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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL
METHODS
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
> Positivism
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
> Research method
> Interpretivism
> Research topic
> Research conduct
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
Epistemology is the study of knowledge. The theory of knowledge
questions what knowledge is valid.
As sociologists, we too need to consider the validity of the knowledge that
we gain. The way in which we gain the information is key to this
discussion.
Empiricists believe that the true knowledge can only be
gained through experience. This is much in contrast to
the ancients who conducted most of their work through
thought and contemplation.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
The methods of the natural sciences (Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry
and Physics) are firmly based in the realms of empiricists principles.
Theory and research are intertwined in either the deductive or inductive
approach:
Inductive approach:
•Theory is deduced from observations and findings
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
The methods of the natural sciences (Astronomy, Biology, Chemistry
and Physics) are firmly based in the realms of empiricists principles.
Theory and research are intertwined in either the deductive or inductive
approach:
Deductive approach to research:
•Theory leads to observations and findings
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
Social scientists have embraced the methodology of natural scientists
with the doctrine of POSITIVISM.
Essentially, positivism advocates that social study
should be carried out using the methodology of the
natural sciences.
However, as with most things, a precise definition is
elusive and many authors differ in their exact
interpretation of positivism.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
In addition to this, the principle of positivism has been taken to include:
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
In addition to this, the principle of positivism has been taken to include:
The principle states that the
whole purpose of a theory is to
generate a testable hypothesis.
Without a testable hypothesis,
laws cannot be confirmed.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
In addition to this, the principle of positivism has been taken to include:
Theory
Theory generates
research.
Research
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
In addition to this, the principle of positivism has been taken to include:
Knowledge is arrived at through the
gathering of facts.
Laws are deduced after observation.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
In addition to this, the principle of positivism has been taken to include:
Observations
Observations feed
theory
Theory
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
The progress of knowledge through the centuries has gradually moved
from a consideration that knowledge came from within, to one that comes
from deduction, having looked at the reality of the laws around us.
This sounds like we have moved towards the inductive doctrine. However,
the natural and social sciences use both doctrines in parallel.
In 1997, Charmaz reported about the experiences of chronic illness, her
findings deduced from semi-structured questioning. Observations led to a
theory – intuitivism. This could be paralleled with the discovery of the
structure of DNA. The analysis of many x-ray patterns allowed a theory
of the structure to be developed.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
Around about the same time, Keeley and De Graff reported on research
that had been prompted by a theory that the country of a person’s birth
imparts an influence on their religious beliefs. They set out to test this
hypothesis and found the results indicated that their theory was valid.
This could be paralleled in the natural sciences with Gell-Mann’s work
postulating the internal structure of protons. Subsequent research by
others did indeed indicate that protons exhibited the internal structure
that Gell-Mann had hypothesised.
These are examples of the deductive.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
In addition to this, the principle of positivism has been taken to include:
Science and social science must be objective.
That is to say that no value must be placed
on taking one particular solution rather than
another.
The validity of the knowledge is the
overriding principle concern of the
researcher.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
In addition to this, the principle of positivism has been taken to include:
Only phenomena can be warranted as
knowledge.
As a result, only knowledge that has been
confirmed by the senses can be regarded as
true knowledge.
The hypothesis is just an hypothesis until is
has been confirmed to be knowledge by
experience.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
Positivism is not synonymous with science. Philosophers of science
differ in their interpretations of scientific practices from those of social
sciences, particularly since the 1960’s.
Kuhn has hypothesised that scientific change occurs in paradigm
changes. New theories occur as new data is found that fundamentally
shifts the direction of scientific knowledge, forcing scientists to rethink
their previously accepted norms.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
Treating society from the doctrine of positivism should obtain results
which are:
•Unbiased by the observer
•Able to prove conclusively or disprove an hypothesis
•Unbiased by participants
The process of dealing with numerical data in particular, reduces the
possibility of deductions being influenced by extraneous factors or from
within the experiment itself.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
A criticism of the positivists’ approach is that the scientific approach of
the natural scientists is not appropriate to the study of social behaviour.
The natural scientist is involved in trying to explain what is happening
but the role of the social scientist can be seen as trying to understand
social behaviour in the context of those that are a part of it (Schutz
1962).
Clearly, an atom or molecule does not put meaning on its behaviour and
so the social scientist is trying to achieve a different objective to the
natural scientist.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
This alternative approach to positivism is called INTERPRETIVISM.
Like positivism, there is no clear cut definition
but the general principles follow from the
discussions on the previous slide that the
approach of the natural sciences is not appropriate
for social scientists due to the nature of what they
are studying and their aims in terms of levels of
understanding.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
To summarise the key issues of interpretivism:
•It is an alternative to positivism
•It recognises the differences between the subject
of natural scientists’ investigations and those of
social scientists
•It moves towards providing a subjective
understanding of the participants’ social action
•It aims to theorise a meaning for social action
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
For example:
Using participant observation and semi-structured interviewing,
Foster investigated a housing estate in south London which had a
very high crime rate.
Her investigations revealed that the participants (those who lived
there), did not perceive this to be the case and mostly felt no more
under threat than those in other communities.
Foster had investigated how the participants viewed their own
situation and related their feelings to factors which the participants
themselves had mentioned.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
POSITIVISM AND
INTERPRETIVISM
It is common for researchers to use both positivism and interpretivism
in the same piece of research.
The use of a combination of different methods in a single piece of
research is called triangulation.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
The choice of research method will depend
upon the topic and conduct of the research
to some extent but let us consider the
choice in more detail:
Practical influences
Theoretical assumptions
The topic
Ethical considerations
Chance and inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Practical influences
Theoretical assumptions
The topic
Ethical considerations
Chance and inspiration
The choice of research method
Practical influences are imposed by
the limitations of the research
methods and the circumstances in
which they are used e.g.
•Participant observation – this will
require access to groups of subjects
•Sample surveys, if large, will be
expensive and if too small will not be
representative
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Practical influences
Theoretical assumptions
The topic
Ethical considerations
The choice of research method
Theoretical assumptions will depend
upon the doctrine that the sociologist
follows:
Interpretivism favours qualitative
methods. These will provide insight into
the meanings of social behaviour.
Participant observation is common.
Chance and inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Practical influences
Theoretical assumptions
The topic
Ethical considerations
The choice of research method
Theoretical assumptions will depend
upon the doctrine that the sociologist
follows:
Interactionists’ methods are frequently
used by those studying groups perceived
to be oppressed in order to allow them to
express themselves freely.
Chance and inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Practical influences
Theoretical assumptions
The topic
Ethical considerations
Chance and inspiration
The choice of research method
The topic being studied will certainly
influence the research method used:
Historical Studies
There will be fewer people (if any) to
interview so frequently researchers rely
upon secondary data. Examples include
data from the national census.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Practical influences
Theoretical assumptions
The topic
Ethical considerations
The choice of research method
The topic being studied will certainly
influence the research method used:
Large scale studies
There will be many people to interview
so frequently researchers can rely upon
primary data.
Chance and inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Practical influences
Theoretical assumptions
The topic
Ethical considerations
The choice of research method
The topic being studied will certainly
influence the research method used:
Non literate societies
Participant observation is frequently
used so as not to introduce any bias into
the experiment.
Chance and inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Practical influences
Theoretical assumptions
The topic
Ethical considerations
The choice of research method
The topic being studied will certainly
influence the research method used:
Deviants
Participant observation is frequently
used which is often followed up by
interviewing.
Chance and inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Practical influences
Theoretical assumptions
The topic
Ethical considerations
The choice of research method
It would be valuable to carry out
research with participants that were
unaware of the observer.
However, this would be considered
unethical.
Covert research should not involve either
deception or invasion of privacy.
Chance and inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Practical influences
Theoretical assumptions
The choice of research method
The study of deviants could involve the
experimenter with either having a
knowledge of or becoming involved in
crime which is ethically unacceptable.
The topic
Ethical considerations
Chance and inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Practical influences
Theoretical assumptions
The topic
Ethical considerations
The choice of research method
Just as in the natural sciences, any
observation means interacting with the
participant.
If the participant becomes involved with
the process, his or her perspective might
change.
However, it is also possible that the
research will benefit the participant.
Chance and inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Practical influences
The choice of research method
Many problems have been solved by a
chance remark or chance circumstances.
Theoretical assumptions
The topic
Ethical considerations
Chance and inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Practical influences
Theoretical assumptions
The topic
The choice of research method
Additionally, there are the motivations
of the sociologists themselves.
Bell & Newby thought that the principal
driving forces for sociologists were both
money and organisation.
Ethical considerations
Chance and inspiration
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
A serious consideration
of the possible research
methods warrants indepth evaluation.
Theoretical, practical and
ethical issues should be
addressed.
The choice of research method
Minimising personal involvement
makes it less likely that the
experimenter will influence the results
of the investigation.
However,
it could also limit the extent of the
understanding of the results.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
A serious consideration
of the possible research
methods warrants indepth evaluation.
Theoretical, practical and
ethical issues should be
addressed.
The choice of research method
Essentially, a balanced view has to be
taken. Sociologists will employ high
levels of control to make the research
more reliable.
The downside to this is that research
will then be less natural.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
The first step in any
research is to formulate
the research question
which will be based upon
the topic that has been
chosen for research.
The choice of topic
The topic will clearly depend upon the
researcher’s natural interests, coupled
with the doctrine that the sociologist is
most likely to follow.
Clearly the sociologist is a target for his
or her own research!
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
The first step in any
research is to formulate
the research question
which will be based upon
the topic that has been
chosen for research.
The choice of topic
The sociologist’s view of the importance
of a topic will be an important factor in
the choice of research topic.. A keen
interest in the importance of urban
renewal will tend to bias a researcher in
this direction.
It is unlikely that he or she will devote
time and effort to something that they
think is trivial!
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
The first step in any
research is to formulate
the research question
which will be based upon
the topic that has been
chosen for research.
The choice of topic
Funding is also a crucial factor.
Funds are available from many sources
including government, industry and
privately financed institutions.
Since these bodies are providing the
funding, they will only be willing to pay
for certain areas of research which lie
within their interests.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
The first step in any
research is to formulate
the research question
which will be based upon
the topic that has been
chosen for research.
The choice of topic
The practicality of certain areas of
research is crucial too.
Company directors have hardly been the
subject of researchers’ endeavours at all.
This is primarily because as a group of
people, they are unwilling to divulge
information about themselves.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
The first step in any
research is to formulate
the research question
which will be based upon
the topic that has been
chosen for research.
The choice of topic
A similar argument applies to various
research which would require secondary
data that is not available.
This could be because the data has
never been collected, has not been
collected into a useable format, or has a
restricted access.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
The first step in any
research is to formulate
the research question
which will be based upon
the topic that has been
chosen for research.
The choice of topic
The research must fall within the
ethical guidelines that are laid out by
the various institutions to which
sociologists belong.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
The conduct of research
The way in which
research is carried out is
mainly an ethical
problem.
BSA – British Sociological Association
– in their ‘Statement of Ethical Practice’
SRA – Social Research Association – in
their ‘Ethical Guidelines’
‘Official’ guidance on
ethical principles comes
from the following four
institutions:
BPS – British Psychological Society –
in their ‘Ethical Principles and
Guidelines’
ASA – American Sociological Society –
in their ‘Code of Ethics’
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
The way in which
research is carried out is
mainly an ethical
problem.
There are four underlying
principles which underpin
these various guidelines:
The conduct of research
1. Is there harm to participants?
2. Is there a lack of informed consent of
the participants?
3. Is there an invasion of the
participants’ privacy?
4. Is deception involved?
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
1. Is there harm to
participants?
Physical harm is
something that can be
fairly easily predicted but
there are other forms of
harm to consider too.
The conduct of research
Harm to participants’ development,
stress, loss of self esteem, inducing
participants to take part in degrading or
reprehensible or even illegal acts.
There are cases where there has been the
potential to harm participants – consider
the possible identification of pupils into
narrow achievement bands for research –
this could have a detrimental effect longterm.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
The conduct of research
1. Is there harm to
participants?
Researchers may well make discoveries
about participants that the participants do
not wish to become public knowledge.
The confidentiality of
researchers’ records is
covered under the concept
of harm.
In some areas of research, even the
participants’ partners might not be aware
of the participants’ attributes.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHIOCE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
2. Is there a lack of
informed consent?
Informed consent is not
just consent!
Informed means that the
participants should be
made aware of the full
implications of the
research.
The conduct of research
This is easier said than done.
It is quite possible that the researchers
themselves are not aware of the full
implications of the research.
Additionally, consenting researchers are
unlikely to act as naturally as might be
hoped.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
2. Is there a lack of
informed consent?
Informed consent is not
just consent!
Informed means that the
participants should be
made aware of the full
implications of the
research.
The conduct of research
Needless to say, although considered
unethical, covert observation does still
happen.
The BSA statement itself says that such
research should only be used where no
other method is possible and then goes on
to expand on the necessary anonymity of
the participants when reporting results.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
4. Is there deception?
Deception occurs when
the researchers do not
present their experiment
for what it really is.
Milgram in 1966 is a
classic example of
deception.
The conduct of research
Participants were recruited in the role of
teachers who punished their students by
administering electric shocks (the pupils
were actors and there were no real
shocks). Milgram cajoled participants into
giving greater shocks in the interests of
the research.
He was actually concerned with the way
people had behaved in Nazi concentration
camps!
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
4. Is there deception?
Can we be free of
deception?
The conduct of research
The very nature of much sociological
research requires some form of deception.
Observers will try to mingle such that
their true identity as researchers does not
effect the behaviour of the participants.
So why do we concern ourselves with the
concept of deception? – after all, it is
common place in many social
interactions.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
TOPIC CHOICE AND
CONDUCT OF RESEARCH
Ethical Committees
Universities have their
own ethical committees
which will issue
guidelines on ethical
practice.
The conduct of research
The guidelines will be based on the
guidelines of the various professional
bodies and research projects should be
passed by the ethical committee for their
approval.
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SOCIOLOGY – SOCIOLOGICAL METHODS
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