) form the floor of the nasal cavity and hard palate 4. Zygomatic bones a) make up the cheekbones b) join with the temporal bones to form the zygomatic arches 5. Lacrimal bones form part of the medial walls of the orbits 6. Nasal bones form the bridge of the nose
form the bridge of the nose 39 7. Vomer bone makes up a portion of the nasal septum 8. Inferior nasal conchae a) Fragile b) scroll
scroll ­­ shaped bones c) support mucous membranes within the nasal cavity 9. The mandible a) lower jawbone b) supports the lower teeth c) Includes: 1) mandibular condyle 2) coronoid process 3) alveolar arch
alveolar arch 40 41
41 Vertebral Column A. Cervical Vertebrae 1. Seven bones 2. Smallest of the vertebrae 3. comprise the neck and support the head 4. The first vertebra is the atlas a) appears as a bony ring b) supports the head 5. The second vertebra is the axis a) Supports and provides pivot for atlas b) tooth
tooth ­­ like dens pivots within the atlas 6. The bifid spinous processes and transverse foramina distinguish cervical vertebrae
foramina distinguish cervical vertebrae 42 43
43 44
44 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. B.
B. Thoracic Vertebrae A.
A. Twelve thoracic vertebrae B.
B. articulate with the ribs. C.
C. larger and stronger than the cervical vertebrae. C.
C. Lumbar Vertebrae A.
A. Five lumbar vertebrae B.
B. Massive C.
C. Support the weight of the body.
Support the weight of the body. 45 46
46 D. Sacrum 1. Triangular structure 2. Base of the vertebral column 3. Made up of five vertebrae fused into one bone 4. Spinous processes fuse a) forms a ridge of tubercles b)
b) have dorsal sacral foramina along their sides 5. Ventral surface of the sacrum a) four pairs of pelvic sacral foramina b)
b) provide passageways for nerves and blood vessels
provide passageways for nerves and blood vessels 47 D. Coccyx 1. The lowermost portion of the vertebral column 2. Composed of four fused vertebrae
48 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Thoracic Cage A. The thoracic cage includes: 1. Ribs 2. Thoracic vertebrae 3. Sternum 4. Costal cartilages B. It supports the pectoral girdle and upper limbs C. Functions in breathing D. Protects thoracic and upper abdominal organs
49 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. E. Ribs 1. 12 pairs of ribs 2. Attach to the thoracic vertebrae 3. First seven pairs of ribs 1. True (vertebrosternal) ribs 2. Join the sternum directly by their costal cartilages 4. Remaining five pairs 1. False ribs 2. First three pairs are vertebrochondral ribs 3. Last two pairs are floating ribs
50 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5. Features of a typical rib include: a) Shaft b) Costal groove c) Anterior (sternal) end d) Head • articulates with the vertebrae e) Neck f) Tubercle • articulates with the transverse process of the thoracic vertebrae
51 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. F. Sternum (breastbone) 1. located along the anterior midline of the thoracic cage 2. Consists of: 1. Manubrium (upper) 2. Middle body 3. Xiphoid process (lower)
52 53
53 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Pectoral Girdle A. The pectoral girdle makes an incomplete ring that supports the upper limbs B. It is made up of two scapulae and two clavicles C. Clavicles 1. Elongated S­shaped bones 2. located at the base of the neck 3. function to brace the scapulae
54 55
55 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. D. Scapulae 1. Flat, triangular bones 2. On either side of the upper back 3. A spine divides the scapula into unequal upper and lower portions 4. The spine leads to a) acromion process that articulates with clavicle b) coracoid process that provides attachments for limb and chest muscles 5. The glenoid cavity articulates with the head of the humerus
56 57
57 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Upper Limb A. Bones of the upper limb form framework for: 1. Arm a) Humerus 2. Forearm a) Radius b) Ulna 3. Hand a) Carpals b) Metacarpals c) Phalanges
58 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. B. Humerus 1. Makes up the upper arm 2. Extends from the scapula to the elbow 3. Articulates with: a) Scapulae at its head b) Radius at the capitulum c) Ulna at the trochlea 4. Other features include: a) greater and lesser tubercles b) intertubercular groove c) anatomical and surgical necks d) deltoid tuberosity e) Epicondyles f) coronoid fossa g) olecranon fossa
59 60
60 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. C. Radius 1. located on the thumb side of the forearm 2. extends from the elbow to the wrist 3. Its flattened head pivots with the humerus 4. Other features include: a) radial tuberosity b) styloid process D. Ulna 1. Longer of the two bones 2. Trochlear notch articulates with the humerus 3. Other features include: a) olecranon process b) coronoid process c) radial notch d) head of the ulna e) styloid process
61 62
62 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. E. Hand 1. The wrist is made up of eight carpal bones bound into a carpus 2. The framework of the hand is made up of five metacarpal bones 3. The fingers are composed of three phalanges in each finger except the thumb, which lacks the middle phalanx
63 64
64 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Pelvic Girdle A. Supports the trunk of the body on the lower limbs B. Supports and protects lower abdominal and pelvic organs C. consists of: 1. two hip (innominate) bones 2. Sacrum it
65 66
66 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. D. Each hip bone is made up of three bones: 1. Ilium a) Largest b) Most superior c) Joins sacrum at sacroiliac joint 2. Ischium . . a) forms the L­shaped portion b) supports weight during sitting c) Features of the ischium include a) ischial tuberosity b) ischial spine 3. Pubis a) Comprises anterior portion of the coxal bones b) Articulates at the symphysis pubis c) The obturator foramen is a large opening within each pubis
67 E. Bones are fused in the region of the
Bones are fused in the region of the acetabulum
acetabulum F. The
The acetabulum
acetabulum is a cuplike depression that articulates with the head of the femur G. The greater pelvis is above the pelvic brim and the lesser pelvis is below it
the lesser pelvis is below it 68 69
69 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H. Structural differences between the male and female pelves can be seen below
female pelves can be seen below 70 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Lower Limbs A. The bones of the lower limbs provide the framework for 1. Thigh (femur) 2. Lower leg (tibia, fibula) 3. Foot (tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges) B. Femur 1. Extends from the hip to the knee 2. the longest bone in the body 3. Its head articulates with the acetabulum 4. Articulates with the tibia at the medial and lateral condyles
71 5. Other features include: a) Fovea capitis b) Neck c) Greater trochanter d) Lesser trochanter 6. The patella (kneecap) is located in the tendon that passes over the knee
72 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. C. Tibia 1. Supports the weight of the body 2. Articulates with the femur’s medial and lateral condyles 3. Articulates with the tarsal bones of the ankle 4. Anterior tibial tuberosity is the point of attachment for the patellar ligament 5. The medial malleolus forms the inner ankle. D. Fibula 1. Slender bone 2. Lies lateral to the tibia 3. Does not bear body weight 4. Lateral malleolus forms the lateral ankle
73 74
74 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. E. Foot A. The ankle is 1. Composed of seven tarsal bones, forming a tarsus 2. The talus articulates with the tibia and fibula 3. The calcaneus (heal) supports the body weight B. The instep 1. consists of five metatarsal bones 2. provides an arch C. Toes 1. Each toe is made up of three phalanges 2. The big toe lacks a middle phalanx
75 76
76 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Joints (articulations) A. Functional junctions between bones B. Enable a wide variety of body movements C. Can be classified according to degree of movement possible: 1. Immovable 2. Slightly movable 3. Freely movable
77 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. D. Can also classified according to the type of tissue that binds them together 1. Fibrous Joints a) Held close together by dense connective tissue b) Either immovable (sutures of skull) c) Or only slightly movable (joint between the distal tibia and fibula)
78 79
79 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 2. Cartilaginous Joints a) Hyaline cartilage or disks of fibrocartilage unite the bones b) help absorb shock and are slightly movable c) Examples include: 1) Intervertebral disks 2) the symphysis pubis 3) the first rib with the sternum
80 CopyrightÓThe McGraw­Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3. Synovial Joints a) Most joints of the skeleton b) More complex than fibrous or cartilaginous joints c) Articular ends of bone are covered with hyaline cartilage d) A joint capsule consists of: 1) outer layer of dense connective tissue that joins the periosteum, 2) inner layer made up of synovial membrane 3) Synovial fluid has the consistency of egg whites and lubricates articulating surfaces within the joint
81 82
82 e) Some contain shock
Some contain shock ­­ absorbing pads of fibrocartilage called menisci f) Some contain fluid
Some contain fluid ­­ filled sacs called bursae g) Can be classified based on the shapes of their parts and the movements they permit: 1)
1) Ball
Ball ­­ and
and ­­ socket joint a. bone with a globular or egg
bone with a globular or egg ­­ shaped head b. articulates with the cup
articulates with the cup ­­ shaped cavity of another bone c. a very wide range of motion is possible d. examples include the hip and shoulder joint
joint 83 2)
2) Condyloid joint a. consists of an ovoid condyle fitting into an elliptical cavity b. permits a variety of motions c. the joint between a metacarpal and a phalange 3)
3) Gliding joints a. occur where articulating surfaces are nearly flat or slightly curved b. allowing a back
allowing a back ­­ and
and ­­ forth motion c. the joints of the wrist and ankle and between vertebrae are gliding joints
between vertebrae are gliding joints 84 4)
4) Hinge joint a. A convex surface fits into a concave surface b. Movement is in one plane only c. Found in the elbow and phalange joints 5)
5) Pivot joint a. A cylindrical surface rotates within a ring of bone and fibrous tissue b. Examples include the joint between the proximal ends of the radius and ulna 6)
6) Saddle joint a. Forms where articulating surfaces have both concave and convex areas b. Permits a wide range of movements c. Found in the joint between the trapezium and the metacarpal of the thumb
and the metacarpal of the thumb 85 86
86 E. Types of Joint Movements 1. When a muscle contracts 2. its fibers pull its movable end (insertion
(insertion ) 3. toward its stationary end (
toward its stationary end ( origin
origin ) 4. causing movement at a joint
causing movement at a joint 87 5. These terms describe movements that occur at joints: 1. Flexion 2. Extension 3. Dorsiflexion 4. plantar flexion 5. Hyperextension 6. Abduction 7. Adduction 8. Rotation 9. Circumduction 10.
10. Pronation 11.
11. Supination 12.
12. Eversion 13.
13. Inversion 14.
14. Retraction 15.
15. Protraction 16.
16. Elevation 17.
17. Depression
Depression 88 89
89 90
90 91
91 More Greek and Latin ax
ax ­ ­­ blast carp
carp ­ ­­ clast condyl
condyl ­ corac
corac ­ cribr
cribr ­ crist
crist ­ fov
fov ­ glen
glen ­ inter
inter ­ intra
intra ­ meat
meat ­ odont
odont ­ poie
poie ­ = axis = bud = wrist = break = knob = crow
= crow ’’ s beak = sieve = crest = pit = joint socket = between = inside = passage = tooth = make, produce
= make, produce 92 93
93