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Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Chapter 1 History, Theories, and Methods Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 History, Theories, and Methods: Truth or Fiction? During the Middle Ages, children were often treated as miniature adults. Children come into the world as “blank tablets” – without inborn differences in intelligence and talents. Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 History, Theories, and Methods: Truth or Fiction? Nail-biting and smoking cigarettes are signs of conflict experienced during early childhood. Some theorists contend that children actively strive to understand and take charge of their worlds, whereas other theorists argue that children respond passively to environmental stimulation. Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 History, Theories, and Methods: Truth or Fiction? Research with monkeys has helped psychologists understand the formation of attachment in humans. In order to learn how a person develops over a lifetime, researchers have tracked some individuals for more than 50 years. Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Is Child Development? Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Is Child Development? • Periods of Development • Dimensions of Development – Conception and Prenatal – Physiological – Infancy – Cognitive – Early Childhood – Social – Middle Childhood – Emotional – Adolescence – Behavioral Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Is Child Development? • Attempts to advance knowledge of the processes that govern the development of children’s – – – – physical structures, traits, behaviors, and cognitions. • Growth represents quantitative changes • Development represents qualitative changes Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Why Do Researchers Study Child Development? • Gain insight into – – – – human nature, origins of adult behavior, origins of differences, origins, prevention and treatment of developmental problems • Optimize conditions of development Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Views of Children Do We Find Throughout History? • Ancient Times and Middle Ages – Children viewed as innately evil – Age 7 is the “age of reason” – Children were treated as miniature adults • John Locke – Child came into world as tabula rasa, or “blank slates” – Focus on role of environment and experience • Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Children are inherently good and moral Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Views of Children Do We Find Throughout History? • Industrial Revolution – Nuclear family – Childhood is recognized as a time period of life • 20th Century – Child rights in labor, education, neglect Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Pioneers in the Study of Child Development • Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) – Theory of evolution – Use of baby biography • G. Stanley Hall (1944 - 1924) – Child development as a academic discipline – Questionnaire methodology with children • Alfred Binet (1857 – 1911) – First standardized intelligence test Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Theories of Child Development Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Are Theories? • • • • • • Related sets of statements about events Include descriptive terms and concepts Based on certain assumptions Allow explanations and predictions Wide range of applicability Influence events Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Why Do We Have Theories? • Theories of development help us – describe, – explain, – predict, and – influence events being studied. Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 The Psychoanalytic Perspective • Freud’s theory of psychosexual development • Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development • View children (and adults) involved in conflict – internal drive and urges – internalize ‘external’ demands and rules • Stage theories – distinct periods of development Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development • Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) • Levels of awareness – Conscious level – Preconscious level – Unconscious level • Parts of personality – Id – Ego – Superego • Quantity of gratification at each stage – Fixated at that stage Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Stages of Psychosexual Theory of Development • Oral Stage – Sucking and biting – Early weaning or breast-fed too long – Fixation: nail-biting, smoking, “biting wit” • Anal Stage – Control and elimination of waste – Excessive strict or permissive toilet training – Fixation: anal-retentive (neatness); anal-expulsion (sloppiness) Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Stages of Psychosexual Theory of Development • Phallic Stage – Parent-child conflict over masturbation – View same sex parent as rival • Latency Stage – Sexual feelings remain unconscious • Genital Stage – Begins at adolescence – Desire sexual gratification through intercourse with member of other sex – Interest in any other sexual gratification indicates fixation at an earlier stage of development Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Evaluation of Psychosexual Theory of Development • • • • • • Major contribution to 20th century thought Comprehensive theory of childhood Influenced parents, child-care workers and educators Based on patients (women) who were emotionally troubled Little empirical data Placed too much emphasis on instincts and unconscious motives – Erik Erikson and Karen Horney Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development • Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) – modified and expanded Freud’s theory – successful resolution of life crises bolsters sense of identity • Differences from psychosexual development – focus on development of self-identity – includes conscious and purposeful acts in development – extended stages to eight; throughout adulthood Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Stages of Psychosocial Development • • • • • • • • Trust versus Mistrust Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Initiative versus Guilt Industry versus Inferiority Identity versus Role Diffusion Intimacy versus Isolation Generativity versus Stagnation Ego Integrity versus Despair Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Evaluation of Psychosocial Development • Highly appealing – emphasize choice and minimize urges – portray people as prosocial and giving • Unified view of life span development • Some empirical support Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 The Learning Perspective Behavioral and Social Cognition Theories • Mechanical learning by association – Conditioning • Intentional learning – Rote and trail-and-error learning – Observational learning Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Is the Theory of Behaviorism? • John Watson • Only address observable behavior • Contributions to behaviorism – Classical Conditioning – Operant Conditioning Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Classical Conditioning • Learning by Association • Unconditioned = Unlearned – Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) elicits Unconditioned Response (UCR) – Introduction of a Neutral Stimulus – Repeated association of neutral Stimulus and UCS • Conditioned = Learned – Conditioned Stimulus (CS) elicits Conditioned Response (CR) Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Classical Conditioning • Pavlov’s Salivating Dogs – Food (UCS) elicits Salivation (UCR) – Clinking of food trays (neutral stimulus) – Clinking of food trays prior to Food (UCS) – Clinking of food trays (CS) elicits Salivation (CR) • Application with Children – Behavior modification Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 Schematic Representation of Classical Conditioning Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Operant Conditioning • Learn to operate on environment because of the effects of behavior • Behavior occurs and then a stimulus is introduced that will encourage the repetition of the behavior • B. F. Skinner – Reinforcement – Any stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior they follow Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Principles of Operant Conditioning • Positive reinforcers – Something applied that increases the frequency of the behavior • Negative reinforcers – Something removed that increases the frequency of the behavior • Extinction – Operant behavior is no longer shown after repeated performance of the behavior without reinforcement Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Figure 1.2 Positive versus Negative Reinforcers Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Punishment • Aversive events that decrease the behavior they follow • Usually undesirable for learning – Does not suggest an alternative, acceptable form of behavior – Tends to suppress undesirable behavior only under certain conditions – Punished children may withdraw from the situation – Can create anger and hostility – May generalize too far – May be imitated as a way of problem solving or coping with stress Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 A Closer Look Operant Conditioning of Vocalizations in Infants Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Figure 1.3 Negative Reinforcers versus Punishments Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Application of Operant Conditioning • Shaping – Teaching complex behaviors • Socialization of children – Parent and child – Child and child – Teacher and child Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Social Cognitive Theory • Acquire basic “know-how” through observational learning • Learning alters child’s mental representation of environment and influences belief in ability to change the environment • Child is an active learner • Intentional observation of models for imitation Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Evaluation of Learning Theories • Meets the goals of describe, explain and predict aspects of children’s behavior • Principles abundant in education and clinical application • Unclear if learning is only mechanical • Underestimates role of biological-maturation factors Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 The Cognitive Perspective • Focus on children’s mental processes – How children perceive and mentally represent the world • Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) – Cognitive-developmental theory • Information-processing theory Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory • Working with Binet on IQ tests for children, Piaget became interested in children’s incorrect answers • Piaget’s work was not widely read until mid 1950’s – difficult to understand – introduced when behaviorism and psychoanalysis were popular • Piaget’s view of children as “little scientists” Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Piaget’s Basic Concepts • Scheme – pattern of action involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge • Adaptation – interaction between child and the environment • Assimilation – Respond to new object or event according to existing schemes • Accommodation – Adjust scheme to a new object or event • Equilibration – Process of restoring equilibrium after a period of accommodation Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive-Development Theory • Four major stages – – – – Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational • Stages are universal • Development is based on children’s interactions with their environments • Influential in many educational settings Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Evaluation of Cognitive-Development Theory • Piaget may have underestimated children’s abilities by age • Cognitive growth may be more gradual than Piaget’s distinct stages Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Information-Processing Theory • Influenced by the concepts of computer science – – – – – – Process of encoding information (input) Storage of information (long-term memory) Retrieval of information (short-term memory) Manipulation of information to solve problems (output) Software (mental processes) Hardware (brain) • Consider “limitations” of child – Short-term memory – Ability to multi-task • Applications in education Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 The Biological Perspective • Physical development – Gains in height and weight – Development of nervous system – Developments connected with hormones, heredity • Ethology Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Is Ethology? • Evolution of humans within the animal kingdom – Influence by Charles Darwin, Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen • Involves instinctive behavior patterns – Inborn fixed action patterns (FAPs) • Evaluation – Assume instinctive behaviors can be modified through learning Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 The Ecological Systems Theory • Explains development through interactions between children and the settings in which they live • Urie Bronfenbrenner – Reciprocal interactions • focus on interactions between parent and child (bidirectional) • Five Embedded Systems – – – – – Microsystem Mesosystem Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Figure 1.4 The Contexts of Human Development Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Developing in a World of Diversity Influence of the Macrosystem on the Development of Independence Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 The Sociocultural Perspective • View children as social beings who are influenced by the cultures in which they live • Lev Vygotsky’s (1896 – 1934) sociocultural theory • Impact on children of human diversity Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory • Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) – range of tasks child can perform with help of someone more skilled – use of conversations, external and internal, to guide the learning • Scaffolding – Adult provides problem-solving methods until child can perform independently – May also be used by child with peers Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Sociocultural Perspective and Human Diversity • Awareness of diversity among children – Ethnicity • Understanding of children’s family values and cultural expectations – Gender • Understanding of gender-role expectations – Sexual Orientation – Disabilities Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Controversies in Child Development Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 The Nature – Nurture Controversy • To what extent is human behavior the results of – Nature – heredity – Nurture – environment • Orientation toward nature – Cognitive-development theory – Biological theorists • Orientation toward nurture – Learning theories • Contemporary view of both nature and nurture Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 The Continuity – Discontinuity Controversy • Do developmental changes occur – continuously (gradually) – discontinuously (major qualitative leaps) • Orientation toward continuity – Maturational theories • Orientation toward discontinuity – Stage theories (Freud, Piaget) Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 The Active – Passive Controversy • For learning to occur do educators need to – motivate passive learners, or – encourage active learners to explore • Bronfenbrenner (1977) views children as both active and passive • Bandura’s reciprocal determinism – mutual influences of people and the environment Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 How Do We Study Child Development? Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Is the Scientific Method? • • • • • Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4: Step 5: Formulating a Research Question Developing a Hypothesis Testing the Hypothesis Drawing Conclusions about the Hypothesis Publish Findings Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Is Naturalistic Observation? • Field studies – Observations done in natural (real-life) settings – Control for interference • Often used initially to gather descriptive data or to explore relationships among variables • Examples of naturalistic-observation studies – Motor behavior of Native American children strapped to cradleboards – Language development in diverse cultures – Socialization patterns in diverse cultures Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Is Case Study? • Account of behavior of an individual • Includes many different types of information – – – – – Child diaries Questionnaires Standardized tests Interviews Other sources of records • Example of case study – Piaget’s cognitive-development model based on his own children – Freud’s psychosexual theory based on his patients Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Does It Mean to Correlate Information? • Mathematical calculation to determine relationships between behaviors and/or traits • Correlation coefficient – Mathematical number between +1.00 and -1.00 – Positive correlation – Negative correlation • Limitation: Shows relationships, not cause and effect Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Figure 1.7 Examples of Positive and Negative Correlations Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Is an Experiment? • Research method in which one group receives treatment and another does not • Used to determine cause and effect • Variables – Independent variable - manipulated by experimenter – Dependent variable – measured results • Participant Groups – Experimental group – receive the treatment – Control group – do not receive the treatment • Random Assignment • Ethical and Practical Considerations Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 How Do Researchers Study Development Over Time? • Longitudinal research – Same children are observed repeatedly over time – May lose participants over time • Cross-sectional research – Children of different ages are observed and compared – Cohort effect • Cross-sequential research – Combines longitudinal (time period) and cross-sectional (cohorts) – Breaks time span into convenient segments Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 Figure 1.8 Examples of Cross-Sequential Research Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, Second Edition, Spencer A. Rathus Chapter 1 What Ethical Guidelines Are Involved in Research in Child Development? • Standards to promote the dignity of the individual, foster human welfare, and maintain scientific integrity – Treatment may not do physical or psychological harm – Subjects must participate voluntarily